Category: Sciences 2502

According to the data provided in the Periodic Table, a common isotope of Nickel has 28 electrons, 28 protons and 31 neutrons (Schaller Section 28).

The difference between covalent and ionic bonds is often reduced to the state of matter, in which they traditionally occur, yet there is a bit more to the specifics of these types of bonds.

Unlike covalent bonds, which usually occur in gases or liquids, presuppose high polarity, have a definite shape and a low melting point, and, most importantly, only between atoms of the same type (non-metal), ionic bonds can be observed between atoms of a different type (metal and non-metal), have a high polarity, do not have a definite shape, and set the melting point relatively high (Lutgens and Tarbuck 36).

As a rule, the term luster is referred to the minerals capacity to reflect light; in other words, the term luster is supposed to evaluate the albedo of the mineral in question. The term streak, in its turn, is referred to the color, which a mineral has when being crushed to dust (Lutgens and Tarbuck 42).

Since the hardness of quartz is much higher than that one of fluorite (100 compared to 21 respectively, based on the Mohs scale (Mineral Hardness: Mohs Hardness Scale Table 1)), fluorite cannot possibly scratch quartz. Quite on the contrary, in the process of the minerals contact, quartz can leave a rather deep scratch on fluorite (Lutgens and Tarbuck 40).

Titanium, which belongs to the silicate minerals group, yet does not fall into a particular category and stands on its own, is traditionally used as a replacement for lead compounds. A non-silicate group member, Ruthenium is rather rare and is traditionally used as a component of platinum alloys, a source material for wear-resistant electrical contacts and resistors (Song, Koch and Wand para. 5).

Based on the properties of the mineral in question, it can be assumed that Hematite is described. Indeed, according to the existing data, the hardness of Hematite varies from 1.5 to 6.0, which includes the point of 2.5. Also, Hematite is described as soft, which also complies with the information concerning the mineral to be defined. Hematite usually has no cleavage and has a rather smooth surface, which also corresponds to the description provided in the question.

As far as the color of the mineral is concerned, one must admit that the choice of Hematite might seem somewhat farfetched. Indeed, the color of the given mineral is not particularly brown; as a rule, the mineral appears in black and dark-brown colors.

However, brownish Hematite also exists, which allows suggesting that Hematite is the mineral that has been described in the assignment. Finally, it should be noted that, due to its color, Hematite has a non-metallic luster, which is also very soft. Consequently, it can be assumed that Hematite is the mineral described in the task.

Works Cited

Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck. Foundations of Earth Science. 7th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2014. Print.

Mineral Hardness: Mohs Hardness Scale. 2012. Web.

Mineralogy  Magnetite and Hematite. 2011. Web.

Schaller, Chris. Appendix: the Periodic Table. Web.

Song, Jina, Christian Koch and Liangliang Wang. Correlation between Wear Resistance and Lifetime of Electrical Contacts. Advances in Tribology 2012.9 (2012), para. 16. Web.

Criminologists can define a theory in various ways. In the second chapter, Schmalleger gives two different definitions of this concept and then suggests his own (29). To summarize all of them, a theory refers to a set of propositions that are connected to each other and provide an explanation of why events occur in the manner that they do (Schmalleger 29).

Theories are based on and can be improved by investigations, evidence observation, hypothesis testing and repetitive revisions. From the very beginning, the author also gives an example of a situation, which proves that theory developing is not so simple and monosemantic as it seems to be.

Theories are not the bare claims. They are supported by data and research, and that is the backbone of every theory. The first step that has to be made is the problem identification. That is when first hypotheses are built. The most important thing at this stage is to present all concepts in the terms of measurable variables since only in such a case any further testing of the hypotheses is possible.

The next step is to select a research design, which is a kind of road map to the whole process of research (Schmalleger 33). Indeed, it is a plan, logic, and structure of any study.

After a research design has already been chosen, it is necessary to decide what type of data has to be collected and which of the methods of information gathering is needed in this particular case. At this stage of research, it is important to remember that the problem that has to be solved defines the type of data needed, and the type of data, in its turn, determines the gathering method.

The primary methods are: surveys (questionnaires, interviews, etc.), case studies (detailed investigations of particular cases), participant observations (either undercover or evident), self-reports, and, finally, secondary analysis of the information that has been gathered.

When data is collected, it has to be presented in measurable variables to make mathematical and statistical analysis possible. Those help to summarize the information and make conclusions, which build up a theory.

