Category: Sciences 2502

The circulatory system pumps blood via a network of arteries every time the heartbeats. These muscular, fluid tubes are responsible for transporting blood to the whole body. The superior vena cava and inferior blood veins transport oxygen-depleted blood from the left ventricle to the right atrium. Just the open tricuspid valve permits blood to reach the right ventricle in response to right atrial constriction. Whenever the ventricle is filled, the tricuspid valve shuts. As a result of this, blood cannot return to the right atrium during ventricular contractile contraction. A blood flow is created during the ventricle contraction, with blood passing via the pulmonic valve into the pulmonary artery and then into the body.

A network of pneumatic veins returns oxygen-rich blood to the heart, where the effector organs would utilize it. To carry oxygen-rich blood from the lungs towards the left atrium, the pulmonary veins must be open. A mitral valve that is open whenever the left atrium contracts force blood into the left ventricle, which is then closed whenever the left atrium contracts. After a full expansion of the ventricle, the mitral valve closes and prevents the formation of any more organs. When blood flows out from the heart and then into the aorta, it travels before reaching the rest of the body and receiving oxygen; this is known as the aortic valve (Togun et al., 2021).

The heart is a remarkable organ that keeps us alive by delivering oxygen and nutrients throughout our bodies. The circulatory system is a network of blood vessels through which blood is circulated as the heartbeats. The heart maintains constant blood flow across the bodys arteries, making the circulatory system an essential part of the body since it transports oxygen to all organs.

Reference

Togun, H., Hussain, A. A., Ahmed, S., & Shaker, H. (2021). Numerical study of blood flow through artificial heart valves. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 1094(1), 012120.

Laboratory Objectives

• A scientific theory is a proven scientific statement that can be confirmed by repeated experiments.
• A hypothesis is a scientific assumption that still requires proof.
• Falsifiability is a property of the theory, characterizing the possibility of its fundamental refutation.
• Replication is repeated repeatability of the same (or similar) results in a series of experiments under the same conditions.
• Controlled variables are such values that are rigidly fixed in a series of experiments; in other words, they remain unchanged.
• Treatment is a procedure for intervening in the original sample.
• An independent variable is a variable that changes during an experiment while affecting the dependent variable.
• A dependent variable is a variable of interest whose change is accompanied by a change in the independent variable.

Summary

One of the most important objective ways of knowing the world is the scientific method. Characterized by systematicity, reproducibility, and reliability, this method allows to critically examine the phenomena existing in the world and propose theories corresponding to them. In fact, all scientific knowledge goes through a complex expert path before it becomes such. Before a hypothesis acquires the status of a theory, it must receive reliable evidence of its validity (Fowler et al., 2017).

To do this, a scientific claim is formulated, from which methods of evidence are chosen. This can include empirical and analytical, including mathematical evidence, as well as evidence from the contrary. A hypothesis becomes a theory by obtaining an extensive evidence base and reproducibility of results in a series of independent experiments conducted under the same conditions. Subsequently, the theory must be evaluated by several independent laboratories in order to be finally convinced of its objectivity and impartiality.

The proof of hypotheses is of critical importance to society, as it helps to guide scientific and technological progress and qualitatively improve humanitys overall standard of living. Thanks to the scientific method, there is an endless accumulation of practical knowledge, and, as a consequence, all spheres of social life develop, be it domestic management or quantum computing. Of no minor importance in proofs is the use of specific metric systems, which allow mathematical framing of proofs and simplification of working with theories. Although there are several metric systems  in fact, any researcher can try to create his or her own  the international SI system is globally recognized. It follows that laboratories from different countries and cultures can communicate in the same academic language by presenting their data via SI. The significance of using a standard metric system is that it saves researchers a great deal of time and resources in conducting partner research.

Results

References

Fowler, S., Roush, R., & Wise, J. (2017). Concepts of biology. OpenStax.

