Category: Sciences 2502

Materials and Methods

A stock solution of starch was prepared by mixing 1ml of starch with 2.5ml of hydrogen peroxide (H­₂O₂) to form 3.5ml of the stock solution, which is enough for the experiment. Next, six test tubes were arranged in their rack and labeled one to six. To prepare the iodine solution, 250µl of potassium iodide (KI) was added into each test tube. Increasing amounts of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) were added into each test tube from the second test tube to the sixth test tube as 25µl, 50µl, 75µl, 100µl, and 200µl respectively. The first test tube was left blank to act as a control for the experiment. All the six test tubes were then topped up with the respective amounts of water for the total solution to be 450µl to create a concentration gradient of ascorbic acid. The table 1 below indicates how the reagents were placed into each of the six test tubes to form an iodine solution.

Table 1

In the reaction of starch with iodine solution, 350µl of stock solution was added to each of the test tubes that have an iodine solution at a time. Observations were made, and the stopwatch was used to measure the time taken in seconds for the color of the reactants to change to blue-black. The table 1 below illustrates the amount of iodine solution and stock solution, adding up to 800µl when mixed as reactants.

Table 2

To enhance the validity and reliability of the findings, the whole experiment was repeated three times, and the average period in seconds was determined and provided for further analysis. The average time is taken for the color to change to happen calculated from the three readings and tabulated. The findings were used to construct a graph showing the time taken for the color to change versus the amount of ascorbic acid. The graph was then used to determine the amount of ascorbic acid necessary to cause colour change in 40 seconds.

Data

The data obtained from the three experiments was recorded in the following table. The table indicates the time that colour development took in each of the test tubes in all the three experiments increases according to the amount of ascorbic acid.

Table 3

In the construction of the graph, an average period was determined in relation to the amount of ascorbic acid in each of the test tubes. Table 4 shows the relationships between the average time taken for the colour change to occur and the amount of ascorbic acid used.

Table 4

The results in table 4 were used to construct a graph, which depicts the relationship between time taken for colour change to occur and the amount of ascorbic acid that delayed the occurrence of the colour change.

From the graph, the amount of ascorbic acid that can cause colour changes to occur after 40 seconds is about 158µl. Moreover, if the colour changes should occur after 60 seconds, about 185µl of ascorbic acid are necessary.

The use of the exponential equation provides an accurate amount of ascorbic acid needed to cause colour changes. The exponential curve has the equation y = 4.523e^0.013x.

Results and Discussion

The results indicate that the amount of ascorbic acid in the iodine solution determines the occurrence of colour changes when iodine and starch react. Usually, iodine reacts with starch to form a complex that gives blue-black colour. According to Pommerville (2010), the reaction between starch and iodine in presence of hydrogen peroxide result in the formation of a blue-black complex. For the iodine to react with starch, hydrogen peroxide must oxidize it into triiodide (Aklima, Mojumder, & Sikdar 2014). Triiodide reacts readily with starch molecules yielding a blue-black colour, which has become a standard test for detecting the presence of starch in various substances. Thus, in the preparation of stock solution, hydrogen peroxide is added to the starch so that when it encounters iodine ions in solution, oxidation starts.

The following chemical equations explain what occurs when the iodine ion solution encounter starch in the presence of hydrogen peroxide.

The first equation

Hydrogen peroxide + Iodine ions in presence acid ’ Triiodide ions + Water

The second equation

Starch + Triiodide ions ’ yield blue-black complex of starch and triiodide

The equation indicates that the presence of hydrogen peroxide is necessary for iodine ions to convert into triiodide, a product that reacts with starch. BeMller and Whistler (2009) argue that the conversion of iodine ions into triiodide is rate-limiting step because it determines the reaction of starch and iodine. The reaction of starch and iodine cannot take place if triiodide ions are not present. This means that hydrogen peroxide should be in excess for the iodine to react with starch optimally.

In the first test tube, it is evident that the starch and iodine reacted immediately and formed blue-black complex because ascorbic acid was not present. It took an average of 1.7 seconds for the colour changes to happen in the first test tube. However, the presence of ascorbic acid in subsequent test tubes reduced the rate of colour formation. According to Vieira et al. (2010), ascorbic is a strong reducing agent that reduces triiodide ions into iodine ions making them unavailable for the reaction with starch.

Triiodide ions + Ascorbic acids ’ Iodine ions + dehydroascorbic acid

For the colour formation to occur, triiodide ions must oxidize ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid, which is a product that is unable to reduce triiodide. Oxidation of ascorbic acid reduces its reducing power and thus prevents it from reducing triiodide ions into iodine ions (Babatunde & Nwakama 2013). In this view, the reactions between starch and iodine delayed in the subsequent test tubes because ascorbic acid was using available triiodide ions. After the ascorbic acid was oxidized completely, colour formation started to happen because triiodide became available for the reaction to proceed. This means that the amount of ascorbic acid present in the iodine solution determines the duration of colour formation.

The time taken for the colour changes to occur increased as the concentration of ascorbic acid increases. With the amount of ascorbic acid as 25µl, 50µl, 75µl, 100µl, and 200 µl were 6.3, 16, 23, 27.3, and 41.7 seconds respectively. Apparently, the increase in time as per the increase in the amount of ascorbic seems to have linear relationships. However, the drawing of the graph depicts the time taken for the formation of colour and the amount of ascorbic acid has exponential relationship. This implies that the time taken for the colour formation in iodine solution that has large amount of ascorbic acid could be infinite. Zhang (2012) asserts that excess ascorbic acid reduces triiodide ions and prevents the formation of blue-black colour. Hence, ascorbic acid should not be in excess to allow the formation of triiodide ions and their reaction with starch.