The most serious drawbacks of theory developing are the factors that can sway the outcomes of the research. Because of them, the information gathered most likely will turn out to be wrong and irrelevant and, consequently, change the whole theory. For example, while collecting the information from people, one of the biggest problems is that all of them perceive the events in their own way, through the prism of emotions, feelings, thoughts and so on.

That is why two individuals can describe the same situation absolutely differently while being sure that they are telling the truth. Another factor that can jeopardize the results of the research is reactivity. When people know that they have been observed or surveyed, they usually act differently. Moreover, even if they do not know it for sure, the presence of a dictaphone or a camera will probably affect the outcome of a conversation as well.

To conclude, theory developing is a complicated and delicate process, which depends on many variables. For building a relevant theory, data collecting is not enough. It is also necessary to minimize the factors that can have an adverse impact on survey outcomes, present all of the concepts in the terms of measurable variables, use various mathematical and statistical techniques, as well as take into account many other nuances.

Works Cited

Schmalleger, Frank. Criminology Today. 7th ed. 2015. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. Print.

The global warming and the melting of the glaciers on our planet has been one of the most discussed issues of the last several decades. The effects of the melting started to be noticeable and it began to worry the scientists. After many researches and measurements the geologists came up with conclusions that shocked the whole world.

After the scientists were able to predict the effects of the warming and the melting of ancient ice sheets the worlds society has turned to new researches directed to find the causes of the warming and possible ways to stop or reverse it. The reaction was so powerful because the scientists stated that in a relatively near future our planet will face a serious threat.

Due to the melting of glaciers enormous amounts of water are being released into the oceans and seas. As a result, the sea level starts to rise. Some of the studies show that the lands that are located not very high above the sea level are under a serious risk of being flooded completely (Lutgens, Tarbuck, 127). There already are maps that show how exactly the rise of the sea level will affect different continents. The melting of glaciers is going to cause massive migrations all over the world.

The coastlines of all the continents will change, so people living there will be in the biggest danger, especially in poor countries, where the population will not have chance to move as much. The areas that will suffer the most are islands, such as Maldives. They are located only two meters above the sea line. These beautiful islands located to the South from India will be gone completely.

There are multiple misinterpretations of misconceptions the students tend to stick to until they find out that their ideas or understandings are wrong. For example, there is a common mistake to state that there are seven continents in the world.

This is correct of we are speaking about geographical division of the continents. According to that approach there are two Americas, Africa, Antarctica, Europe, Asia and Australia. Although, if we count that number of continents from the geological point of view there are only six: two Americas, Africa, Antarctica, Australia and Eurasia. Besides, it is also worth knowing that what we call Antarctica is not even a land mass. This continent is formed entirely of ice, basically it is a massive glacier.

As for the popular misconceptions about the tectonic plates, many students tend to make a mistake thinking that the borders of plates and lines of the continents coincide. This is not true. Lithosphere, the upper shell of our planet consists of parts that are called tectonic plates. The boundaries of the plates are involved into interactions of various kinds, which results in different types of movements occurring between these plates.

These movements along the boundaries of the plates are what causes seismic activity, volcanoes and the building of mountains. The six of the largest tectonic plates of our planet are so huge that they may hold several continents or parts of different continents.

The territory owned by some of the biggest plates contains great deals of ocean crust and big portions of land. Some of the plates that have smaller sizes are located under the oceans only. I used to share this misconception some time ago, now I am glad to learn about the correct state of things.

Continental drift is misunderstood by many people. There is an opinion that the movement of the continents is a dangerous happening, which may affect us one day. Truth is that the continents are moving apart very slowly. The biggest misconception in this area is about the timeline involved. Serious changes may happen, but only in millions of years.

Works Cited

Lutgens, Frederick, K., and Edward, J. Tarbuck, Foundations of earth Science. 7^th ed. 2014. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Print.

In the news story, the connection between the human sense of smell and avoidance behavior is discussed. The authors claim that previously the human reaction to unpleasant odors was believed to be a conscious cognitive response. However, the researchers at Karolinska Institute created a method allowing to measure the impulses coming from the olfactory bulb, the first central department of the human olfactory system. The invention is measuring the electrical activity of the olfactory bulb and the electrical activity of the brain areas that are responsible for avoidance behavior. As it was calculated by investigators, after a person breathes in an odor, signals reach special areas of the brain in 100-150 milliseconds. If the odor is unpleasant, the person automatically leans back from the smell. The researchers concluded that the sense of smell is vital for human beings, and it plays a role in unconscious reaction to danger when meeting unsavory scents.