Data Analysis Plan

This paper used two types of variables, the manipulation of which was expected to lead to specific results. The first of these was a gender characteristic of students: choosing only two discrete values determined the categorical essence of the present variable. The categorical variable was also the students previous GPA. It was interesting to determine if there was a gender and prior experience-associated relationship in obtaining current scores. The null hypothesis was that the mean of the current exam scores for the two gender samples was identical, whereas the alternative hypothesis set the numbers unequal. Consequently, the overall question of the experiment was to determine the extent to which the respondents gender characteristics influenced the score.

Testing Assumptions

For the Levenes test, it was assumed that both samples have the same variance, which was the null hypothesis. Since the obtained result p-value was higher than the threshold of significance (>0.05), the null hypothesis was accepted and, consequently, the assumption of the equality of variance of samples was relevant.

Results & Interpretation

The above tables reflect the results of the descriptive statistics and t-test for the two samples used. Assuming that the variances were equal, an extremely high p-value (0.566) can be seen, which means that the null hypothesis is accepted and the independent results of Levenes test are confirmed. Consequently, the mean GPA score among women and men was identical and statistically indistinguishable.

Statistical Conclusions

The test conducted showed no statistically significant difference in the test scores for students of the two genders. This is essential information, showing that it is impossible to label one gender as smarter than the other overall. This is useful for a sound university organizational policy. However, the experiment was only done on a population of students from the same institution may impose limitations on scalability.

Application

In future professional settings, similar data can be used for gender analyses to identify potential patterns. For example, gender as an independent variable may or may not affect athletic (running speed), political (electoral rating), or economic (income size) variables. This kind of research provides a deeper understanding of the sociological nature of gender differentials.

The human species originated from humanlike creatures of the hominids group that has a scientific name of Homo-sapiens. Scientific evidence suggests that first primitive Homo-sapiens appeared around 300,000 years ago. The further evolution and migration process of Homo-sapiens started approximately between 70,000 to 100,000 years ago. This essay will answer the questions of why and how the Homo-sapiens expanded out of Africa, how and when they populated the Americas and why they preferred agriculture.

There are several theories about why Homo-sapiens left their birthplace, Africa, as there is not much evidence for science nowadays, apart from DNA samples and fossils. However, it is important to note that the Homo-sapiens migration did not happen at once, in fact, the first humans were continuously leaving Africa even 20,000 years before the main out-of-Africa event. Moreover, the fossils of Homo Erectus subspecies that existed before the Homo-sapiens were found in China, Indonesia, and Europe, which means that the first humanlike-creatures also tended to migrate. In an article about the reversal of human phylogeny, the authors, Árnason and Hallström (2020) even included evidence that shows that the Homo erectus left Africa and then came back as Homo sapiens. However, according to the majority of theories and the existing body of knowledge, the main reason Homo-sapiens eventually left Africa was climate change. As humans feel more comfortable in a warm climate, due to the glacial age, also called the ice age, Homo-sapiens left Africa seeking better living conditions.

The origins of different nations and countries that exist now reside in the first migration of early humans from Africa. According to Montaigne (2020), some theories suggest that the history of the first people populating the Americas started approximately 13,000 years ago. Then, small groups of Stone Age hunters explored the land bridge from eastern Siberia to the western side of Alaska (Montaigne, 2020). Further explorations eventually lead them to the ice-free inland corridor right to the center of North America. However, the recent pieces of evidence from archaeological sites on the West Coast of North America were dated to period even earlier than 13,000. The evidence was used for the development of a new modern theory of Homo-sapiens populating the Americas. The modern theory, also commonly known as the Kelp Highway, suggests that the first humans arrived in North America by boat while traveling down the Pacific shore. The new theory dramatically expanded the understanding of when the first humans arrived in the Americas.

During the migration process, the primary food resources for the early humans consisted of prey they collected during hunting and some of the crops they were able to collect on the way. The end of migration allowed Homo-sapiens to settle down in one place. Soon after the animal population around the new human settlements started to reduce due to hunting, Homo-sapiens started harvesting seeds and planting them, as they already developed a taste for grains. Then, human interests shifted more from hunting activities to agriculture, and Homo-sapiens started farming and domesticating animals.

