Category: Sciences 2502

Introduction

A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence caused by errors in DNA copying during replication contact with ionizing radiation, mutagens, or viral infection. Cancer is a good example of a germline mutation that may be handed down from parents to offspring (Karamysheva et al., 2020). Somatic mutations arise in body cells; therefore, they are not passed down to offspring, such as human genetic illness that is called cystic fibrosis.

Main body

The amount and sequence of the 20 amino acids produced by cells determine the function of a protein. DNA comprises four nitrogenous bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, and each one has its codon that encodes the amino acid. Changes in DNA can affect amino acid sequence, reducing or inactivating protein function, and the genes regulatory regions DNA sequence can affect the timing and availability of its protein, causing cellular dysfunction (Karamysheva et al., 2020). Silent mutation passes unnoticed because of their lack of phenotypic mutations.

Base pair substitutions can result in mutations, for example, point mutations. Many mutations alter the function of the encoded protein by putting an incorrect amino acid in the appropriate place (Karamysheva et al., 2020). The hemoglobin component essential for carrying oxygen in red blood cells is faulty due to mutations in the beta-globin gene (HBB). Hemoglobin S is a protein with one amino acid altered. This facilitates the development of long, brittle mutant protein fibers inside red blood cells. These fibers damage red blood cells, leading them to expand into sickles leading to sickle cell disease.

Chromosomal mutations impact many genes and change their structure, function, and inheritance. DNA breaks and incorrect rejoining may cause this type of mutation. Among the results are deletion, duplication, inversion, and translocation. Aneuploidy is a genetic disease characterized by chromosomal loss or gain (Karamysheva et al., 2020). Due to an extra chromosome 21, persons with Down syndrome have three copies of the genes rather than two, causing aneuploidy. Chromosome sets can be added or deleted on their whole, resulting in chromosomal mutations. Polyploidy can occur when more than two chromosomal groups are present.

Conclusion

In conclusion, mutations are random alterations, mostly harmful, but others may be advantageous under specific situations. Mutations can result in diseases in the human body due to the changes in the DNA sequence; this can occur in point, chromosomal, somatic, and germline mutations (Karamysheva et al., 2020). The mutation is the primary source of genetic diversity used in natural selection, both in plants and animals.

Reference

Karamysheva, T. V., Gayner, T. A., Muzyka, V. V., Orishchenko, K. E., & Rubtsov, N. B. (2020). Two separate cases: Complex chromosomal abnormality involving three chromosomes and small supernumerary marker chromosome in patients with impaired reproductive function. Genes, 11(12), 1511.

One would ask whether New York (NY) is unique compared to other cities globally. It is renowned that people come to NY expecting a better future for themselves and their children. Staying indifferent to New York is quite challenging, and people usually get very distinct feelings. Buschs work Kickflipping New York describes this place as an exceptional opportunity to change peoples life and introduce their names to the world (1). By contrast, the author White questions the controversial history of NY and wonders if the city is still functioning in his work This is New York (3). Like any other big city, New York offers many opportunities, but birches might be quite expensive for them. This place is so diverse and multicultural that anyone can find their niche here if they want. However, newbies may have to put up with some rather controversial things to achieve this.

Thesis statement: My view is that NYs uniqueness lies in its combination of all the best, including diversity and openness, and the worst like hidden poverty and pollution, unlike other global cities.

Significantly, New Yorks openness is one of the critical features distinguishing it from other cities in the United States. In NY, one can choose where to live, a preferred lifestyle to lead, and can make any form of demand as the citys openness offers according to individual wishes. Busch says, Its plurality, the rhythm of order and disorder, the splendid chaos that makes up the urban landscape, all are such that you just have to choose your terms (Busch 1). Yet, everyone must work hard to enjoy their choices. NY is unique for it has people from the world over, with different cultures, religious beliefs, and many differences but still get along peacefully. Talented and daring people from all over the world come to NY in search of opportunities to enhance knowledge, and skills and find their place in life. It is especially prominent in educational institutions, where student groups are becoming more inclusive and diverse due to different exchange programs. Everyone is welcome, though this openness includes constant change and unpredictability. Therefore, while diversity and openness make NY an interesting place to be, they also challenge some regarding unpredictability.

