Category: Sciences 2502

From the NCVS, it is easiest to derive the means of the various data presented. With that said, this means will not necessarily be particularly meaningful, as most of the numbers shown in the survey are only loosely related to each other. While the report serves well to illustrate the prevalence of different types of victimization across the United States and in different demographic groups, it does so by presenting an array of numbers that it is not meant to sum up. For example, it would be possible to find the mean of the different types of crime, but it would not serve a useful purpose, especially compared to the total number, which would instead illustrate the situation. The report also does not identify any means because it is focused on singular categories and total numbers. Similar considerations apply to population statistics and the other types of data provided, where they do not form a coherent data set for central tendency analysis.

The case for the mode and the median is the same, where finding them for the provided data would not be productive. However, they are also affected by the absence of large and detailed data sets in the survey, as presented in the document. What numbers are provided are small in quantity and large in size, reaching hundreds of thousands and millions. As a result, they do not repeat often enough to justify the usage of the mode. The information provided by the determination of the median would also be largely meaningless, as it would contribute nothing to the understanding of any issues. Overall, the report is not well-suited for central tendency analysis by its nature because it does not provide a coherent dataset for the procedure.

In a globalized world of unprecedented technological development, people have created an illusion of irresistibility in the face of hardship. Indeed, human ambition and cognitive abilities have led humanity to a place where the majority of diseases can be combated, and a machine can replace a large part of hard manual labor. However, in the celebration of congeniality, people have subconsciously separated themselves from the world they lived in, abandoning the realm of natural sciences. In Paul Gildings speech The Earth is full, the speaker dwells on the message that people tend to be driven by economic growth and live beyond the Earths means to pursue infinite growth on a finite planet. In order to dispel this illusion, Gilding presents qualitative evidence that the current course of action leads to the point of no return, as it will most certainly destroy the planet as people know it.

The only way to avoid this distraction before it is too late is to educate oneself on the matter of sociology and natural sciences to understand how the smallest human action may lead to irreversible damage to the Earth, whether it is pollution or steady overpopulation. Perhaps, one of the reasons people tend to be so ignorant in the context of science is their egocentrism and inability to believe in a power stronger than them. For centuries, human life has been worshipped as the most precious thing in society, but instead of perceiving being human as a responsibility, people started seeing themselves as the divine judges of this planet. Extensive knowledge of natural sciences allows a human being to understand how every little thing is interconnected in the universe to create something stronger.

People tend to see themselves as invincible only when they are a community because one person can do nothing to resist the power of nature. Paul Gilding says that people are more used to looking at something like a series of individual things rather than a system where everything exists as a part of a causal link. Indeed, without information and natural sciences, people will continue to fail to recognize their individual roles in a complex social system.

Evolution is often used synonymously with the survival of the fittest or natural selection. However, these concepts are not the same thing and have severe differences. Evolution means the gradual change in a population over time. Natural selection is one of the mechanisms of the evolution process. With the development of civilization, natural selection as a mechanism of evolution has started to lose its significance. People no longer need to hide from predators and hunt for survival. It can create the false impression that humanity no longer demands a sufficient evolutionary mechanism to adapt to the challenging environment (Hendry et al., 2017). However, natural selection proceeds to impact evolution and humanitys adaptive features.

The simplest example is the human ability to digest milk. The gene that regulates the assimilation of lactose by humans has developed in evolution. Initially, a person could only consume human milk in infancy. However, the domestication of cows, goats, and sheep and the development of animal farming made bodies increase the production of a gene that promotes the breakdown of lactose. People with this gene had a greater chance of surviving and passing on this mechanism to the next generation. A recent study confirmed that the gene is still developing as it was 3000 years ago in East Africa. A genetic mutation that promotes the absorption of lactose is now in 95% of Europeans (Are humans still evolving?).