The main idea of the news story is to prove that the nature of human reactions to unpleasant smells is unconscious and is aimed to save human lives from dangerous situations. The major evidence supporting the thesis is the rapidness of the human reactions to unsavory odors that were measured by the innovative method of the signal transmitting to the specific areas of the brain. The latter proves that human conscious reactions cannot take such a small period and are more likely to be a response using unconscious mechanisms. Questions that can be asked for future research are the interconnections between different areas of the brain influencing avoidance behavior and the rapidness of reactions of other sense organs. To find more data on this topic, scholarly journal articles can be used to broadcast knowledge and identify innovative findings on human sense organs.

The purpose of qualitative research is to evaluate a phenomenon and identify the factors that influence it significantly. It often begins with a limited understanding of the situation and the expected outcomes, discovering them through analysis of information collected over the course of the study. As such, qualitative research objectives tend to reflect this uncertainty, taking the complexity of the phenomenon into consideration. Hackley (2019) advises researchers to phrase their goals carefully, avoiding unnecessary implications and resorting to terms such as explore or evaluate. For the same reason, hypotheses are not developed at the beginning of a qualitative study, as they would be overly specific. Instead, they are developed inductively at the end of the study based on the data that the author has been able to collect. The questions are also more open-ended, with the researcher implicitly affirming that they will evaluate all information they receive without bias.

In contrast, quantitative research works with specific well-defined numbers and models. The researcher will assume that the subject of their research influences other phenomena or is influenced by them despite not having obtained evidence of such a link yet. As such, quantitative objectives and questions will usually involve well-defined and measurable variables, implying that relationships exist between them and aiming to test their existence and strengths. Specificity is critical, as the results of the study need to conclusively support one conclusion or another, assuming limited bias and error as well as a non-flawed design. Hypotheses are formulated before the study begins and have to be falsifiable, featuring the variables that will inform the study design afterward (Hall & Roussel, 2020). Ultimately, the differences between goals, objectives, and hypotheses for the two research methodologies stem from their inductive or deductive reasoning.

References

Hackley, C. (2019). Qualitative research in marketing and management: Doing interpretive research projects (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis.

Hall, H. R., & Roussel, L. A. (2020). Evidence-based practice: An integrative approach to research, administration, and practice (3^rd ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC.

Among Galileos key telescopic observations, the lunar and the Jupiter ones, the observations of the sunspots, and those of the phases occurring on Saturn, Neptune and Venus, must be listed (Lutgens and Tarbuck 472). It seems that the lunar observations were of the greatest significance, since the obtained results were used as a means to evaluate the phenomena observed by Galileo later.

After the Big Bang, many molecular clouds appeared. The mass in the center was collapsing, as if someone stirred tea in a cup with a big spoon. Because of the gravitational forces, the Sun was formed in the middle, like small tealeaves gather in the middle of a cup. The rest of the dust moving around formed planets and asteroids (Lutgens and Tarbuck 476).

Compared to Jovian planets, the ones of the terrestrial type are of smaller mass, in a closer proximity to the Sun, have a solid surface (not a gaseous one) and little (one or two) moons, whereas Jovian planets may have three and more moons (Lutgens and Tarbuck 477).

The planets that have a solid surface and no atmosphere to protect them from asteroids are most likely to have more craters than the other ones.

The key difference between maria and highlands of the Moon is their altitude and color. As a rule, maria are represented by plains, which are rather dark, whereas highlands are located higher and are of a predominantly light color (Lutgens and Tarbuck 478).

Much like the Moon, Mercury is hotter, has a higher density and has a more intense magnetic field (Lutgens and Tarbuck 479).

Though Venus, unlike Mars, has an atmosphere, its acid rains do not allow for the existence of life forms.

The phenomenon known as the Great red Spot and that can be observed on Jupiter is classified as a storm (Lutgens and Tarbuck 482).

The gravitational pulls, which are caused by Ios location, predispose the increase in temperature and cracks in its surface.

Titan, one of Saturns natural satellites, the only satellite with a dense atmosphere, which makes it a very interesting celestial body to study (Lutgens and Tarbuck 486).