Another reason making NY unique is that one does not have to be born there to feel like a New Yorker, unlike other places. For instance, White emphasizes that one does not have to be born in NY to be a New Yorker while to be a Londoner you must be born in London (2). White suggests three types of NY including, people born in NY, the commuters, and the people born elsewhere but come to NY searching for something that the third group is more significant. As such, people choosing NY as their final destination help the city for they come with new talents, ideas, art, and cultures, bring uniqueness, and a refreshing that keeps NY moving. Entering any educational place, people can see many newcomers from all over the world. It is always interesting to ask them the story of their life and the goals that guided them to the city. As a rule, such people have many ambitions and ideas on how to make the commune better and more diverse. Different experiences encourage looking at the current situation from varying angles and winning the most efficient solution.

Finally, but in contrast to the above, is the existing unimaginable hidden poverty. In NY are thousands of homeless persons, constituting a significant section of the citys population. For instance, garbage from households and businesses is stored in plastic bags and disposed to sidewalks to be picked up by trucks. Spoilt food waste produces stinking creeks all over. There are garbage bag skyscrapers everywhere with rats. The heavy smell hovering in the city, and masses of garbage and plastic on the streets harm the general psycho-emotional condition of the townspeople and negatively affect the state of life. Numerous studies show a close connection between the level of pollution in a place of residence and the psycho-emotional state. No matter how beautiful New York is, a large amount of garbage decreases the pleasant impressions not only of permanent residents but also tourists and exchange students. (Shmool et al. 5). White notes, By rights New York should have destroyed itself long ago, from panic or fire or rioting or failure of some vital supply line in its circulatory system or from some deep labyrinthine short circuit (White 3). Such scenes are not displayed on NYs postcards but such is unheard of in cities like Moscow, Paris, or Berlin. Therefore, NY has a disgusting side that separates and distinguishes it from other global cities.

In summary, NY is a contradicting city, which defines its uniqueness. Both good and evil are combined, which could make one love or hate the city. What makes NY outstanding from global cities remains its ability to lie in its combination of the best and worst, unlike other global cities, and accommodate everyone and everything. All people have a chance of living better and feeling at home. Ultimately, NYs power lies in its people.

Recent research on this topic has considered psychosocial stress as a possible key factor modifying the relationship between chemical exposures, including air pollution or lead, and adverse health outcomes. Measurement of psychosocial stress differs from chemical pollution exposure assessment, because the physiologic impact of non-chemical stressors is mediated through individual perception. Psychosocial stress is often a result of exposure to social stressors (i.e., an event, condition, or external stimuli posing a physical or psychological challenge). When individuals evaluate stressors as imposing demands that are beyond their ability to cope, a sense of distress results; with repeated exposure to such stressors this sense of distress can become chronic. Chronic psychosocial stress is associated with negative emotional states and maladaptive behaviors that influence immune, endocrine, and metabolic function to produce cumulative wear-and-tear  often referred to as allostatic load. These physiologic changes may alter individuals reactivity to chemical exposures (e.g., pathogens, pollutants) and increase risk for multiple disease etiologies. As such, individuals and communities who are chronically exposed to social stressors may be more susceptible to adverse health effects of environmental chemicals. The field of stress measurement primarily relies on individual questionnaire or biomarker data to assess the occurrence of stressful events, conditions that might produce stressful experiences, recent perceptions of stress, or the mental health sequelae of chronic stress (i.e., depression, anxiety).

Works Cited

Busch, Akiko. Kickflipping New York. New York Times, 2004.

Shmool, Jessie, et al. Social Stressors and Air Pollution Across New York City Communities: A Spatial Approach for Assessing Correlations Among Multiple Exposures. Environment Health, vol. 13, no. 91, 2014. Web.

White, E. B. This is New York. New York: Harper & Bros, 1949.

The outstanding figure of the scientific Revolution, Isaac Newton, was born on January 4, 1643. His place of birth is the small British village of Woolsthorpe, located in the county of Lincolnshire. A frail, prematurely abandoned boy from his mothers womb came to this world on the eve of the English Civil War, shortly after his fathers death and shortly before the celebration of Christmas. The child was so weak that for a long time, he was not even baptized. The father of the future genius scientist was a small farmer but quite successful and wealthy. After the death of Newton Sr., his family received several hundred acres of fields.