From the graph, the amount of ascorbic acid necessary to cause colour changes after 40 seconds is about 158µl. To carry out this test, 158µl of ascorbic acid would be added to 42µl of water, and then added 250µl of potassium iodide to form iodine solution. Reaction of 450µl of iodine solution and 350µl of starch solution would yield colour in approximately after 40 seconds. The predicted and verified values were not significantly different as the values were 158µl and 200µl respectively. The discrepancy occurred due to errors in timing and measurement of reagents. Since hydrogen peroxide and iodine solution are limiting reagents, I would put them in excess in the future because they have a great potential to confound the experimental results.

Extra Findings

From the experiment, one can determine the amount of ascorbic acid necessary to cause changes in colour. It requires 185µl of ascorbic acid for the colour changes to happen after 60 seconds. This implies that 185µl of ascorbic acid will be added to 15µl of water, then added 250µl of potassium iodide.

To determine the amount of ascorbic accurately without using the graph, an exponential equation is applicable. The exponential equation of the curve is y = 4.523e^0.013x. Where y is the time that it would colour change to occur and x is the amount of ascorbic acid.

References

Aklima, J, Mojumder, S, & Sikdar, D 2014, Total phenolic content, reducing power, anti-oxidative, and anti-amylase activities of five Bangladeshi fruits, International Food Research Journal, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 119-124. Web.

Babatunde, A, & Nwakama, N 2013, Kinetic approach to the mechanism of oxidation of L-ascorbic acid by periodate ion in acidic medium, Journal of Oxidation of Biology and Life Sciences, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 32-42. Web.

BeMller, J & Whistler, R 2009, Starch: Chemistry and Technology, Academic Press, New York. Web.

Pommerville, J 2010, Alcamos Laboratory Fundamentals of Microbiology, Jones & Bartlett Publishers, New York. Web.

Vieira, C, Milani, V, Lisboa, V, Menezes, C, Jorge, L, & Giglio, J 2010, Further insights toward vitamin C determination and stability: Proposal of a new quantification method, Bioscience Journal of Uberlandia, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 296-304. Web.

Zhang, Y 2012, Ascorbic Acid in Plants: Biosynthesis, Regulation, and Enhancement. Springer, New York. Web.

Concepts

Phyletic gradualism is one of the theories that try to stress more on the genetic mutation and how one species can change to another totally different species through a combination of its better genetic features. The change seems to be slow and take quite some time before a total change is achieved. The gradual change, in this case, does not apply to any kind of environment but is based on some factors such as population density. Actually, phyletic gradualism is a theory that cannot apply to a densely populated habitat, as it requires a small population.

The process of mutations takes time until there are no more traits of the ancestors hence end up with a totally different species (Coleman, 1964). Although there are certain factors that still raise questions in relation to the validity of this theory, archeologists are still in the field trying to come up with proof to support or enhance the validity of the theory. An example of a species that underwent phyletic gradualism is foraminiferans. Actually, this species took a period of 600, 000 years to fully mutate into a totally different species (Coleman, 1964).

On the other hand, punctuated equilibrium is a theory that stress or believes that a species can possibly change to another totally different species within a short period of time. This theory is actually prone to misinterpretation and this then makes it very difficult and challenging especially to the archeologists or scientific experts (Gould, 2002). There are seven concepts that best explains this theory though all are based on different perspectives hence confusing.

Predictions about punctuated equilibrium

Punctuated equilibrium is also based on some predictions based on the species evolutionary process. The context of this theory states that live organisms or existing species must have undergone a smooth transition from one form to another. The biggest undoing of this theory is that some factors are left unclarified such as the origin of the species from which the existing species began the transition process (Coleman, 1964). Punctuated equilibrium as a theory also bases its predictions on the transition process that tends to occur between one species to the other. This, therefore, means that prediction is based on linking species.

There are very many sub-theories that tend to explain or give facts behind the origin of the existing species though no powerful or strong proof has been given to ascertain them. Almost all theories presented by researchers hold water as no one can still understand or distinguish between the ideal and the dubious theory of existence. Phyletic gradualism seems to be more similar to Darwins theory of evolution although they are separated by a thin ideological concept (Patterson, 1978).

Punctuated equilibrium is one of the theories that tend to be far more opposite to other theories of existence because the process seems to be very short and does not allow time for proper transition from one stage to the other. This, therefore, means that the change in punctuation equilibrium is realized directly without any stages.

According to the observations made over the last five years, research-based on determining the existence of species will never come to an end as advancements are made every now and then. Very many researchers or archeologists are still in the field trying to come up with every possible link that may lead to discovery regarding every single species on the earths surface. Just like mentioned earlier in phyletic gradualism, the mutation is a process through which a cell changes from one state to the other hence this can give little support to this theory.

The two theories of biological evolution are based on different context and this is what brings a lot of confusion to people. In real life situation, there are certain occurrences that can be related to the theories such as the animal cell growth and the process by which an animal or beings passes just to reach adulthood (Patterson, 1978). Changes, in this case, tend to appear gradually in a manner that no one really understands and this, therefore, gives full support to phyletic graduation as a theory.