Unlike asteroids, which are made mostly of metal, comets contain ice and dust (Lutgens and Tarbuck 489).

Though the crater was named after the local post office (Lutgens and Tarbuck 491), the name is still wrong, since a meteor can only exist in the outer space. As soon as it reaches the Earth atmosphere, it receives the title of a meteorite. Therefore, it would have been more reasonable to call the hole the Meteorite Crater.

Despite a common misconception regarding the size of a dwarf planet, it is not only the size, but also the amount of celestial bodies on its orbit that defines its status. Below are the key differences between the two (Lutgens and Tarbuck 496):

Planet	Dwarf planet	Example
Little to no other celestial bodies on its orbit	A significant amount of debris on its orbital path	Earth/Pluto
› (Orbital dominance)	102to 105	10-7to 10-3
Mass	More than 0.1 EM (Earth mass)	Less than 0.1 EM

It should be noted that the mass of a planet as one of the parameters for defining a dwarf planet seems to be the least defining detail (Lutgens and Tarbuck 497).

When speaking about the phenomenon of meteor showers, one must keep in mind that most of them occur on a regular basis. One of the most famous periodic meteor showers, June Bootids occurs in late June (Konovalova, Madiedo and Trigo-Rodriguez 1355).

Neptune is a very peculiar planet to explore, since it has much greater density than the rest of the gas planets in the Solar System, its gravity is very close to that of the Earth, and the fact that Neptune could have captured Triton (Lutgens and Tarbuck 499).

Works Cited

Konovalova, Nadine, James M. Madiedo and Jose M. Trigo-Rodriguez. The Physical Properties of the June Bootids and the July, 23, 2008 Superbolide. 42nd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 2011. 13551356.

Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck. Weather Patterns and Severe Weather. Foundations of Earth Science. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2014. 469-500. Print.

Complex Overview

In order for a specific subject to be examined, it is essential to compare it to other similar concepts and identify differences. However, based on the overall techniques that comparative research is based on, the approach is complex and facilitates a broad picture of the incidents or patterns that are being examined. According to researchers, this is useful since it implies providing global overviews, which later contribute to international interventions that are much more complex and affect various regions (Madden, 2005, p. 299).

As a result, comparative research can potentially be used to identify issues on a global level, illustrating its particular value since multiple different countries can then benefit from a cross-national intervention. This is a critical benefit since the endless possibilities in terms of the topics that can be examined refer to the practicality of the approach to analysing certain phenomena. Having a comprehensive overview of the problem implies knowing the source facilitating the issue, the area it impacts, and the extent to which the outcomes are creating otherwise absent circumstances. These concepts can all be identified and analysed through comparative research; hence it is one of the strengths of the approach.

Relationships Between Systems

Comparative research is much come complex than solely examining such concepts as countries with more significant demographics or territories. Instead, the socio-economic phenomena that impact certain people are determined in regards to their possible effects or patterns that differ depending on the subjects that are being compared (Hantrais, 1999, p. 93). The systems can be different and have various characteristics, exemplifying the practical appliance of this standard. For example, comparative research may examine everything from the level of human rights in different countries to life satisfaction among people working after retirement (Dingemans and Henkens, 2019, p. 648).

The two contrasting examples that differ based on the systems that they belong to can still apply to one research model, which suggests that comparing data is a process that can be integrated into multiple areas. Thus, comparative research is not only effective in terms of the appliance but also the determination or relation between two possibly unrelated subjects. This highlights the following argument, which is that the identification of the source of the problem is another favourable outcome correlating with the framework.

Identification of Problems

Research can be applied for determining a change, a pattern, or a correlation. However, its primary benefit is the opportunity to examine a certain problem that can then be solved through regulatory or systematic changes depending on its source. Thus, the main benefit that derives from comparative research is the possibility of identifying the challenge before minimizing it through interventions or awareness. According to researchers, bringing awareness to challenges is the first step towards their minimization through setting adequate objectives and performing activities in order for said goals to be achieved (Baistow, p. 8).

Comparative research works by identifying a contrast between two entities or phenomena, which can then be analysed in terms of the negative overviews of a particular finding. For example, a study showing that elderly patients are more likely to experience negative outcomes linked to medical errors compared to younger ones highlights the ageism and discrimination that occurs in a medical setting (SaifUrRahman et al., 2021, p. 418). Thus, different institutions may implement the findings in their own structural models by ensuring all patients receive the same level of care. The same principles apply when it comes to state or even international comparison research that determines the problem of a country or region through contrast. The state authorities can then look at the results, examine the contrast with another entity that successfully controls the challenge, and implement similar policies and regulations to mitigate the issues.