In conclusion, this essay explored different aspects of the existence of Homo sapiens. Due to climate change, early humans left their birthplace, Africa, seeking more comfortable places to live. However, climate change is not the sole reason for the Homo sapiens to leave Africa, as some Homo-sapiens ancestors explored other locations long before the first migration. There are several theories on how and when first people populated the Americas, and one of them even suggests that they arrived on boats at least 20,000 years ago. The end of migration allowed the early people to switch from hunting to agriculture, which provided them a consistent source of food.

References

Árnason, Ú., & Hallström, B. (2020). The reversal of human phylogeny: Homo left Africa as erectus, came back as sapiens sapiens. Hereditas, 157, 1-13. Web.

Montaigne, F. (2020). How humans came to Americas. Smithsonian Magazine. Web.

Introduction

This study measures the Coefficient of Rolling Resistance (CRR) in a car. For this purpose, an experiment involving a car was set. A brief analysis of the CRR characteristics of a vehicle moving on a slow velocity on a flat surface is, therefore, provided.

Technical Details

In the course of the experiment, a Mazda CX5 car was used. The cars mass equals 1,500 kg. In the course of the experiment, the car was being pushed at a constant speed of 16 mph, which allowed the creators of the experiment to define the CRR. The car was being pushed for eleven consecutive minutes by five of the research creators, whereas the sixth participant of the experiment was recording the results and the information displayed on the measurement devices. Speaking of which, a scale was used in the study so that the resistance force could be calculated. A wrist watch was used for measuring the time that the experiment took.

Results and Discussion

According to the data recorded in the process of the experiment, the total resisting force of the car was around 18 Newtons (18 N). It should be noted, though, that the measurement process was carried out in the setting that was far from perfect; consequently, a certain percentage of inaccuracy can be suspected (Olinchik 9).

The weight of the car was calculated based on its mass. As the test conditions show, the car mass equals 1,500 kg; therefore, the weight of the car can be calculated in accordance with the following formula:

(Bueche and Hecht 48); in other words,

Therefore, the weight of the vehicle equals 14.7 kN.

The total resisting force (TRF), in its turn, was measured with the help of a scale. The latter showed that the TRF of the car made around 180 N. Again, the possibility of inaccuracy should be born in mind, as the measurement procedure was conducted with the help of a standard scale.

Based on the data provided above, the CRR of the car in question can be calculated. The calculation must be carried out with the help of the following formula:

where C is the CRR required to locate. Therefore, to identify the CRR of the Mazda car in question, one will need to divide the TRF by the weight of the car:

thus, the TRF equals

or 1.2% (Crolla and Mashadi 272).

Conclusions and Recommendations

As the study has shown, an average TRF of a Mazda CX5 car equals 1.2%. It should be born in mind, though, that the study was conducted without the help of professional equipment. Therefore, further researches on the topic will require the use of a dynamometer or another device that will allow for retrieving more accurate results.

Works Cited

Bueche, Frederick and Eugene Hecht. Schaums Outline of College Physics. 11th Ed. New York City, NY: McGraw Hill Professional, 2012. Print.

Crolla, David and Behrooz Mashadi. Vehicle Powertrain Systems: Integration and Optimization. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 2011. Print.

Olinchik, Michael. Mathematical Modeling in the Social and Life Sciences. New York, NY: Wiley Global Education, 2014. Print.

Appendix A

South-Eastern Asia is one of the most actively developing regions in the world. In spite of the fact that the majority of countries in this region are traditionally discussed as underdeveloped in relation to the economic and political factors, the situation has changed significantly during the 2010s (Butts, Mitchell, & Berkoh, 2012, p. 91). Today, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia among the other countries of the region attract millions of investments and thousands of tourists and migrants. That is why it is possible to state that certain changes in politics, economics, and society have influenced the observed progress in the region.