One of the evidence that supports punctuation equilibrium can be seen through the process by which a hen hatches its eggs. Actually, after the eggs are hatched, the chicken will not take long before they are covered with feathers all over their bodies, and not to forget is that they will start walking (Patterson, 1978). This shows that the mutation process happened fast and seemed to have skipped some stages. This example can be related to evolution as this is the same process although the difference only comes in where chicks grow to hens while in evolution, species grows or changes into a totally different species.

The two theories are still of great importance until a total proof is given to disapprove or eliminate one. According to the notion of perception is given by a number of people, the proofs given by phyletic gradual seem to be convincing as compared to punctuation equilibrium. This is so because phyletic graduation tends to match many activities carried out by people in real-life situations. Every growth or transition takes place gradually hence allowing space or gap for maturity.

References

Coleman, W. (1964). Georges Cuvier, zoologist: A study in the history of evolution theory. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.

Gould, S. J. (2002). The structure of evolutionary theory. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Patterson, C. (1978). Evolution. London: British Museum (Natural History.

Description

In this passage, Pliny talks about mistletoe, a parasitic plant that is mostly found growing on oak trees. The author notes that mistletoe can also grow on other trees apart from the oak such as turpentine trees and wild pears. It is noted that there are different strains of mistletoe depending on the host plant. Different types of mistletoe are distinguished through the texture of their leaves, the kind of berries that they produce, and the smells they emit among other factors. According to Pliny, the plant had many uses for different people. For instance, the hyper mistletoe was put to use through the fattening of cattle. The process of fattening cattle using mistletoe often took forty days during the summer season.

One of the interesting observations that Pliny makes concerning mistletoe is that it sometimes mimics the patterns of its host plant. Therefore, mistletoe that grows on evergreen trees does not shed leaves but the one that is found on deciduous trees does. Another interesting observation is the fact that the seeds of some varieties are only propagated through birds. Pliny also observes that mistletoe can be put to use as a glue concoction for snaring birds (Pliny 249). The plant also has religious significance to a group of people that Pliny calls Druids. According to Pliny, the Druids consider mistletoe to be a sacred plant and it is often an inclusion in most of their religious rites. Furthermore, the oak and mistletoe are often used to send and interpret messages from gods. The author concludes by observing that the mistletoe plant is held in unreasonably high regard by some tribes.

Background Methodology

This passage is attributed to Pliny the Elder, an ancient Roman author, whose full name was Gaius Plinius Secundus. The author was born in 23 AD and he met his death in 79 AD through events related to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius (Gibson and Morello 67). Pliny the Elder is most famous for his collection Natural History, an encyclopedia-like manuscript, that has survived for several centuries. The above passage is an excerpt from Natural History, a book that traces facts related to various areas of scientific studies including geography, astronomy, agriculture, precious stones, and anthropology among others. Pliny is best known for being a consummate scholar whose interest was not confined to any particular subject.

Pliny was born into a prosperous family within the boundaries of the Roman Empire. The author was formally educated and he mainly specialized in law studies. Eventually, Pliny joined the military and he was part of several military-campaigns in the process. Later on, Pliny was elected to various government positions, including the Procurator of Spain. Nevertheless, Pliny is mostly known for the contributions he made through the book Natural History. The authors research techniques were addressed by his nephew Pliny the Younger who says of Pliny that he would write what is worth writing and reading (Beagon and Murphy 32). Up until the middle ages, Plinys work on Natural History was one of the most reliable manuscripts on a wide range of subjects. However, advancing levels of knowledge were later to put some of the facts that are contained within the book into doubt.

Although Pliny was a prolific author during his lifetime, only Natural History survived as a whole manuscript. Nevertheless, some fragments of his other works have survived and they include the biography he authored on Pomponius Secundus, a book on grammar, an account of his military exploits, and a history of Rome. The authors other works help shed light on Plinys literary style and also his research methods. Overall, the only book that is responsible for Plinys reputation as a writer is Natural History. The book has a total of thirty-seven segments and they are all presumed to have been finished in AD 77. The authors views on his work in Natural History are seen in the books preface, which is also a dedication to Titus the son of Vespasian.

The author considers the book to be a study of the nature of things, that is, life (Gibson and Morello 52). According to Pliny, no one had attempted to consolidate the study of nature in the manner that he did and hence the nature of his book. Like in the passage on mistletoe, the authors literary style did not feature any distinction or prevention. Nevertheless, the passage on mistletoe demonstrates Plinys ability to bring various details together and weave them into a coherent piece. It is also obvious that the author has a superb eye for detail because he can give meaning even to minor particulars of the mistletoe. The author was known for naming his sources but this is not the case in the mistletoe passage because the origin of its facts is not immediately known to the readers. The authors enthusiastic approach to nature is evident from the attention that he gives to a plant of minor significance such as mistletoe.

Discussion

The accuracy of Plinys work was not an issue up until other nature researchers start coming up in medieval times. The authors literary style is immediately recognized for its ability to put information in order by weaving unrelated pieces of details together thereby forming a pseudo hypothesis. One scholar observes that the authors style was accentuated by his perceptiveness in recognizing details ignored by others, and his readable stories, with which he linked together both factual and fictional data (Beagon and Murphy 35). For example, in this passage Pliny talks about the botanical facts of mistletoe such as its variations in smells and then combines them with others about the supernatural abilities of the plant. A deeper analysis of Plinys works reveals that the author believed in the authenticity of magic and superstitions.