Combating Disinformation

There are specific problems that are less often talked about because the subjects are sensitive or someone benefits from creating a certain appearance that does not illustrate reality. According to researchers, disinformation is a major threat to the democratic system, and political discourse is one of the sources of false data that may negatively impact ones judgment (Humprecht et al., 2020, p. 493). On the other hand, comparative research is an essential tool that can be applied to combat disinformation through factual findings. As mentioned prior, not only territories can be compared but also societies, different cultural and political systems, and ideologies (Esser and Vliegenthart, 2017, p.1).

Thus, a country with democratic values on paper can be compared with a genuinely democratic one in terms of incarcerations based on political agendas or unlawful incidents that refer to unfair voting. The results will show a genuine picture of whether the state is truly democratic or not, and such data can become important factors that motivate people to seek more rights and freedom. Any type of research can potentially reveal truthful information hence combating the lack of transparency or honestly that a corporation, organization, or authority exemplifies. However, the benefit of comparative research, in particular, is illustrating a striking difference between truth and lie, which ultimately gives individuals a better understanding due to the contrast between the two.

Reference List

Baistow, K. (no date) Cross-national research: what can we learn from inter-country comparisons?, Social Work in Europe, 7(3), pp. 813.

Dingemans, E. and Henkens, K. (2019) Working after retirement and life satisfaction: cross-national comparative research in Europe, Research on Aging, 41(7), pp. 648669. Web.

Esser, F. and Vliegenthart, R. (2017) Comparative research methods, The International Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods, pp. 122. Web.

Hantrais, L. (1999) Contextualization in cross-national comparative research, International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 2(2), pp. 93108. Web.

Humprecht, E., Esser, F. and Van Aelst, P. (2020) Resilience to online disinformation: a framework for cross-national comparative research, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 25(3), pp. 493516. Web.

Madden, C. (2005) Cross-country comparisons of cultural statistics: issues and good practice, Cultural Trends, 14(4), pp. 299316. Web.

SaifUrRahman, K. M., Mamun, R., Eriksson, E., He, Y. and Hirakawa, Y. (2021) Discrimination against the elderly in healthcare services: a systematic review, Psychogeriatrics, 21(3), pp. 418429. Web.

Blood and its transportation in the human body are vital for human life, health, and well-being. It provides the cells of the body with oxygen, necessary nutrients, hormones, removes carbon dioxide from cells, and delivers waste to the liver and kidneys. Blood also plays a crucial function in regulating body temperature. It is circulated throughout the body via arteries, capillaries, veins that have different structures and functions within the blood circulatory system.

Arteries are vessels that carry the blood away from the heart. The wall of an artery consists of three layers: the inner tunica intima, the middle tunica media, and the outer tunica externa (National Cancer Institute, 2021). The middle and outer layers are similar in size, with the tunica media consisting of muscle cells to ensure smooth blood flow and tunica externa formed from elastic and collagenous fibers that allow an artery to merge with surrounding tissue (National Cancer Institute, 2021). Pulmonary arteries carry blood from the right heart ventricle to the lungs, where it is enriched with oxygen (National Cancer Institute, 2021). Meanwhile, systemic arteries carry oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to body tissues (National Cancer Institute, 2021). These are large elastic arteries that receive blood directly from the heart and branch out into smaller arteries, including microscopic arterioles that regulate the flow of blood into the tissue capillaries (National Cancer Institute, 2021). Thus, the primary function of arteries is to ensure the flow of oxygenated blood throughout the body.

Capillaries are the smallest of the blood vessels in the circulatory system. Their essential function is to ensure the exchange of nutrients and waste between the blood and tissue cells and connect arterioles to venules (National Cancer Institute, 2021). Capillaries consist of a single layer of flattened endothelial cells that facilitates their exchange function (Paxton, 2021). Meanwhile, veins receive deoxygenated blood from capillaries and carry it toward the heart. Blood enters the smallest veins (venules) that later connect into larger systemic veins that facilitate blood flow to the right heart atrium (National Cancer Institute, 2021). Within the pulmonary circuit, the pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood to the left atrium. Similar to arteries, veins consist of three layers with fewer muscle and connective tissue cells. In summary, arteries, capillaries, and veins perform distinct functions within the circulatory system and are structured differently to ensure their functions are fulfilled.