In 2007, a team of scientists from Royal Holloway College conducted research aimed at identifying the latest signs of evolution. They studied about 1,800 genes that have appeared in humans over the past 40,000 years. The overwhelming majority of these genes are correlated with a persons capacity to resist infectious diseases. There are about 12 new genes classified among the inhabitants of Africa which help the body effectively deal with malaria. Residents of large cities have genes that enable them to compete against tuberculosis and leprosy. Thus, the place of residence still considerably affects the formation of immunity (Are humans still evolving?).

It is difficult to observe evolutionary changes due to the extensive generation length. However, studies show that the evolutionary mechanism is still working. External body characteristics may not be as noticeable, but the internal patterns of the body continue to adjust to the specifies of the environment and habitat. The survival of mankind is directly influenced by the constant evolutionary process following the surrounding social and environmental progress.

References

Hendry, A. P., Gotanda, K., M. & Svensson, E. I. (2017). Human influences on evolution, and the ecological and societal consequences. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. Web.

Are humans still evolving? (2021). Yourgenome. Web.

Executive functions are a complex term used as an umbrella for various hypothesized cognitive processes such as planning, memory, attention, inhibition, and self-monitoring performed by the prefrontal lobe. Abstract reasoning is an executive function that helps the human body reach a logical conclusion without physical data, concrete phenomena, or specific instances. It is a generalization about relationships and attributes as opposed to tangible objects.

Inhibitory control is the ability to generate and control impulsive responses through attention and reasoning. It is attributed to anticipation, planning, and goal setting and plays an essential role in allowing and resisting interference from irrelevant stimuli. When one has dysfunction in inhibitory control function, they are vulnerable to several neuropsychiatric disorders. With self-monitoring, one is being able to evaluate ones behavior and determine various approaches that are more appropriate. Morality is the ability to differentiate between intentions as either right or wrong (Banich & Compton, 2018). It relates to the skills of self-regulation and monitoring of human cognitive functions. These functions are considered higher-order functions because they are critical in understanding analogy, judgment, and decision-making. They are mental processes that enable people to plan, focus attention, remember, and work between multiple tasks successfully.

In conclusion, higher-order cognitive functions describe the complicated aspects of thought, thinking in an abstract and conceptual rather than concrete manner, and the ability to deduce the rule of regularity. They help ensure the ability to be flexible and respond to the novelty. People with a deficit in executive function are frequently struggling to monitor themselves and their work. They are unable to set goals and display efforts towards completing and achieving them. Therefore, people cannot focus, pay attention, and achieve the set goals when these functions are disrupted.

Reference

Banich, M., & Compton, R. (2018). Cognitive Neuroscience (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Web.

The Bell Curve publication elaborates on the variations in intelligence in society. Racial differences and genetics have been used as the primary measures in assessing the levels of the intelligence quotient. The authors present an argument that environmental and inherited factors greatly influence human IQ (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994). Based on intelligence levels, human beings have been classified into three, the cognitive elites, the average, and the below average. From the discussion in the Bell Curve, it is evident that though genetics plays a role in determining IQ, it is not the only strict determinant.

Social-economic status, for instance, has been expressed as a significant factor in determining the level of intelligence one can achieve. The study proved that children of wealthy parents had a higher intelligence compared to their poor counterparts. This is because the quality of education provided plays a role in intelligence. The rich can provide their children with a quality education while the poor can only afford low-class education, and in some instances, their children may fail to finish their studies because of school fee constraints (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994). The environment in which one is born and lives is another determinant of Intellectual development. The environment will dictate the interaction and social behaviors one will encounter in their life.

As a parent and a teacher, it is of paramount salience that one understands that a childs intelligence is not confined to genetics but is developed throughout the childs development. To maximize the childs IQ, parents should embrace giving birth to children while they are young, below the age of 35 years (Scherz, 2021). Children born at advanced ages tend to have a slow learning capacity which will affect their IQ. Apart from parents, teachers are relevant as they spend more time with the child. Teachers should help the child in school through programs such as memory and visuospatial activities.

References

Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. A. (1994). The Bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life.

Scherz, P. (2021). Life as an Intelligence Test: Intelligence, Education, and Behavioral Genetics. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 1-17. Web.