Consequently, the author would categorize superstition and medical theory in the same class of science. In this passage, Pliny alludes to the usefulness of mistletoe when fattening cows. This is not an isolated incident and it is part of the authors style to encompass pseudo-scientific methods in the book. In this case, the author employed his method of recognizing signatures whereby he would relate a plants physical characteristics to scientific purposes (Gibson and Morello 28). This combination of facts and fiction ensured the survival of Natural History because for a long time the authenticity of its claims could not be tested. Among the first scholars to point out the inconsistencies in Plinys facts was Niccolo Leoniceno, who published the obvious errors in Natural History in 1492 (Beagon and Murphy 35).

Pliny rarely wrote on matters that he was personally familiar with or those that he had witnessed firsthand. Most of the contents in Natural History are sourced from Greek manuscripts. Although the source of this passage is not listed, the author was in the habit of listing his sources of information. For example, the books preface has a claim by the author that he has gathered twenty thousand facts from two thousand books, written by over a hundred authors (Pliny 1). The extent of the authors research is apparent but the fact that most of his sources have been lost means that secondary research on his facts cannot be completed accurately. This is the case for the passage on mistletoe where he lays out several probable facts on mistletoe and Druids. Up until now, it is not clear who the Druids were and if the claims made in this passage were rooted in facts or superstition. For example, according to the author Druids were superstitious people to whom mistletoe was sacred. Scholars have tried to correlate these claims with any existing proof to no avail (Owen 81).

On the subject of mistletoe and Druidry as outlined by the author in this passage, it is obvious that the ratio of fact to fiction is almost equal. However, the most probable source of Plinys information is thought to be a scholar from the region of Rhodes (Owen 85). Since Plinys claims about mistletoe and Druidry were made, there has emerged a modern group of Druids. Furthermore, this sect seeks to continue the tradition of relying on the sacredness of mistletoe probably as outlined in Natural History. In the year 2004, the Mistletoe Foundation was formed to review and rekindle interest in the mistletoe ritual described by Pliny whereby the group is open to all, druid or non-druid, and they have events each year in the Tenbury Wells area (Owen 81).

Works Cited

Beagon, Mary, and Trevor Murphy. Pliny the Elders Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia. Aestimatio: Critical Reviews in the History of Science 3.1 (2015): 31-37. Print.

Gibson, Roy, and Ruth Morello. Pliny the Elder: Themes and Contexts, New York: Brill, 2011. Print.

Owen, Suzanne. Druidry and the Definition of Indigenous Religion. Critical Reflections on Indigneous Religions. Farnham: Ashgate 2.1 (2013): 81-92. Print.

Pliny (the Elder.). Pliny: Natural History, Boston: Heinemann Limited, 1963. Print.

A random sample presupposes that all the elements of a particular frame are given the same selection probability. A random sample can be of great use in creating and analyzing surveys carried out among the customers of a particular company.

A stratified sample is probabilistic. It is utilized when every single element is considered unique, and therefore, the samples cannot be analyzed through the lens of an average mean.

A systematic sample presupposes that every nth element of a list be selected. For instance, systematic sampling is used when every 5th person must be chosen from a total of 250 people.

A cluster sample demands that the total number of samples should be split into several smaller groups, which is chosen with the help of a probability method. A cluster sample technique may work for an analysis of a particular phenomenon within a multiethnic group.

A multistage sample is a kind of cluster sampling that splits the elements of the cluster chosen randomly into several sub-clusters. For example, after dividing people into clusters by their ethnicity, a particular cluster can be chosen to be split into sub-clusters based on the age of the research participants.

A convenience sample belongs to the non-probability methods and presupposes that the people that can be reached easily should be included. The people that are currently in a certain shop can be viewed as a convenience sample for a survey on the services in the shop (Brase and Brase Getting Started 318).

A steam-and-leaf display, known as a device that allows for structuring and presenting quantitative information, helps sort the aforementioned information based on a particular parameter, starting from the pieces of information that have the lowest rate to the ones that have the highest one. To construct an SLD, one must put the acquired information in ascending order (Brase and Brase Organizing Data 24).

To construct an SLD, the data must be split into two columns. As it has been stressed above, it is crucial that the data should be sorted in ascending order; as a rule, the procedure of data sorting can be done manually. The left column incorporates the stems, whereas the right column includes the leaves, each being mentioned only once. The leaves repeated in the specified data set are not to be skipped.

Naturally, one may encounter negative numbers when working with different types of data. These are also to be included in the SL. There is no particular difference between listing the negative and the positive data  both are sorted in the same ascending manner, the negative being placed before the number. It should be kept in mind, though, that the list should start with the negative number that has the greater value, with the number of a lesser value following it. SLD are traditionally used in defining the density and shape of data (Brase and Brase Organizing Data 30). Allowing for sorting options, SLD is most helpful for big and medium data sets.

Works Cited

Brase, Henry Charles and Corrinne Pellillo Brase. Getting Started.Understanding Basic Statistics. 6th ed. Ed. Henry Charles Brase and Corrinne Pellillo Brase. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. 2013. 318. Print.

. Organizing Data. Understanding Basic Statistics. 6th ed. Ed. Henry Charles Brase and Corrinne Pellillo Brase. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. 2013. 1932. Print.