References

National Cancer Institute. (2021). Classification & structure of blood vessels. SEER Training. Web.

Paxton, S. (2021). Circulatory system: The histology guide. The Histology Guide. Web.

Harlow Shapley is renowned for his great work in identifying that the sun was not at the center of our galaxy. Shapley studies spherical groups, galactic structure, Milky Way and shape of the disks with clusters. He made the major discovery in the year 1916. In the year 1912, Harlow Shapley realized the brightness of the clusters and the structure of the galactic structure (Ideas of Cosmology 2).

Later, Shapley realized the widely distributed clusters beneath the Milky Way and seemed to be compact in one smallish region in the direction of the arrangement Sagittarius. As such, the distribution revealed that the galaxy shape took the form of a flat disk having the cluster surrounding the galactic center.

The revelation called for a relook in the solar system focusing on its centrality (Sparke 13). As such, it is worth noting that Harlow Shapley realized the overview orientation of the galaxy size and structure. The distance from the center was determined by the by the calibration of the galactic structure, intrinsic brightness, luminosity and quantification of the of the brightness. Galactic clusters have elliptical dwarf and circular dwarfs with little mass of almost solar masses.

Galactic clusters are 3000 light years (at minimum) mostly compact and associated with black materials of massive black holes if they are big. Globular clusters barely reach a million solar masses. The presence or absence of dark matter alternates through the globular cluster based on the size of galaxies (Al-Biruni 43).

They lack SMBH although they have intermediate dark masses of holes that are about 75 light years in radius. Globular constellations are constituents of halo galaxy and they behave like satellite galaxies. In conclusion, Globular clusters consist of single generation stellar population. On the other hand, galactic clusters consist of distinct and intermediary stellar population.

The cluster method explains that masses of galaxies are gotten from the distribution of x-ray releasing gases, if the gas is in hydrostatic equilibrium. The mass of the galaxies are affected by sound crossing time, gravitational potential, magnetic fields and gas pressure.

According to Sarazin (Total masses and mass distributions in clusters-the hydrostatic method 87), the masses range according to the motion of the varying factors that show significant dynamic variables and cooling flow. Ultimately, mass distribution of the factors causes the mass of the galaxies as narrowed down in the formula below.

By the year 1920, Shapley discovered the scale of the galaxy, citing that the sun was fifty thousand light years from the galaxy centrality. To be precise, Harlow Shapley identified the radius of the galactic disk to be about one hundred and fifty thousand light-years. Ultimately shapely computations that interstellar substances take in the light form stars, therefore, influencing the effects of stellar illumination (Seeds 76). Ultimately, the values have been settled to about thirty thousand light years for the distance of the galactic cluster as well as the one hundred thousand light years- for the diameter.

On the other hand, Harlow Shapley failed to realize the relationship of the scale to the universe. Shapley employed various methods to come to his discovery. Sharply used telescopes in the year 1915, 1916 and 1917 and realized the globular clusters in the plane of the Milky Way were compact.

Shapley derived a conclusion that the solar system was about fifty thousand light years which away from the center. As such, Harlow Shapley narrowed down to the conclusion that the solar system is not at the center of the galaxy having a diversion of fifty thousand light years (NASA 2).

Compare the differences between galactic and globular clusters

The formation, stellar population and definition of the two clusters is different. A galactic cluster came from the primordial gases and dusts in the early bulge of the massive black hole created in the universe. The globular cluster may have been formed together with the circle of light. Galactic clusters have elliptical dwarf and circular dwarfs with little mass of almost solar masses. Galactic clusters are 3000 light years (at minimum) mostly compact and associated with black materials of massive black holes if they are big.

Globular clusters barely reach a million solar masses (McLuhan 123). The presence or absence of dark matter alternates through the globular cluster based on the size of galaxies. They lack SMBH although they have intermediate dark masses of holes that are about 75 light years in radius. Globular constellations are constituents of halo galaxy and they behave like satellite galaxies. In conclusion, Globular clusters consist of single generation stellar population. On the other hand, galactic clusters consist of distinct and intermediary stellar population.

How does the use of H II regions to find a galaxys distance differ from the use of Cepheid variables?