When Isaac was 16 years old, his mother took him back from school to the estate. However, the guy was only engaged in constructing ingenious mechanisms. The young mans school teacher, his uncle, and his acquaintance (a member of Cambridge Trinity College) from Grantham, where the future world-famous scientist attended school, persuaded Newtons mother to allow her son to continue his studies (West, 2020). As a result of collective persuasion, Isaac completed his studies and successfully passed the entrance examinations at the University of Cambridge. As a student, Newton had sizar status. This meant that he did not pay for his education, but he had to do various jobs at the university or provide services to more affluent students.

The powerful apparatus of Newtonian mechanics, its versatility, and its ability to explain and describe the broadest range of natural phenomena, especially astronomical ones, had a tremendous impact on many areas of physics and chemistry.

Newton wrote that it would be desirable to deduce other natural phenomena from the principles of mechanics. When explaining some optical and chemical phenomena, he used a mechanical model. In-depth studies of the natural sciences and mathematics were combined with religiosity in Newton. Newton wrote an essay about the prophet Daniel and an interpretation of the Apocalypse. After Newtons death, a scientific and philosophical trend emerged, which received the name of Newtonianism.

The main questions of mechanics, physics, and mathematics developed by Newton were closely related to the scientific problems of his time. Newton began to be interested in optics as a student; his research in this area was associated with the desire to eliminate the shortcomings of optical devices. In the first optical work he reported to the Royal Society of London in 1672, Newton expressed his views on the corporeality of light (corpuscular hypothesis of light). This work caused a stormy controversy, in which R. Hooke opposed the corpuscular views of Newton on the nature of light (at that time, wave representations dominated). Newton formulated a hypothesis that combined corpuscular and waves concepts of light.

Newton was the first to consider the primary method of describing any physical activity through the medium of force. Defining the concepts of space and time, the scientist separated absolutely stationary space from limited movable space, calling it relative, and uniformly flowing, absolute, true-time, calling it duration, from relative, apparent time, which serves as a measure of duration. . These concepts of time and space formed the basis of classical mechanics. Then the scientist formulated his famous axioms, or laws of motion: the law of inertia (Newtons first law). He formulated the law of proportionality of momentum to force (Newtons second law), and the law of equality of action and reaction (Newtons third law.). From the 2nd and 3rd laws, he deduces the law of conservation of momentum for a closed system. All these laws the scientist outlined in work called Principles.

Newtons laws  depending on which angle people look at them  represent either the end of the beginning or the end of classical mechanics. In any case, this is a turning point in the history of physical science  a brilliant compilation of all the knowledge accumulated by that historical moment about the motion of material bodies within the framework of physical theory, which is now commonly called classical mechanics. We can say that the history of modern physics and the natural sciences, in general, began with Newtons laws of motion. Newtons three laws gave physicists the tools necessary to begin a comprehensive observation of all phenomena occurring in the universe.

The most important achievement of Newton was the formulation of the three laws of motion. Newtons first law states that a body moves rectilinearly and uniformly relative to inertial reference frames or is at rest if the sum of the forces acting on it is zero. Newtons second law establishes a connection between a force and the acceleration caused by it: the force acting on a body, regardless of its nature, is equal to the product of the bodys mass by the acceleration imparted by this force. Newtons third law indicates that the action of one body on another has a mutual character: bodies act on each other by forces of the same nature, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Newtons laws allow people to solve any problem in mechanics (Permana et al., 2021). If the forces applied to the body are known, one can find the acceleration of the body at any moment, at any point of its trajectory.

Acceleration is found in the known forces and mass of the body. Its speed and displacement are calculated for any period and, finally, the coordinates of the body at any moment. For this, the initial conditions must be known  the initial position and the initial velocity of the body. For example, the scientists directing a spacecrafts flight, of course, need to know in advance the spacecrafts position at any given time. In this case, scientists need to use Newtons laws. Scientists know the initial position of the ship on the launch pad and its initial speed. They also know the forces that act on the ship at any point on the trajectory. Using these data, they solve the problem of mechanics as applied to space flight.

Mathematical Principles are rightfully considered one of the most important works in physics in the entire history of humanity. Newtons new approach made it possible for the first time to explain how, taking into account the force of gravity, the planets move around the Sun in elliptical orbits (Schilt, 2020). Scientists believe that physical laws are valid for everything in the universe. Newton described how the movement of a body changes under the influence of gravity. Much later, Einstein improved this knowledge and showed that the motion of the planets is influenced not by any particular force but by the curvature of space-time.