The first point to discuss is the political changes. Several states of the region make only the first steps in developing as free democratic states as a result of overcoming military regimes. Consequently, the recent and current political reforms in such states as Vietnam and Timor-Leste demonstrate that these countries start at the path of development according to the Western political patterns and following the principles of democracy (Butts et al., 2012, p. 92). Furthermore, the governments in the South-Eastern Asian countries also propose regulations and programs that support the development of business in the region.

Thus, the economic growth in the countries is observed because of changes in the states policies regarding international trade and because of the active industrialization. Today, Singapore attracts billions of capitals from all over the world because of its status as the economic center of the region (Liang, 2005, p. 49). Furthermore, the rates of foreign investments increase in Thailand, the Philippines, and Malaysia because of the changes in policies regarding the development of businesses.

Many large corporations choose the South-Eastern Asian region in order to invest in human resources and raw materials there (Daniels, Radebaugh, & Sullivan, 2010, p. 68). As a result, focusing on economic modernization, the leaders of the states concentrate on changing policies and regulations related to the development of the market, tourism, and hospitality industry. In addition, economists in these states develop strategies to attract more foreign investment and support the actively developing industries that were not previously supported in the former agrarian states.

Referring to the current social changes observed in the region, it is important to pay attention to the increased growth of population because of the high birth rates, low levels of mortality, and high levels of migration. During recent years, the population growth in the South-Eastern Asian countries is discussed as a social anomaly.

However, these remarkable changes lead to the progress of urban life and to the modernization of transportation systems and infrastructure. The current population of Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia is highly diverse in relation to ethnic, cultural, and language aspects and factors (Achwan, 2012, p. 94). That is why focusing on the unique ethnic composition of the region, the governments propose new educational and social programs aimed at the development of a diverse society.

From this point, the observed changes in the political, economic, and social lives of the nations in the South-Eastern Asian region can be discussed as contributing to the current growth in such countries as Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, and Malaysia among others.

These countries became interesting for foreign investors and corporations, and the governments began to pay more attention to the economic potential of these countries as the centers of tourism. In spite of the fact that these states still suffer from high levels of inflation, poverty, corruption, and inappropriateness of banking systems, the observed changes in these areas support the idea that the identified problems can be overcome during the next years.

References

Achwan, R. (2012). Hybridising state and ethnicity in an Indonesian region. Asian Social Science, 8(6), 94-103.

Butts, H., Mitchell, I., & Berkoh, A. (2012). Economic growth dynamics and short-term external debt in Thailand. The Journal of Developing Areas, 46(1), 91-111.

Daniels, J., Radebaugh, L., & Sullivan, D. (2010). International business. New York, NY: Pearson.

Liang, M. (2005). Singapores trade policies: Priorities and options. ASEAN Economic Bulletin, 22(1), 49-59.

Introduction: The Use of T-Tests in Nutrition Studies

Used to find out whether there is a difference between two groups of numbers, a t-test is an efficient means to conduct a mathematical analysis (Keller, 2011). Obviously useful in a number of fields, a t-test is essential for the evaluation of a specific issue. Therefore, when it comes to peoples health and the development of healthy habits, research based on t-tests can offer adequate data.

Concerning the Statistics: Evaluating the Research Data

In the chosen article, i.e., Change in diet, physical activity, and body weight among young adults during the transition from high school to college by Wengreen & Moncur (2009), the method of the t-test is used to evaluate the weight change in an experimental group of students.

The Study and Its Specifics: Nutrition as a Crucial Process

In the study by Wengreen & Moncur (2009), the statistical data concerning the students weight and the weight differentials within the group in the course of diet change was used.

The Use of Statistics in the Study: A Cautious Attempt at Generalizing

The statistics were used in the study to show how the change in eating habits can affect a students weight. Displaying the minimum and maximum weight among students, as well as helping calculate the average student weight in the group, the researchers operate the statistical data.