Peer Review has got explicitly very necessary steps. It is the best process that one can refer anyone who wants his or her work to gain acceptance worldwide. There are various important things about this cycle. The researcher has to have a new idea. Research is useful for answering a question or questions. Those questions are the ones that enable a researcher to get the best concept of that to research.

Literature review is also one important aspect of the cycle. One has to identify what his or her peers have done on the topic. It helps one to build a foundation on what has already happened but expound on it or start something new. After others have worked on it, it becomes easier to introduce the new aspect to them (Shatz, 2004).

In order to succeed one must find out if there are enough funds or if one needs to secure funding for the same. Research is costly and time-consuming. For any success to be realizable, one needs to complete the work one has started. And therefore funding is necessary. It also requires one to put in all effort that is required to hit the goals one has created.

Interpretation of the data has to be up to standard because it provides the needed information to realize if it is worth taking the initiative. Conferences help to provide useful feedback. The researcher has to ensure that the data is clearly understandable and that the conference can be able to ask and answer some questions. The meeting input enables one to prepare the findings as a manuscript for publication.

One also has to find an editor of the suitable journal. It enables the experts in the field of research to review it with clarity. They have to analyze it before allowing it to go for publishing so that the journal can have quality work. The content must be suitable. The researcher must portray creativity in the one he or she has completed. The editor must also see to it that the manuscript contributes positively to the knowledge of the field.

The peer reviewers must find what new thing one is introducing to the field. Although it is time-consuming and too involving, the process is very crucial to ensure the validity of research.

The editor is the one who approves ones work. The reviewers only recommend to the editor their findings. Once the editor confirms the work to be okay, he or she sends it for publishing. The editor can also reject it based on the results. Approximately 90% of reviews are dismissed. But the writer can take it and revise then take it back for the process to begin again.

There is a difference between an editor and a peer reviewer. The editor is the one who receives the manuscript and screens it. The editor makes the decision on what to do with the manuscript; reject or forward for review. The peer reviewer only makes recommendations to the editor after carefully analyzing the work.

Once the editor receives the recommendations, they make the final decision on the work. The writer knows the author while the peer reviewer may or may not know the author. The editor works together with the author to complete the task, but the reviewer only works with the publisher.

The article of the week was peer reviewed. It had to go through a team of qualified persons in the field before gaining acceptance. They analyzed it and gave their recommendation for acceptance or rejection.

Majority of peer-reviewed information is in the journals that address particular fields. Some magazines also can assist to find such works. The editors of these magazines and journals ensure quality work and hence good for anyone in the area to find help in them. There are also websites that address the Art and Design issues.

References

Shatz, D. (2004). Peer review. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. Web.

The process of data analysis can be recognised as one of the essential activities throughout human history. Its purpose is to collect and process different types of data to obtain new and valuable information. Data analysis is the core of academic research that drives the technological and scientific advancement of the humankind. Data analysis is the basis of discoveries and new steps in every sphere of knowledge. This course helped me become more familiar with this complicated subject.

Discussing the areas of program evaluation at which I feel to be stronger, I would have to name qualitative data analysis and sampling. The latter area is connected with many ethical issues of research and data collection (Babbie, 2016). As a result, it needs to be approached carefully and thoughtfully. Moreover, sampling is a complex procedure. There exists a wide variety of different types of sampling strategies falling under the major categories of probability and non-probability. To be able to apply the correct strategy and to choose the appropriate size and type of the sample, a researcher is required to rely on a set of the essential basic calculations that comprise the foundation of the logic of sampling (Babbie, 2016). Also, a set of cautions exists regulating sampling strategies and providing guidance for the researchers to make the right decision and select a substantial sample.

When it comes to the analysis of data, I feel that I am stronger at processing and evaluating qualitative data. In particular, such strategies as semiotics and coding are the areas where I feel more confident than in the other areas. I believe that when it comes to the analysis of the data, one of the key goals of this activity is not only to generate new knowledge but also to present the findings in an accessible way ready for the use in the field. Qualitative data has a lot to do with the communication of the new information and its processing as a consumable piece of knowledge at every step of the research design. Otherwise, as it was mentioned by Chagnon, Pauliot, Malo, Gervais, and Pigeon (2010), the application of the newly generated knowledge can be complicated due to the utilisation challenges.

At the same time, alongside the areas of program analysis and evaluation, there are the ones where I do not feel as confident; they include the analysis of qualitative data (statistical analysis) and the application of scales and typologies. When it comes to the statistical analysis, I believe that it is one of the major areas that enable the applicability of the EBPs and the organisational and individual attitudes towards them (Aarons, Sommerfeld, & Walrath-Greene, 2009). In other words, in many areas, the numerical data is more convincing and effective than qualitative data. In turn, typologies, scales, and indexes are employed for the purpose to obtain original measures of the given data (Babbie, 2016). The aspect that produces an adverse impact on my confidence in this area is the likeliness that a scale of choice is going to distort the data instead of offering an appropriate interpretation.

To conclude, I have some aspects to work on and strengthen. I plan to improve my statistical analysis skills by researching different statistical tools and instruments and practising their application to various kinds of data. Also, I plan to read research studies based on descriptive analysis and statistics to improve my understanding of the use of scales and typologies and learn how to organise data more effectively without jeopardising its validity.