Thanks to Newton, the movements of bodies on Earth and in space were explained due to the same laws, which was the birth of a new physics and astronomy. The scientist influenced chemistry: his idea of attraction as the basis of chemical affinity determined the development of theoretical thought in this science. Newtons work is now considered the culmination of the early modern scientific revolution. Although his predecessors  Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler  laid the foundation for this path, describing the phenomena they observed, Newton changed the very subject of natural philosophy  what we now call physics  by searching for universal laws of nature at the forefront.

In Principles, Newton investigated the motion of bodies in a continuous medium (gas, liquid) depending on their movement speed and gave the results of his experiments on studying the swing of pendulums in air and liquids. Here he considered the speed of sound propagation in elastic media. Using mathematical calculations, Newton proved the inconsistency of Descartess hypothesis, which explained the motion of celestial bodies with the help of the concept of various vortices in the ether filling the Universe. Newton found the law of cooling a heated body. In the same work, he paid considerable attention to the law of mechanical similarity. In Principles, for the first time, a general scheme of a rigorous mathematical approach to the solution of any specific problem of terrestrial or celestial mechanics is given.

Newtons theory of the motion of celestial bodies, based on the law of universal gravitation, was recognized by the most prominent English scientists of that time and was powerfully negatively met on the European continent. The opponents of Newtons views (particularly on the issue of gravitation) were the Cartesians, whose views dominated Europe, especially in France, in the first half of the 18th century. A convincing argument in favor of Newtons theory was the discovery of the flattened nest of the globe at the poles, calculated by him  and this is instead of the bulges expected by Descartes teachings.

In the 17th century, Newton was not the only person who contemplated the force that causes bodies to fall to Earth and objects in space. A contemporary of Newton, Robert Hooke, also explored these questions. But Newton was the first to give the correct answers. Isaac Newton was a deeply religious person who believed that objects exist in space (which is absolute) because they live in the divine mind. The basis of space, according to Newton, is hidden from our eyes and is given in sensation only to God. The scientist thought a lot about the issues of immortality, and Newtons biographers still argue whether he can be considered an alchemist.

Isaac Newton was a mysterious and controversial figure. But one thing can be said for sure: for the first time in history, a scientist discovered the laws of nature, which obey all moving bodies in the Universe. The work of A.C. Clairaud played a special role in strengthening the authority of Newtons theory by taking into account the disturbing action of Jupiter and Saturn on the motion of Halleys comet. The successes of Newtons theory in solving problems of celestial mechanics were crowned with the discovery of the planet Neptune (1846), based on calculations of perturbations in Jupiters orbit.

References

Permana, H., Khotimah, S. H., Muliyati, D. & Fauzi, B. (2021). Augmented reality in the poster: Introduce sir Isaac Newton in the study of mechanics. AIP Conference Proceeding, 2320 (1), 123-128. Web.

Schilt, C. J. (2020). Created in our image: How Isaac Newton was fashioned as a scientist and forgotten as a scholar. The University of Chicago Press Journals, 5(1), 217-225.

West, B. J. (2020). Sir Isaac Newton Stranger in a Strange Land. Entropy, 22(11), 1204. Web.

Analysis of qualitative studies implies considerations of not only the methodology but also the meaning behind the scholarly exploration carried out by researchers. The goals of the study by Giannitrapani et al. (2018) is to develop an understanding of the critical roles that pharmacists take in the primary care of pain and to recognize limitations in expanding and assuming such roles. The study is of qualitative nature and involved real participants, primary care clinical pharmacists from the Veterans Health Administration (VA) setting. With the help of a two-part qualitative model, including semi-structured interviews and focus groups, the researchers carried out an interdisciplinary team-focused model. Thus, Giannitrapani et al. (2018) used the qualitative research approach to explore the clinical topic at hand. Qualitative research deals with non-numerical data and seeking to interpret meanings from the data to help understand the phenomena being researched. For the scholars, the meaning of qualitative study is attributed to the possibility to measure non-numerical data represented by the personal reflections and feedback provided by participants. By combining two qualitative models, the value of participants personal accounts was increased because of the opportunity to consider them from multiple angles. Although, qualitative research has its limitations associated with data collection, sampling, and the impact of scholars personal opinions.