Summary of Part Four

The Church openly states its commitment to the protection of the sanctity of human life and therefore advocates against the use of any type of contraceptives. Essentially, the defense of the Church extends to the unborn, as well as to women during and after pregnancy. The Church recognizes marriage as an act by which the husband and the wife show their love to God and cooperate together to create new life (United States Conference, 2018). The utilization of contraceptives is against the concept of the inseparable bond between the two meanings of a marital act, namely, unitive and procreative. Moreover, according to the Church, the use of certain reproductive technologies is not consistent with human dignity. Therefore, only the reproductive assistance which does not violate the bond between the unitive and procreative ends of the marital act and does not substitute it can be approved. The Church also does not permit experiments done on a living embryo, abortion of the fetus, and surrogate motherhood. The Catholic medical institutions must provide prenatal, obstetric, and postnatal services to women, as well as technical assistance to infertile couples and counseling.

Explanations of Concepts

Asexual  Sexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction constitutes a form of reproduction which does not imply a combination of gametes or the growth in the number of chromosomes. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes such as the sperm and the egg.

Mitosis  Meiosis

Mitosis is the process of the division of one cell, which produces two diploid cells and occurs in all organisms, apart from viruses. Meiosis is the process involving two successive cell divisions resulting in four haploid cells and occurring only in fungi, animals, and plants.

Diploid  Haploid

Diploid cells reproduce using mitosis and contain two complete sets of chromosomes, while haploid cells result from meiosis and contain only one complete set of chromosomes.

Gametes

Gametes are special reproductive cells which contain only one set of chromosomes since they are haploid; for instance, female gametes are egg cells, while the male ones are sperm.

Fertilization

Fertilization constitutes a process involving the fusion of male gamete and female gametes, which results in the creation of a zygote.

Zygote

The zygote is the product of fertilization which is also called a fertilized egg, a new cell which gets formed as a result of the fusion of the male and female gametes.

Syngamy

Syngamy is the process of the combining of two cells which leads to the emergence of a cell containing twice the number of chromosomes. Essentially, syngamy is a synonym for fertilization.

Blastocyst

Blastocyst constitutes a stage in embryo development which occurs when the fertilized egg enters the second phase of its growth. Blastocyst occurs from day 5 to day 9 after fertilization.

Implantation

Implantation refers to the process involving the developing embryo, moving through the uterus as a blastocyst contacting with the uterine wall and attaching to it until birth.

Gastrulation

Gastrulation is the process in which the one-dimensional layer embryo turns into of blastula and then reorganizes into the multidimensional and multilayered gastrula.

Embryo  Fetus

The embryo is the human during the early stage of development which involves the formation of the body. An embryo becomes termed a fetus at the end of the 10^th week of pregnancy.

Fertilization Process from Cellular Level to Fetus

During sexual intercourse, sperm flows to the oocyte, the egg cell, which leads to the combining of the genetic information combines of the two gametes. The chromosomes from the sperm and the egg pair and form the zygote, a 46-chromosome cell, which then begins to divide and multiply, becoming a blastocyst (Derrickson, 2019). The zygote then arrives at the uterus as a blastocyst and implants itself into the uterine lining. After 15 days, the cells which will in the future form the embryo become an embryonic disc. Others cells form the first elements of the digestive tract, placenta, and umbilical cord. On the 15^th day, the embryonic period begins, which involves the embryo containing the mesoderm, the endoderm, and the ectoderm, tissues which them contribute to the formation of the human body (Derrickson, 2019). By the 4^th week, the embryo will have a head and a beating heart, while during the next 6 weeks, the embryo receives eyes, limbs, and brain regions. At the end of the 10^th week, the embryo becomes a fetus. The fetus continues to grow as its body systems develop as well as muscles, skin, and facial features.