References

Aarons, G. A., Sommerfeld, D. H., & Walrath-Greene, C. M. (2009). Evidence-based practice implementation: The impact of public versus private sector organization type on organizational support, provider attitudes, and adoption of evidence-based practice. Implementation Science, 4(83), 113.

Babbie, E. (2016). The basics of social research (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage.

Chagnon, F., Pouliot, L., Malo, C., Gervais, M., & Pigeon, M. (2010). Comparison of determinants of research knowledge utilization by practitioners and administrators in the field of child and family social services. Implementation Science, 5(41), 112.

The participatory action research method is one of the many methods used in qualitative research. Action research sees a lot of use in areas that have to do with people  namely psychological, sociological, and educational studies. The method is popular in these areas due to its circular nature, which allows adapting and coming up with new ways of solving the problem, should the implemented one prove to be ineffective (Babbie, 2016). The participatory action research method has several definitions. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the provided definitions to formulate a personal working definition for the method and apply it to three examples in human and social services scenarios.

The action research method is a paradigm, which allows the participants to analyze their problems and come up with ways of solving them, with the researcher serving the role of enabler and analyst in every given scenario. The method is comprised of five essential steps, which are (Action research, 2016):

• Identification of the problem
• Planning phase
• Acting according to plan
• Data collection and analysis
• Reflection and sharing the results

Should the results prove unfavorable, the process is repeated. Such a paradigm has no defined end, meaning that it could be implemented over and over for overall improvement. The definition outlined above will be used for the three examples presented in this paper.

The first example of an action research method could be within a social support organization. These organizations are frequently tasked with distributing material and financial aid to support people with low income. Often, social aid is aimed to deal with the consequences of poverty, but not with the causes. Action research could be used to formulate a program that would provide enablers for the poor to generate their income, rather than promote handouts. The benefits from the successful implementation of such programs are obvious  if the poor were able to generate more income on their own and develop financial independence, they would not need social aid to stay afloat. On the other hand, poverty comes hand in hand with psychological problems and inhibitions  not everyone would be able to follow with the program, even with all the tools provided by the organization.

Action research methods can also be applied in a classroom setting. Traditional educational methods of solving different problems include presenting a problem to the class, then showing how it is solved, and later making the students apply the same method to solve similar problems. Instead, the students could be tasked with creating their ways of solving problems, with minimal instructions given by the teacher. This method will help the students develop their individuality and independence. If the students are assembled in groups, it will promote team cooperation in solving difficult tasks. However, this method will significantly slow down the working process  coming out with innovative paths and shifting through strategies that do not work is a time-consuming process. Also, the groups would not be equal  the progress and efficiency of the method will vary between them.

As these two examples show, the action research method has the potential to provide great results both for the researchers and the participants. However, it also has several drawbacks that have to be accounted for during the planning phase of any particular research.

References

Action research in education: Methods & examples. (2016). Web.

Babbie, E. (2016). The basics of social research (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage.

If there is a correlation between two variables that tends to be close to linear (that is, if one variable changes, the other also does so), this tendency can be demonstrated on a Cartesian coordinate system by drawing a straight line to which the data points converge. How scattered the data points are from this line is measured by the correlation coefficient, r (-1drd+1). If r>0, then the values of both variables increase simultaneously; if r<0, when the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases; if r=0, there is no linear association.

The farther r is from 0, the stronger is the association (see Appendix 1). If r=±1, the relationship between the variables is a linear function. Also, the value r² (coefficient of determination) indicates how much of the variance in one of the variables is explained by the variance in the other (Daya, 2004; Norman & Streiner, 2008, pp. 136-140).

According to Anderson and Bushman (2001), r between the time spent playing video games (variable X) and engaging in aggressive behaviors (variable Y) in 21 experimental tests was 0.18 (p. 357). After stating that, the authors conclude: short-term exposure to violent video games causes at least a temporary increase in aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 2001, p. 357).

Thus, it means that Anderson and Bushman (2001) found a positive correlation between X and Y that slightly tended to be linear. However, from Norman and Streiner (2008), it follows that the r-value of 0.18 is not large enough to take note of (p. 140), and the correlation is weak. Also, the coefficient of determination r² = 0.0324 means that only 3.24% of the variance in the Y value is explained by the correlation between the variables X and Y (Daya, 2004, p. 50).

Because of this, and because correlation does not equal causation (Norman & Streiner, 2008, p. 139), the conclusion of Anderson and Bushman (2001) that short-term exposure to violent video games causes at least a temporary increase in aggression (p. 357) may be incorrect.

The correlation between X and Y was statistically significant means that the likelihood that this correlation occurred by chance was low; usually, the phrase statistical significance means the likelihood is lower than 5% (George & Mallery, 2016, p. 112).

Appendix 1

The figure shows some examples of distributions of data points at different correlation coefficients r (Norman & Streiner, 2008, p. 138).

Unit 6 Discussion 1

A research question from my career specialization (General Psychology) that can be addressed by a correlation is as follows: is there an association between unemployment and life satisfaction? Importantly, the definition of an unemployed person is: an individual who currently has no job, is available for work, and is seeking a job (Reiff, 2015); people who have no job and are not looking for it are of no interest here.

This association between these two phenomena might be measured by a correlation because it is likely that being unemployed for a long period is a factor that significantly decreases ones level of satisfaction with life. It is probable that the association between the two factors could be close to linear, i.e., if one variable changes, the other also does (Daya, 2004).