Questioning the Reasonability of the T-Tests: The Choice of Methodology

The application of the t-test is justified by the fact that the research features two groups and two different dieting approaches. Therefore, specifying the difference between the two groups after the effects of nutrition have become evident is important (Mitchell & Jolley, 2012).

Meeting the Tests Assumptions: the Hypothesis Proves Right

It is important to mention that the use of the t-test partially helps prove the initial research hypothesis. Although the authors state that they cannot determine whether the observed increases in body weight were associated with growth or increases in lean or non-lean body mass (Wengreen & Moncur, 2009, 82), it is still clear that the change in the diet and, therefore, weight among students is greatly influenced by the change in setting, particularly due to the transition from high school to college.

Evaluating the Means of Data Display: Graphs and Tables

The data is displayed fairly decently in the research. Placed in tables, it allows to compare and contrast the differences between the experimental groups and, thus, form an opinion concerning the dieting issues among the high school students.

The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Research: What Could Have Been Improved

The key strength of the research is the detailed analysis of the information and the high precision of the weight data. The downside is, however, that the research has its limitations, especially concerning the number of participants and the impossibility to take into account the specifics of each students metabolic process.

Conclusion: When the Difference Between the Two Groups Is Crucial

As the analysis of the t-tests application in a specific research (in Wengreen and Moncurs Change in diet) shows, t-tests provide accurate research data and allow to figure out whether the difference between the research groups is actually accidental, or whether there are considerable reasons to believe that the difference in the research results shows the inefficiency of the chosen dieting method. Once applying the t-test in quantitative or mixed research, one can expect accurate results and high rates of precision.

Reference List

Keller, G. (2011). Statistics for management and economics. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.

Mitchell, M. L. & Jolley, J. M. (2012). Research design explained. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.

Wengreen, H. J. & Moncur, C. (2009). Change in diet, physical activity, and body weight among young-adults during the transition from high school to college. Nutrition Journal, 22(8), 3237.

Introduction

The research under analysis is aimed at the examination of the epidemiology of nosocomial infections in the framework of the Fiji region. The study was carried out by the local health care workers in the Colonial War Memorial Hospital that has the largest Intensive Care Units (ICU) adult ward in the area. According to the researchers, their primary concern was to elucidate the peculiarities of the relevant problem in Fiji as they are currently neglected by the world health care society (Naidu, Nabose, Ram, Viney, Graham, & Bissell, 2014).

The paper at hand provides the analysis of the described research focusing on the aspects of the research design and methodology.

Research Design: Strengths and Weaknesses

The study represents a retrospective descriptive research with a quantitative design that bases on the data of 2011-2012. One needs to note that the initial goal set by researchers resides in describing the set of things that exists in the hospital. Specialists believe that the descriptive type of research is the most appropriate in cases when an analyst has no control over the variables but can only report on the ongoing processes (Kothari, 2004). Therefore, one might conclude that the type of the research addresses perfectly the issue under analysis and fits well the set targets.

The quantitative design is, in its turn, determined by the necessity to measure the amount of patients with nosocomial infections, gender and age correlations, as well as mortality rates. In the framework of the quantitative design, the researchers applied the inferential approach as they focused on a particular sample group and its characteristics. The selection of this type of approach seems to be reasonable as the researchers did not have any control over the environment to apply an experimental approach, nor they intended to construct an artificial environment required for a simulation approach.

The research might be referred to the exploratory type; thereby, it does not foreground an initial hypothesis but is aimed at generating it basing on the received findings. One assumes that the research design fits the initial goal of providing a general description of the epidemiology of nosocomial infections in the region.

In the meantime, many specialists tend to consider the retrospective character of a study to be a disadvantage. Thus, it is recommended that some current data is, likewise, collected so that one is able to carry out a comparative analysis (Creswell, 2013). As a result, one assumes that the implementation of current statistics is apt to assist the researchers in raising the general level of the study evidence.