When Does Human Life Begin

Although the beginning of human life is a controversial issue and often can be viewed as a philosophical matter, the research shows that life begins at the moment of conception. According to Barresi and Gilbert (2019), conception constitutes the stage when any type of organism, including a human, starts to develop. Therefore, it is possible to state that conception is the first landmark in the development of any human being and, therefore, the start of their life. As outlined by Singh (2016), life takes place in the human body once the fusion of two unique and complementary cells, the oocyte and the spermatozoon, occurs. Essentially, researchers openly support the idea that life begins at the moment of conception, dispelling the notion that life only starts after the formation of the embryo, the fetus, or the brain.

References

Barresi, M.J., & Gilbert, S.F. (2019). Developmental biology (12^th ed.). Sinauer Associates.

Derrickson, B. (2019). Human physiology. Wiley Global Education.

Singh, K. (2016). Integrated approach to obstetrics and gynaecology. World Scientific.

United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. (2018). Ethical and religious directives for Catholic health care services (6^th ed.). Web.

Introduction

Human thinking is complex and contradictory; constant delusions, illusions, in which consciousness is immersed, can accompany people throughout his life, wherever they work, whatever they do, and wherever they live. The discipline of thinking and its upbringing is a necessary component of the development of children and adolescents, who will subsequently choose the path of life along which they will develop. Adequate thinking and logical ways to communicate peoples position to other people come in handy not only in science, business, or teaching. Aspects of reasoning, structured storytelling affect human communication every day. People who have challenged their everyday thinking can compose literate texts, publish them and participate in various topics. Others are interested in listening to such people; their speech is remembered.

Logical argumentation and a well-built thinking outline are critical in conducting business conferences, round tables, and negotiating with partners. It will help to win in disputes with opponents, defending the sphere of their interests and field of activity. An excellent method for challenging the prejudices rooted in our minds is the scientific method. The scientific method implies adherence to several rules and principles and abandoning the pattern of thinking that is familiar and convenient for many people.

The Role of Evidence

One of the most important differences between the scientific method of thinking and the mythological or religious method is evidence. This evidence can be any data obtained from an experiment or any other type of verification (Lau & Chan, 2017). Evidence-based thinking accepts predictions and assumptions that must be explained and grounded. Faith and tradition are not aids for forecasts and assumptions. These assumptions later become the content of one or another scientific theory.

Deductive Method and Criteria for Hypotheses

The scientific method is based on the deduction method developed by René Descartes. According to this method, people must test any theory and hypothesis (Lau & Chan, 2017). Descartes calls this test a doubt, subsequently bringing the verification to a radical doubt when he begins to doubt the existence of the world around him and his presence. In a strictly scientific sense, this method means that the universalization of verified statements is complex and, in some situations, impossible since a person can only claim specific verified data. By checking a particular technique for work speed, a person can only vouch for one specific vacuum cleaner or laptop, but not for the entire equipment. To universalize a scientific statement requires painstaking work to arrive at proof. It also opens up a characteristic of the scientific method, which states that hypotheses must be testable, and another person, apart from the researcher himself, must also have the ability to repeat the test or experiment. Thinking based on this method cannot rely on its uniqueness and exclusivity. No knowledge or information would be available only to one person.

If people follow the scientific method, their theories and hypotheses must adjust according to specific criteria. Different researchers distinguish their unique criteria, ranking them according to their importance. As already mentioned, ideas and theories must be consistent with experiments or observations; also, theories can adequately predict the future based on arguments. Statements are obtained by a scientific method that challenges everyday thinking to reveal the internal mechanisms of the processes of the surrounding world. It is also evident that such theories should be simple in their formulations and valuable for further research (Wooley et al., 2018). These theories should also correlate and in no way contradict the information already received and confirmed.

The Category of Causality in the Scientific Method and Basic Rules

If people want to build structured storytelling and reasoning, their thinking must make transparent causal relationships. It is vital to see the root cause of some events or to have the mental tools to find this cause (Convertini, 2020). People often make a logical mistake in everyday thinking, substituting concepts and passing off other factors as the cause, usually parallel to the event but coinciding in time.