H II regions are characterized by the ionization of hydrogen while Cepheid variables consists of a group of bright stars that range in size and brightness. As such, Cepheid variables have a good characteristic, which associates with their period of absolute luminosity. Knowing the absolute luminosity enables the distance to be found by comparing with the apparent luminosity.

On the other hand, H II regions use the luminous areas that are actively forming stars in the galaxies. There exists a correlation between the galaxys absolute size and geometrical size H II illumination in the area. This makes it possible to employ the Tully fisher relation to get the distance due to the correlation of the luminosity of galaxies and velocity of H II regions.

How does the cluster method tell us the mass of galaxies?

The cluster method explains that masses of galaxies are gotten from the distribution of x-ray releasing gases, if the gas is in hydrostatic equilibrium. The mass of the galaxies are affected by sound crossing time, gravitational potential, magnetic fields and gas pressure (Govert 23). As such, the masses range according to the motion of the varying factors that show significant dynamic variables and cooling flow.

Ultimately, mass distribution of the factors causes the mass of the galaxies as narrowed down in the formula below.

What evidence do we have that the center of our galaxy is a powerful source of energy?

In the orbits, there exist super waves. The orbits of the stars also contain supermassive dark holes at the core of the galaxy. The super waves and supermassive dark holes at the center is evidence that there is gravitational potential energy. As such, the center of the galaxy spins because of the waves releasing kinetic energy, thus powerful source of energy.

Works Cited

Al-Biruni, Ramsay. The Book of Instruction in the Elements of the Art of Astrology. London: Kessinger Publishing, 2004. Print.

Govert, Schilling. Atlas of Astronomical Discoveries. New York: Springer, 2011. Print.

Ideas of Cosmology. From Our Galaxy to Island Universes. 2012. Web.

McLuhan, Marshall, Gordon, W. Terrence, Lamberti, Elena and Dominique Scheffel-Dunand. The Gutenberg Galaxy Making of Typographic Man G  Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011. Print.

NASA. Galaxy Clusters and How they Live their Lives. 2009.

Seeds, Michael. Horizons Exploring the Universe. New York: Cengage YouBook Series, 2011. Print.

Sparke, Gallagher. Galaxies in the Universe: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Print.

Total masses and mass distributions in clusters-the hydrostatic method. X-ray Emission from Clusters of Galaxies. Ed. Craig L. Sarazin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

General Information

The systematic position of the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx, which was the size of a modern crow, is still questioned. This animal looked like a typical representative of reptiles; it had dry skin and long claws: in addition, Archaeopteryx lived at the same time as other dinosaurs, as the period of its existence is defined as 150 million years ago. At the same time, Archaeopteryx had the ability to fly, plumage, and size of modern birds, so this animal is often considered a direct ancestor of birds. Analysis of wing bone structure shows that Archaeopteryx was capable only of gliding flight, which means that most of the time, the dinosaur lived on the ground or in trees. Archaeopteryx was a typical predator: small prey was grabbed with non-rigid jaws, and to hunt larger game, the feathered dinosaur used long claws on the end of its limbs.

Skull structure

The skull structure of Archaeopteryx resembles that of most small Jurassic lizards or some birds. The lower jaw of the bird was movable, and both the lower and upper jaws were pierced with small conical teeth. The pre-mandibular bones were not fused, which gave Archaeopteryx excellent mobility of the lower jaw. There is a sizeable occipital opening on the backside of the skull, necessary for connection with the spine. It is known that this dinosaur had no beak. It is also noteworthy that the brain of Archaeopteryx was more similar in volume to that of birds than reptiles: this includes the cerebellum. The eyeballs were located on the sides of the skull, so the animal could not clearly see the object in front of it.

Structure of the postcranial skeleton

The overall size of the dinosaur-bird did not exceed 60 centimeters in length and 1-2 kg in weight. The structure of its lower extremities was characteristic of birds: The animal had an opposable thumb that allowed it to balance on the ground. At the same time, Archaeopteryx was also characteristic of dinosaurs because one of the fingers of the hind limb had a long claw. The forelimbs were also developed and had three separated toes. The tail of the bird consisted of 23 vertebrae, which allowed the animal to effectively balance its body while moving, as was the case with the T-Rex. There were no small hooks in the thoracic spine, which means the bird was cold-blooded. It is also interesting that, as such, the clavicles and the animal were absent as they fused into a single complex bone.