The data collection was carried out in a structured proforma with the following variables indicated: the age of a patient, the data of admission to the hospital, the length of his or her stay in the ward, and the data of the specimen collection. One might suppose that a wide variety of employed variables enabled the researchers to perform a highly valid and reliable data sampling.

One of the principal strengths of the research is the sampling methodology. Thus, the researchers applied the Probability-Proportional-to-Size Sampling. According to the specialists, the relevant method of sampling is particularly effective in providing a precise retrospective description as setting the selection probability of an element proportionally to its size measure is likely to increase the accuracy of the data (Creswell, 2013).

Therefore, the design of the analyzed research seems to be reasonably selected as it fits the researchers major aims. The data collection methodology is, likewise, rationally chosen, whereas the retrospective character of the study might be slightly disadvantageous from the standpoint of the level of the evidence of the study. In the meantime, one might suggest that the presented retrospective findings are valid enough to be integrated into further research on the relevant issue.

Sampling Methodology: Strengths and Weaknesses

First of all, one should note that the researchers set clear and strict sample frames for their study. Thus, their sample frames include only those patients that had clinical features of invasive sepsis (on condition that a bacterial pathogen was isolated on culture from minimum one specimen received from the patient more than 48 hours after admission to the ward). In case the sepsis did not develop within 48 hours after admission or had no clinical confirmation, the patients were considered to be unfit for the framework of the study (Naidu et al., 2014).

As it has been mentioned above, the data was collected in a structured proforma with a series of variables. One assumes that the employed data collection tool ensured a high level of data validity and relevance as it enabled the researchers to focus on the specific kind of data and exclude the unnecessary information.

Finally, the researchers applied an efficient data analyzing tool  the collected data was double entered into EpiData Association program that performed the essential calculations and generated the targeted results.

As a consequence, one might conclude that the sampling methodology applied to the relevant study guarantees the validity and the quality of the data presented.

Conclusion

One might conclude that the research design and the methodology of the relevant study were selected in accordance with the target-setting; thereby, they fit the initial aim of the researchers. The descriptive type of the research is appropriate for the finite goal of providing a general idea of the set of things in the region. The quantitative design fits the aim of collecting and analyzing statistics. The wide range of variables, as well as the Probability-Proportional-to-Size Sampling approach, increases the datas validity.

Reference List

Creswell, J.W. (2013). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Thousand Oaks, California: New Age International.

Naidu, K., Nabose, I., Ram, S., Viney, K., Graham, S.M., & Bissell, K. (2014). A Descriptive Study of Nosocomial Infections in an Adult Intensive Care Unit in Fiji: 2011-12. Journal of Tropical Medicine, 2014(2014), 5.

Classical astronomy was based on Aristotles concepts and was relatively rudimentary. Centuries after the times of Aristotle, a lot of beliefs started to shift, and scientific revolutions began to produce more discoveries. Galileo and Copernicus contributed to science by proposing their theories about the cosmos. Copernicans believed that stars, like the sun, did not move, but the theories were only developed with the times of Newton. As a result, several conditions, such as religion, new technologies, and scientific societies, had to be met in order to advance astronomical knowledge.

The first condition was the religion and beliefs of people. In the 17th century, the vast majority of people tended to debate the existence of outer space, which was the barrier to further research (Rabin 2019). Many believed that the studies of Copernicus were against the Bible (Rabin 2019). As a result, it was of utmost importance to create a balance between society and faith. Centuries later, this issue did not pose any threat to scientific developments.

The second condition was the scientific society, which contributed heavily to the development of astronomical knowledge. This society focused on teamwork and published various academic works (Brosnan et al.). Such societies quickly became quite popular and spread to other countries (Brosnan et al.). These societies possessed a lot of information and had a lot to offer to the scientific field, with Newton being the most significant contributor. With his help, it was possible to establish the three laws of motion and gravitation.