There are about five basic rules for investigating the causes, called Mills methods. The agreement method states that it is possible to find a common factor that will cause a given outcome; people need to see this factor (Lau & Chan, 2017). The method of distinction is based on the search for an element that distinguishes one case from the other; the joint method combines the previous two methods. The method of concomitant variation states: in the research process, it is possible to distinguish the variability of a factor, the strengthening of which will increase the consequences that have happened due to this factor. The residual method is similar to an unconventional method of elimination. Some aspects became the reasons for several events; one stands out, which was probably the reason for the remaining events.

Causality is a complex philosophical category that requires reflection on an abstract level. Such categories do not tolerate unambiguous statements without careful preliminary consideration. It is the trap for ordinary thinking, striving for generalization and universalization, and answers to all questions. The scientific method allows people to keep thinking in constant tension because even the correlation of different events can be accidental (Wooley et al., 2018). Sometimes ordinary thinking substitutes cause for effect, and sometimes it misses that cause and effect (so-called and assumed) may have one common cause.

My Critical Reasoning

I could improve my critical reasoning through training, logic classes. Thoughtful viewing of the debate would also help me articulate thoughts and arguments clearly. Since the primary tool of the scientific method is an experiment, I could conscientiously study the rules that underlie it. Investigations require a team of disinterested scientists, suggesting that fundamental problems to be solved dont need to be tackled alone. Discussion and possible contestation of the results would also improve my critical argumentation.

Articles Example

According to Wolley et al.s (2018) article, training in logic could help students since the scientific method is tied to essential aspects of learning. Without mastering the scientific method, whole sets of subjects in school (for instance, STEM), college and university suffer. However, the articles authors insist on a more individual approach to the scientific method problem in students. According to the report, teachers should pay attention to the unique sets of difficulties students face.

I suppose that this is not entirely correct; the introduction of the scientific method into the educational curriculum of colleges and schools may not become the goal of teachers or even a specific school, but the plan, first of all, of the education system. Students need to popularize logic at the moment. The problems of perceiving logical constructs and structures of argumentation may indeed be unique. Still, at the moment, it seems possible to organize widespread debates, discussions with a detailed analysis of the argumentation.

Conclusion

It is essential to say that the patterns of the scientific method are difficult to perceive in the initial stages, so mastering the scientific method is similar to a challenge to thinking. However, the usefulness of this challenge is beyond doubt, and this applies to all areas where a person can try himself: politics, medicine, business, teaching. Errors in argumentation accompany a person throughout his life; this is inevitable. It is vital to have a critical eye on human abilities and rigorously follow scientific principles on the path to minimizing them.

References

Convertini, J. (2020). An interdisciplinary approach to investigate preschool childrens implicit inferential reasoning in scientific activities. Research in Science Education, 51(1), 171186. Web.

Lau, J., & Chan, J. (2017). Scientific methodology. Critical Thinking Web.

Woolley, J. S., Deal, A. M., Green, J., Hathenbruck, F., Kurtz, S. A., Park, T. K., Pollock, S. V., Transtrum, M. B., & Jensen, J. L. (2018). Undergraduate students demonstrate common false scientific reasoning strategies. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 27, 101113. Web.

Introduction

An essential part of agricultural science is the study of the microbial diversity of soil samples near the growth zone of cultivated plants. Three plant lines, Pepper, Blueberry, and Turf, grown in different locations, were used in the present study. A time-difference longitudinal analysis assessed how much the soil temperature affected the representation of bacteria and fungi on the soil samples. Thus, a vital goal of the present laboratory experiment was to determine general patterns of the relationship between soil temperature and bacterial and fungal abundance in samples for different plants.

Methodology

Sample Preparation

Three agricultural plant lines were used for analysis, including Pepper, Blueberry, and Dern. Soil samples from the active growth zone of each plant were collected in a unique agrocenosis location for which different growing conditions were used. Differences in agricultural production techniques, including soil textures, temperatures, and ecosystem biodiversity, were crucial to creating a diverse sample. Thus, analytical work was performed on three soil samples for different plants grown under individual crop conditions.