The variables that could be measured here are: the length of the period over which a person has been unemployed (X) and that persons satisfaction with life (Y). It is possible to measure X in weeks. Y can be measured using a 7-point Likert scale (1completely dissatisfied; 2dissatisfied; 3somewhat dissatisfied; 4unsure; 5somewhat satisfied; 6satisfied; 7completely satisfied).

It is possible to expect that the variables X and Y will be correlated. The correlation coefficient r is likely to be lower than 0, for it is likely that the longer a person is unemployed (the greater is X), the lower their life satisfaction level is (the lesser is Y). Also, r should be greater than -1 (so the relationship between X and Y is not a linear function) due to several reasons; for instance, there are numerous other factors which might affect life satisfaction, such as the socioeconomic status of a persons family, health, marriage status, etc.

References

Daya, S. (2004). Correlation coefficient. Evidence-Based Obstetrics and Gynecology, 6, 48-50. Web.

Reiff, M. R. (2015). On unemployment: A micro-theory of economic justice (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillian.

Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12(5), 353-359.

Daya, S. (2004). Correlation coefficient. Evidence-Based Obstetrics and Gynecology, 6, 48-50. Web.

George, D., & Mallery, P. (2016). IBM SPSS Statistics 23 step by step: A simple guide and reference (14th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Norman, G. R., & Streiner, D. L. (2008). Biostatistics: The bare essentials (3rd ed.). Hamilton, Ontario: B.C. Decker Inc.

Introduction

There are two basic approaches to research: quantitative and qualitative. They use different data and methods; also, they can be connected to different attitudes towards knowledge and research (Polit & Beck, 2017). The present paper considers the examples of these approaches and compares and contrasts them. It demonstrates that both approaches have advantages and disadvantages, which makes them appropriate for different types of studies.

The Types of Information in the Research Articles

The work by Rothenberger et al. (2014) produces a quantitative analysis, which considers the effect of the use of different surfaces on blood circulation in the heel and sacral areas. The purpose of the study is to determine if one of the investigated surfaces can significantly improve blood microcirculation, reducing the risk of pressure ulcer development. Roberts et al. (2016) offer a qualitative analysis of the perceptions of the nurses concerning the implementation of particular bundle guidelines aimed at the prevention of pressure ulcers.

Both studies are connected to the issue of pressure ulcer prevention, but they focus on different phenomena, one of which is simple and measurable while the other is complex and immeasurable. Both studies have a relatively small sample (twenty and eighteen people) chosen through purposive sampling. Also, they lack a theoretical or conceptual framework and fail to provide critique of their literature review. However, both are ethically appropriate and meticulously point out their limitations when drawing justifiable and warranted conclusions.

General Advantages and Disadvantages of the Two Research Approaches

The quantitative approach is a very well-controlled research design that produces generalizable results, which are based on objective reality, even though there are variations in control depending on the type of study (Cantrell, 2011; Schultz, Rivers, & Ratusnik, 2008). However, Polit and Beck (2017) demonstrate that this approach cannot study complex events, which is the result of its attempts to eliminate complicating factors to measure a particular variable. The work by Rothenberger et al. (2014) illustrates this description. The majority of the articles limitations are the results of focusing on a single risk factor (blood microcirculation in specific areas) and employing healthy people as participants. However, the isolation of the factor and the lack of contributing issues in the participants help the authors to control their research.

Qualitative research has the major advantage of focusing on the study of complex and typically immeasurable phenomena, thus addressing the scope of issues that quantitative research cannot address. Qualitative research is more flexible and holistic; also, it produces in-depth insights and can work with narrative and subjective data (Polit & Beck, 2017). This strength is connected to a weakness: the elimination of bias in qualitative research is more difficult to achieve, the studies are less controlled, and the results are less generalizable. The study by Roberts et al. (2016) illustrates these features: it examines an immeasurable phenomenon (perceptions) through subjective means (assessments produced by nurses), which the authors acknowledge as a limitation (reduced generalization possibility) and attempts to mitigate by involving participants with diverse backgrounds. Thus, the authors employ the appropriate approach while taking into account and addressing its weaknesses.

Qualitative Research as Real Science

The idea that qualitative research is not the real science may be connected to the fact that the quantitative approach is very reputable, but this position does not seem to be productive (Polit & Beck, 2017). As shown above, both quantitative and qualitative inquiries have advantages, disadvantages, and special features, which implies that the choice of the design should be guided by the needs and opportunities of a particular study.

For instance, the assessment of the nurses perceptions demands the use of a qualitative methodology, and the authors make the right choice. Then, they improve their study by admitting the fact that this approach has limitations and attempting to reduce them. Similarly, in the quantitative study, the authors meticulously point out the limitations caused by the isolation of one risk factor in the complex process of pressure ulcer development. Also, both studies share the issue of the lack of criticism of their literature review, which demonstrates that the problem of the lack of rigor is not specific to a particular approach.

Thus, it can be suggested that the real science presupposes a careful review of pertinent and high-quality sources, a meticulous development of a methodology, and a presentation of results that takes into account the studys limitations. Such an approach is exemplified by some of the assigned readings, including those by Metheny, Davis-Jackson, and Stewart (2010), Padula, Hughes, and Baumhover (2009), and Yuan et al. (2009). When a study does not correspond to these parameters, it might be labeled as not real science.