Along with religion and scientific societies, there is another condition that paved the way to the advancement of astronomical knowledge. At the time of the work of Copernicus and his disciples, there were many technological advances (Tyson 2005). However, there were still challenges, and they were resolved by Newton. This man improved the classic telescope, and with these improvements, it could magnify any matter by 40 times (Tyson 2005).

Hence, the advance of astronomical knowledge relied on several conditions, including religion, the establishment of scientific societies, and improvements of traditional technologies. While major advancements were made at the time of Copernicus, the scientists were still under pressure from religion and people. However, with the teamwork of scholars and improvements to the equipment, it was possible to make other vital discoveries.

References

Brosnan, Jennie, Shalon van Tine, Benjamin Guyer, Martin Odler, Sarah Jeong, Tashia Dare, Antoine Leveque, et al. New Learning or Scientific Revolution? History of Applied Science Technology. The Digital Press. Web.

Rabin, Sheila. Nicolaus Copernicus. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University, 2019. Web.

Tyson, Peter. Newtons Legacy. PBS. Public Broadcasting Service, 2005. Web.

Introduction

There is a close relation between field research and qualitative research. However, the observations made while conducting field studies may either be presented as quantitative or qualitative data or both. The data recorded by field investigators are highly dependent on whether it is qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative observation

This is detailed data recorded in a field study at a particular time. Qualitative observations may also be referred to as field notes. The precision and nature of these notes vary considerably depending on the type of studies conducted. There are six important elements that must be incorporated into field notes (Monette, Sullivan, & Jong, 2010). These include:

1. Running description:  this is merely recorded information concerning the variables that form the basis of a study. It does not include analyzed information.
2. Accounts of episodes that came prior:  these are sets of information that might have been forgotten before by the investigators in previous investigations. I remembered while in the field, researchers are compelled to note them down.
3. Analytical ideas:  these are unprecedented occurrences experienced during a study. They may include speculations and important observations. Investigators have to note them down as a reminder during data analysis.
4. Personal feelings:  these are investigators own sentiments concerning their study. This information has to be noted down as a measure to shun bias-instigated results. The impressions are important because they are presented according to the perspective of researchers.
5. Notes intended to provide more information:  since the recorded data may not be comprehensive, researchers are normally compelled to write down their own details concerning specific things like forecasted observations or those that need more attention.
6. Methodological notes:  this is information that concerns the techniques, procedures, and methods applied in the actual data collection and observation. It is important that these procedures are noted down as a way of reminding the researchers on the actual methods and techniques used to obtain specific information.

Researchers have to carry with them note pads whenever they leave for the fields with the aim of obtaining data. It is only through this that the investigators are able to make note of certain observations when they come across them in the fields. That notwithstanding, researchers have to know what to record as data too (Monette, Sullivan, & Jong, 2010).

Quantitative observation

This is always specified and clarified information obtained during field researches. The data in quantitative observation is coded or characterized into a specific number of classes or groups. This is normally done on coding sheets. The coding sheets are merely forms that are used to assist in the categorization and grouping of variables as a way of facilitating analysis. Since the coding sheets are used to categorize variables of a given study as it occurs, different studies are bound to use completely different coding sheets (Monette, Sullivan, & Jong, 2010).

It is important to note that coding groups are derived from hypotheses under investigation. Some hypotheses may have variables that seem quantifiable. However, a substantial level of subjective interpretation is incorporated such observations in a bid to come up with the most viable observations. For instance, however, many hypotheses may seem quantifiable, coders are bound to make rational decisions of whether a given reaction is negative or positive. Additionally, the investigators must verify whether the reactions obtained during a study are a sign of antagonism or solidarity. In conclusion, therefore, quantitative observations are difficult to obtain but give comprehensive scrutiny of a given study (Monette, Sullivan, & Jong, 2010).

Reference

Monette, D. R., Sullivan, T.J., & De Jong, C.R. (2010). Applied Social Research: A Tool for the Human Services (8^th Edition). Boston, Mass: Thompson Publishing.