Since qualitative methods are concerned with human interactions, it is imperative that researchers understand their values and predispositions and acknowledge them as inseparable from the research process (Roulston and Shelton 2015, 333). Thus, when conducting their study with the help of focus groups and semi-structured interviews, researchers will have to acknowledge the subjectivity that they may have in the study process. Any personal views on the subject matter only apply to study participants and can, therefore, be included in qualitative data collection and analyses. Any personal views of researchers are therefore left behind in order to ensure study objectivity. In a qualitative study, bias is a threat of validity and can be caused by such issues as sampling, the personal characteristics of researchers, the responses of participants to the research process, instrumentation flaws, confirmation bias, and others (Roulston and Shelton 2015). Importantly, Giannitrapani et al. (2018) identified potential sources of bias that could have influenced the findings of the study (7). For example, the study used an interviewee as an author while also employing snowball sampling for identifying clinical pharmacists to include in the interviews and focus groups.

Both focus groups and qualitative interviews are intended for capturing the perceptions and stories of participants. Although, as noted by Kennedy-Lewis, Murphy, and Grosland (2016), the purpose for doing so as well as the nature and the conformity of facts in such stories will differ from one participant to another. The interviews implemented with clinical pharmacists revealed a range of perspectives from different practitioners in regards to their experience with pain management therapies. This aligns with the narrative inquiry approach that aims to reveal a variety of perspectives and attitudes that would help answer relevant research questions. Narrative inquiry entails collecting information through storytelling, which was carried out by allowing researchers to develop a narrative of experiences offered by participants.

Criteria of quality in qualitative research should also be considered in the discussion of the approach applied in the study. According to Tracy (2010), such criteria include a worthy topic, rich research rigor, sincerity, credibility, resonance, significant contribution, ethics, and meaningful coherence. For instance, Giannitrapani et al.s (2018) research topic was relevant, significant, interesting, and timely because of the high need to expand the scope of practice of clinical pharmacologists to help care for patients with extreme pain. Sincerity is an important component of qualitative research because it enables scholars to study relevant topics from the perspective of transparency, vulnerability, and honesty (Tracy 2010). Semi-structured interviews and focus groups all call participant to be honest about their views in order to establish an environment of transparency in the exchanges between participants and researchers. As suggested by Ortlipp (2008), engaging with the idea of transparency in the research process is an important consideration because of the need to make participants experiences visible and impactful. Also, the study by Giannitrapani et al. (2018) had meaningful coherence because it achieved what it purported to be about as well as used methods and procedures that would fit its stated goals. The components of quality in qualitative research also align with the principle of study from a personal perspective.

The final point of consideration regarding the use of the qualitative methodology in the study by Giannitrapani et al. (2018) is associated with embedding philosophical assumptions into qualitative studies. Depending on the approach taken by researchers, in some qualitative studies, the philosophical assumptions are hidden from view and can be deducted, while in other studies, the philosophy is made explicit, with clearly described characteristics of qualitative inquiry (Creswell and Poth 2017). In their research, Giannitrapani et al. (2018) do not discuss philosophical underpinnings explicitly. It is expected that the scholars used the postpositivist assumptions, which suggest that process of inquiry is developed on the series of logically relates steps as well as multiple perspectives from participants instead of a single reality, with the exposure to rigorous methods of qualitative data collection and analysis (Creswell and Poth 2017). In the example of Giannitrapani et al.s (2018) research, two waves of data emerged as a result of rigor based on logically relates steps. The first wave of data was from focus groups, it was recorded, professionally transcribed, and cleaned from unnecessary information while the second wave of data included transcripts of semi-structured interviews. While the postpositivist approach was not clearly identified in the study, the dependence on research inquiry and the various perspectives that data collection and analysis can reveal.

To conclude, qualitative research was applied in the reviewed study to understand how the study participants experienced the world and how they deal with the main barriers that impact their practice. The research by Giannitrapani et al. (2018) revealed the need to expand the role of clinical pharmacists when supporting the care of complex pain patients to reduce the burden on physicians as well as establishing better guidance in pain care that is based on reliable drug treatment. It was possible to reach such conclusions through exploring data on the personal views of clinical pharmacologists, which helped to facilitate transparency, objectivity, credibility, and significance of contribution, all of which are positive indicators of quality in qualitative studies. However, qualitative research is limited by bias in sampling and data collected, which should be considered by scholars when discussing research shortcomings in order to illustrate a high degree of objectivity and transparency.