Conclusion

The two main approaches to research have advantages and disadvantages, which seem to be interconnected. For example, quantitative research is not fit for studying complex events because it is aimed at eliminating the extraneous variables. Similarly, qualitative research is more difficult to control specifically because it works with more complex phenomena. The quantitative approach appears to be respected to a greater extent for its precision, but qualitative research cannot be viewed as inferior, and both methods should be employed when they are beneficial for a particular study.

References

Cantrell, M. A. (2011). Demystifying the research process: Understanding a descriptive comparative research design. Pediatric Nursing, 37(4), 188189.

Metheny, N. A., Davis-Jackson, J., & Stewart, B. J. (2010). Effectiveness of an aspiration risk-reduction protocol. Nursing Research, 59(1), 1825.

Padula, C. A., Hughes, C., & Baumhover, L. (2009). Impact of a nurse-driven mobility protocol on functional decline in hospitalized older adults. Journal of Nursing Care Quality, 24(4), 325331.

Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2017). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (10th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer.

Roberts, S., McInnes, E., Wallis, M., Bucknall, T., Banks, M., & Chaboyer, W. (2016). Nurses perceptions of a pressure ulcer prevention care bundle: A qualitative descriptive study. BMC Nursing, 15(1), 1-10.

Rothenberger, J., Krauss, S., Held, M., Bender, D., Schaller, H., & Rahmanian-Schwarz, A., & Jaminet, P. (2014). A quantitative analysis of microcirculation in sore-prone pressure areas on conventional and pressure relief hospital mattresses using laser Doppler flowmetry and tissue spectrophotometry. Journal of Tissue Viability, 23(4), 129-136.

Schultz, L. E., Rivers, K. O., & Ratusnik, D. L. (2008). The role of external validity in evidence-based practice for rehabilitation. Rehabilitation Psychology, 53(3), 294302.

Yuan, S.-C., Chou, M.-C., Hwu, L.-J., Chang, Y.-O., Hsu, W.-H., & Kuo, H.-W. (2009). An intervention program to promote health-related physical fitness in nurses. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 18(10), 14041411.

All bacterial species are divided into two main groups that are gram-positive and gram-negative. Such division is possible with the help of Grams methods based on the evaluation of the physical and chemical properties of bacterias cell walls and the detection of peptidoglycan (Ward, 2016). Clostridium is a Gram-positive bacterium. Such bacterium is defined as an obligate anaerobe that could produce endospores and can be classified into more than 100 species in regards to the nature of pathogens in cells.

Among the well-known types of clostridium, there are clostridium difficile, clostridium botulinum, clostridium tetani, and Clostridium sordellii. For example, clostridium difficile is the bacterium that causes antibiotic-associated diarrhea (Ward, 2016) and serious cases of colitis that could be fatal for hospitalized patients (Carton, Daly, & Ramani, 2007). It is a spore-forming bacterium that can survive on various environmental surfaces for a long period.

Therefore, if patients are symptomatic, they are hospitalized and isolated in separate rooms where the risk of crossing this infection turns out to be minimal. As a rule, people, who have the risks of having this bacterium, should be treated during the next ten days with metronidazole or vancomycin (Ward, 2016). Clostridium botulinum aims at producing neurotoxin botulinum that leads to the possibility of having flaccid paralytic among humans (both adults and infants) or animals.

Clostridium tetani is another type of bacterium under consideration that leads to the cases of tetanus in people. It looks like a match through a microscope. As well as other types, clostridium tetanus is a rod-shaped anaerobe. Finally, there is Clostridium sordellii, a rare anaerobe that causes such diseases as pneumonia, arthritis, or even some fatal cases that occur after abortions. The list of clostridium bacteria is far from being full. Still, these types are the most frequent and dangerous for people today.

Neisseria is another large genus of bacteria that cause the development of various infections in the organism. It is the Gram-negative bacteria that look like coffee beans under the microscope. The chosen genus has two main types of this bacterium: Neisseria gonorrhea and Neisseria meningitides. It is possible to guess the main peculiarity of Neisseria gonorrhea with ease. Such a bacterium causes gonorrhea and various sexually transmitted infections (Ward, 2016).

As a rule, the main area of this infection is the urogenital tract. Therefore, men, who get this bacterium, may suffer from penile discharge, and women, who get Neisseria gonorrhea, suffer from severe pelvic pain or some vaginal discharge. Neisseria gonorrhoeae are usually in pairs and can be grown in laboratories. They are dangerous for people. Still, the majority of diseases caused by the presence of this bacterium in the organism can be treated with special antibiotics.

Antibiotics can also be used to treat people with Neisseria meningitides. This gram-negative bacterium has a circular form and is formed in pairs. People, who carry this type of bacterium, are under a threat of having a meningococcal disease or even sepsis that can be a serious life threat. Neisseria meningitides may be spread through the exchange of saliva when people kiss or when kids chew the same things. Also, it can be spread respiratory when people sneeze or cough. In the majority of cases, all types of bacteria are dangerous for people. Sometimes, the organism is ready to fight against Neisseria with the help of antibiotics. Sometimes, the symptoms are hard to observe, and people lose a lot of time to comprehend what kind of bacterium could cause a disease.

References

Carton, J., Daly, R., & Ramani, P. (2007). Clinical pathology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Ward, D. (2016). Microbiology and infection prevention and control for nursing students. Thousand Oaks, CA: Learning Matters.