Experiment Setting

The design of the laboratory work included three consecutive tests with a difference in study time when ambient temperatures were unequal. The first was conducted on the last dates of September (28.9°C), the second test was conducted in early November (22.8°C), and the third two weeks later, in mid-November (15.6) 2021. Soil samples were isolated from different locations, with radical changes in soil texture. For Blueberry, it was clay soil; for Pepper, it was loam; and for Turf, it was sandy soil.

Procedure

Initially, it was necessary to dissolve the crop samples in sterile phosphate buffer. To do this, 10 g of each sample was placed in individual bottles containing 90 g of a buffer. After vigorous stirring, each of the bottles was left to stand. Microbial content studies were conducted using a 24-multiwell plate (Corning, 2018). 0.9 mL of phosphate buffer was placed in the first five wells, followed by the addition of 0.1 mL of previously prepared solutions with a dilution factor of 10^-1. Subsequently, solutions with a dilution factor of 10^-3 and 10^-4 were obtained using this procedure. Thus, four experimental lines were obtained for each analyzed species: in total, twelve observations.

Twenty-four carefully labeled Petri plates were used to analyze the presence of fungal and bacterial microorganisms, twelve for each species. Bacterial microorganisms were incubated on nutrient agar, and RBG was used for fungi (HIMEDIA, 2019). 0.1 mL of each dilution obtained previously was transferred to a labeled Petri plate. A hockey stick sterilized on an alcohol burner was used to distribute the substance evenly. All transferred samples were placed in the dark for incubation at 30°C. Bacterial samples were removed from the incubator and transferred to counting after 24 hours and fungal samples after 96 hours.

Results

Because the soil samples were collected at different times, it was necessary to make quantitative longitudinal measurements of bacterial and fungal microorganisms. The use of four dilution lines was necessary to determine the maximum number of microorganisms. This value was counted by ECCT microscopic observation of the samples, after which specific quantities were calculated using formula (1) (Introduction to the enumeration of bacteria, 2021). Equation (1) shows an example of a calculation for the first September test to determine the number of bacteria in pepper soil. It is noteworthy that the maximum number of bacteria differed depending on the degree of dilution for fungi and bacteria. Thus, bacteria were counted at 10^-3 and 10^-4 dilution factors and fungi at 10^-2 and 10^-1. The numerical results of each such measurement were entered into the summary Table 1.

Table 1. Results of quantitative microbial presence measurements for each of the crops at different dates (all data are presented in CFU/g).

Discussion

The focus of the present experiment was to determine the effects of temperature on the presence of bacterial and fungal microorganisms in soil samples. Fungal and bacterial samples were incubated at the same temperature for different times: fungi took four times longer to grow effectively. The results from Table 1 were statistically processed to determine key trends. Figure 1 shows the dynamics of fungal microbial abundance as a function of temperature for the different agricultural samples. It is noticeable that microbial abundance was generally higher in Pepper, with the maximum fungal presence occurring in early November when the soil cooled somewhat. No increase in fungi was observed for turf in mid-November.

Figure 2 reflects similar trends: the number of microorganisms near Pepper was the highest. At the same time, the maximum representation was characteristic of the beginning of fall, and as the temperature of the environment decreased, the number of bacteria also decreased. One can also see that bacterial representation near Turf was minimal, different from the data shown in Figure 1. In addition, the number of bacteria in Blueberry was lower than in Turf only when the soil was cooled to the maximum. In addition, bacterial growth over the whole time was on average 70.6 times higher than fungal growth.

Conclusion

The study of microbial representation in soil samples of agricultural plants is of value to agricultural sciences because it covers problems related to environmental safety. The present work showed that the abundance of bacteria and fungi on the incubation isolates for Pepper, Blueberry, and Turf were different for three months. The critical differences concerned the dynamics of microbial representation as a function of time and the different numbers of microorganisms in different plants. A general conclusion can be drawn from all of the facts presented above that answer the research question. Microbial representation on crops is a function of soil temperature, but no universal rule for this relationship has been determined.