Bibliography

Creswell, John, and Cheryl Poth. 2017. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design. New York: Sage Publications.

Giannitrapani, Karleen, Glassman, Peter, Vang, Derek, McKelvey, Jeremiah, Day, Thomas, Dobscha, Steven, and Karl A. Lorenz. 2018. Expanding the Role of Clinical Pharmacists on Interdisciplinary Primary Care Teams for Chronic Pain and Opioid Management. BMC Family Practice 19 (107): 1-9.

Kennedy-Lewis, Brianna, Amy Murphy, and Tanetha Grosland. 2016. Using Narrative Inquiry to Understand Persistently Disciplined Middle School Students. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 29 (1): 1-28.

Ortlipp, Michelle. 2008. Keeping and Using Reflective Journals in the Qualitative Research Process. The Qualitative Report 14 (4): 695-705.

Roulston, Kathryn, and Stephanie Anne Shelton. 2015. Reconceptualizing Bias in Teaching Qualitative Research Methods. Qualitative Inquiry 21 (4): 332-342.

Tracy, Sarah. 2010. Qualitative Quality: Eight Big-Tent Criteria for Excellent Qualitative Research. Qualitative Inquiry 16 (10): 837-851.

Researchers recently found out that the sense of smell is the most reliable threat detector. A persons olfactory capacities are unconscious and more effective than eyesight and hearing, which suggest this sense is most proficient in detecting danger. Several recent researchers have studied smell in terms of identifying potential endangerment under various situations. Fischer et al. (2017) have conducted a study in regards to predator discrimination based on smell and vision in aquatic fishes. However, according to the study which compared how fishes determine predators based on olfactory versus visual cues, both senses have been determined to be equally effective. While the results differ from the initial argument, it is important to mention that the experiment has shown that aquatic animals use the sense of smell to detect danger and eyesight to locate it. Hence, the argument is being supported by the research. The article is reliable since the journal Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology is published on various platforms with the reputation of credible and unbiased sources of information.

The sense of smell has also been examined in humans. More specifically, McSorley (2020) has highlighted how the olfactory sense is used during the war. The article highlights that smell is a concept addressed during training through multiple disciplines. Moreover, soldiers use it while tracking, detecting bodies, and identifying explosives. The military approach highlights the usefulness of the information for examining the subject since war is, by far, one of the most threatening conditions that a person can experience. The journal, while not scientific, provides reliable information regarding security issues and political topics. Since security is addressed in the initial topic, the information is reasonable in regard to context.

References

Fischer, S., Oberhummer, E., Cunha-Saraiva, F., Gerber, N., & Taborsky, B. (2017). Smell or vision? The use of different sensory modalities in predator discrimination. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 71(10). Web.

McSorley, K. (2020). Sensate regimes of war: Smell, tracing and violence. Security Dialogue, 51(2-3), 155173. Web.

General Information

One of the first mammals of the Mesozoic era was Hadrocodium, whose external structure may remind modern rodents of the rat, squirrel, or weasel type. Fossils of this animal were found in Early China; it is thought that Hadrocodium lived about 195-200 million years ago. Literally, the Latin name of the species translates as a heavy head  indicating massive changes in the brain and cranium of the early mammal. The evidence indicates that Hadrocodium was a warm-blooded animal, and the presence of acute hearing seems to indicate a nocturnal lifestyle of the rodent. The presence of many non-sharp teeth is evidence of the consumption of insects and other invertebrates.

Skull structure

The skull structure has a well-distinguished cerebral cavity, indicating the extension of the brain in the Hadrocodium. The lower jaw is fused with the skull, with the area of attachment formed mainly by brittle, scaly bones. The arrangement of teeth is typical of modern rodents, with the cheek teeth particularly prominent, which were involved in chewing food. In general, the jaw of Hadrocodium is placed forward of the skull, which makes room for a massive  as compared to the whole body  brain. It is noteworthy that Hadrocodium appears with a developed auditory system consisting of three sections. In the middle ear, there are small hammer- and anvil-like bones, which are not connected with the lower jaw. Such a phenomenon is a confirmation of the outgrowth of the olfactory cortex in early mammals.

Structure of the postcranial skeleton

It was an extremely small animal, the length of which did not exceed the size of a modern human finger (up to 8-10 cm). The weight of the animal was only about 2 grams. Hadrocodium was a typical tetrapod, and its front and hind limbs were equally developed. Each of the legs ended with five toes, four of which were pointed to one side, and the fifth was slightly set back. The hind limbs consisted of a short femur and a long tibia to which the animals feet were attached. The top view of the animal skeleton was no longer typical of reptiles, as the limbs (especially the hind limbs) were more under the body plane than laterally. The spine had two natural curvatures and ended in a long tail whose vertebrae were elongated.

This research paper focuses on the study of Gordons mathematical model as a practical application for determining the expected value of securities. The overall research problem is to find an optimal algorithm for predicting the value of securities in an investment portfolio that makes sense to investors. Although not always evident, the article is filled with systematic comparisons between two investment strategies: in value for low-grade stocks and in growth with long-term upside prospects. Asness et al. (2020) turn to Gordons well-known model for total value and create two variations for it: for value stocks and growth stocks.

Manipulating the formula mathematically, the authors arrive at a single model in which the maximum value of the stock is determined by the value spread and the growth spread. The authors use three components (E/P, B/P, and S/P) for which a value spread function is subsequently created to form a composite stock value function. Based on the fact of market research and stock picking from 1981 to 1999, several investment portfolios with different strategies are created as a sample: a growth portfolio and a value portfolio. Thus, the innovation of the proposed function is to use two spreads at once, value and growth, as opposed to only unidirectional models. This allows for a single model that will demonstrate the ability to predict the expected value of securities statistically and economically meaningfully versus growth.

Having created the mathematical model, Asness et al. decided to investigate it to test its effectiveness and efficiency in solving original problems. Several conclusions were drawn by the developers regarding the use of the new function. First, its application to a sample of securities yielded a maximum return of 52 percent, which is even higher than the historical return. Consequently, the proposed formula allows for a more accurate and optimistic valuation of securities.

Secondly, the use of the formula makes it possible to find the optimal time for the value of the stock. This, according to the authors, occurs when the value spread is extremely large, and the growth spread is the smallest. Third, it is confirmed that the refined R2 for the correlation was not very high and was only 38.7%, which hints at the non-ideality of the model. Recognizing this feature, Asness et al. plot the comparison of actual and predicted values for the twelve-month return period and show that there are generally good patterns of agreement between the two plots. Thus, the overall conclusion of the article is that the proposed model shows a return on value versus growth.

A close reading of the proposed article legitimately raises several issues of critical reflection. First of all, the authors did not use complicated mathematics, but rather, all of the features they presented are clear and accessible to the reader with a mathematical background. In addition, Asness et al. used years of return for a particular period as a benchmark, which means that it is not unlikely that this model may not be suitable for other time periods: this requires a number of additional tests. In addition, any mathematical conclusions made by the authors are based on the use of the Gordon model, which has serious limitations. For example, the model is only used for dividend-paying companies, and the predictive economic growth of a company, overall, is infinite, although this is not always possible.

Finally, although the authors make accessible use of the mathematical apparatus, their explanations and notations are not always clear to the reader, which can lead to a snowball effect on perception. Thus, the article offered for reading is helpful and shows one of the methods developed for predicting the future value of securities, but the format and methods used do not always seem reasonable.

Reference

Asness, C. S., Friedman, J. A., Krail, R. J., & Liew, J. M. (2000). Style timing: Value versus growth. The Journal of Portfolio Management, 26(3), 50-60.

An enzyme is a protein that speeds up or slows down cell chemical reactions. Enzymes perform various functions in cellular metabolisms, such as food digestion in animals and the process of respiration, and also aid in muscle and nerve function. Enzymes are affected by temperature changes; an increase in temperature increases the chemical reaction of an enzyme up to a certain point from there high temperatures denature enzymes (Enzymes: What are enzymes, pancreas, digestion & liver function, n.d.). Enzymes are sensitive to pH levels and do not work well in an acidic or too-basic environment. Chemical inhibitors interfere with the working of enzymes by halting any form of a chemical reaction.