References

Corning. (2018). Surface areas and guide for recommended medium volumes for Corning® cell culture vessels [PDF document].

HIMEDIA. (2019). Rose Bengal chloramphenicol agar [PDF document]. Web.

Introduction to enumeration of bacteria. (2021). The LibreTexts.

There are several types of twins, but monozygotic and dizygotic twins are the most common. Monozygotic twins occur when an egg splits into two equal parts into the early stages of embryonic development for unknown reasons. Monozygotic twins are always the same sex; they have the same set of genes, the same blood types, and are very similar in appearance. Unlike dizygotic twins, monozygotic twins are born equally often in all nationalities and age groups.

One egg fertilized by one sperm is divided into two, less often three or four, parts, and these parts begin to develop independently. It is pretty essential at what time stage in the development of the embryo this division occurred. Separation can occur during the first two weeks of embryonic development, resulting in several forms of monozygotic twins. In a third of cases, separation occurs within the first three days (Jonsson 29). In this case, each embryo forms its placenta and its fetal bladder. If separation occurs at this stage, the children will develop as two separate organisms but with identical genes (Jonsson 28). In most cases, separation occurs on the 4th-9th day of development, then one placenta and two fetal bladders are formed.

Since identical genes are formed in children, the sex will always be the same in monozygotic twins. Identicals are born approximately every three hundred births. It is believed that the predisposition to the birth of twins is transmitted through the maternal line (Jonsson 31). This statistic is valid for natural insemination, while artificial insemination, such as IVF, ICSI, has different statistics. However, regarding the birth of twins of the same sex, the type of fertilization also does not matter  all the same, the twins will be of the same sex if they are monozygotic.

Work Cited

Jonsson, Hakon, et al. Differences between germline genomes of monozygotic twins. Nature Genetics, vol. 53, no. 1, 2021, pp. 27-34. Web.

General Information

Seymouria is an extinct animal of the genus Reptiliomorpha, which inhabited the United States and Germany about 280 million years ago: thus, Seymouria was among the first four-legged animals to live on land. As is clear, the animals existence occurred during the dry Permian period, so adaptation to a terrestrial environment was necessary for successful survival. Adaptation to the terrestrial way of life in the quadruped was realized through dry, keratinous skin, the functional ability to retain fluids in the body for a long time, and long, powerful paws. Life away from water bodies changed the amphibians diet: Seymouria mainly fed small reptiles and insects. At the same time, the offspring were incubated in bodies of water where females came after mating with males: for this reason, Seymouria larvae had external gill slits.

Skull structure

When analyzing the cranial structure of Seymouria, many analogies with amphibians, true reptiles, and early tetrapods are found. In particular, the lower jaw of the ancient animal is movable and has an opening located in the inner partition. The upper jaw of Seymouria was covered with massive fangs and teeth, and they were located not only along the edge of the jaw but also on the palate. The teeth had a labyrinthodont configuration, which among others, defines Seymouria as an early tetrapod. In addition, the skull of the animal had a flat structure, and a small opening for the pineal gland was found on its upper part, as is true for mammals. It is interesting that the bones of the skull of the male animal were, on average, thicker and more robust than those of the females. This becomes evidence of a possible mechanism of a struggle between males for resources and mating.

Structure of the postcranial skeleton

Adaptation to a terrestrial lifestyle had the most significant effect on the structure of the spine and limb-girdle of the extinct animal. The length of the animal did not exceed 60 centimeters, and the skeletal structure from above shows a strong retraction towards the limbs of the central axis of the body, which is a characteristic feature of reptiles. The Seymourias spine had a total of 24 vertebrae, with one rib attached to each of the vertebrae on both sides of the thoracic spine. The cervical section of Seymourias spine was poorly differentiated and almost invisible. Seymouria, as a representative of early tetrapods, had short but solid and robust limbs, each of which contained five fingers. The bones of the hands are perfectly developed, but the general development of the limbs still hints at the inability of Seymouria to move quickly. The body ended in a long tail.