Salivary glands and pancreas produce enzyme amylase. Pancreatic amylase is responsible for breaking down starch into sugars which are eventually acted upon by other enzymes and converted to glucose. An enzyme called pepsin is released in the stomach, which requires an acidic pH to function correctly. It breaks down proteins into peptides and amino acids. Lipase is also found in the stomach; it compels fats and lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. In the mouth, the enzyme maltase is found in the saliva to break down sugar into maltose (Newman, n.d.). Acetylcholinesterase is responsible for breaking down neurotransmitter acetylcholine in nerves and muscles.

In plants, enzyme proteases break down proteolysis, which helps break down Nitrogen compounds and ensure the supply of amino acids to individual cells. Bacteria and plant roots produce phosphatase for assimilation to dissolve phosphates. Enzyme chitinases enhance plants defense against fungal species (Best enzymes for plants | How enzyme helps in plants growth, 2021). Plants use five biphosphate carboxylase oxygenase to carry out the process of photosynthesis. Dehydrogenase transfers an electron from one molecule to another, while Phosphohexoisomerase aids rearranging atoms within a molecule.

References

Newman, T. (n.d.). Enzymes: Function, definition, and examples. Medical and health information.

Best enzymes for plants | How enzyme helps in plants growth. (2021).

Enzymes: What are enzymes, pancreas, digestion & liver function. (2021) (n.d.).

An Overview of Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Phenylketonuria is a genetic condition that causes an increases in the levels of a substance known as phenylalanine in the blood. This disorder is commonly known as PKU and the name was derived from the presence of a phenylketone in the urine. In addition, in 1943, Asbjörn Fölling discovered PKU while living in Norway (Hozyasz, 2020). It has been the model of inherited metabolic disorder. Asbjörn Fölling discovered the disorder by performing an analysis on two serious mentally retarded children.

Phenylketonuria commonly referred to as PKU is a disorder caused by the accumulation of phenylalanine in the body. This occurs due to the lack of phenylalanine Hydroxylase (PAH) gene on chromosome 12. The disorder is hereditary, meaning that it can be passed from parent to child. If both parents have a faulty PAH gene, their child is at risk of developing the condition as shown in the figure above (Mayo Clinic, 2018). The main factor is that both parent must have the faulty gene. A mutation in both alleles of phenylalanine hydroxylase causes phenylketonuria.

Genetic Information

Genetic information provide details of the PAH gene causing the disorder. First, the PAH gene is situated on chromosome 12 within the bands 12q22-q24.1. Second, PKU is a single gene disorder because it is caused by changes in the DNA in a given gene and have predictable inheritance pattern. Third, the autosomal nature of the PAH gene means that it is not located in either X or Y sex chromosomes. Fourth, PKU is considered a point mutation because it is caused by a change in a single nucleotide of a DNA. Lastly, PKU is a recessive disorder, which means that both parents must have in order to pass it to offspring (Hozyasz, 2020).

Symptoms of PKU

There are various symptoms of phenylketonuria which can observed by a health provider. The first symptom is a bad smell in the breath, urine or skin. This smell is as a result of a build-up of phenylalanine in the body. The second symptom is intellectual disability, where an individual has limited cognitive functioning and skills. The third symptom is neurological problems, because of the structural and biochemical defects in the nervous system organs. The fourth symptom is the presence of rashes in an individual skin. The rashes are noticeable changes in the texture and color of the skin (Mayo Clinic, 2018).

The Effects of PKU

The effects of phenylketonuria on an individual ranges from physical, emotional and social aspects. First, phenylketonuria causes irreversible brain damage, which interferes with the manner in which the brain functions. Second, the disorder can result into delayed development and permanent intellectual disability. Third, PKU can cause behavioral, emotional and social problems. Fourth, PKU can also result in hyperactivity, which is characterized by impulsiveness, increased movements, short attention plan and many more (Mayo Clinic, 2018). Finally, it can lead to skin rashes, which are characterized by emergence of skin lesions

Diagnosis of PKU

A doctor can determine an individual has PKU using two mechanisms. First, he or she can focus on clinical manifestation presented by the patient. For example, an individual with more than half of the listed symptoms is likely to have the disorder. However, this is considered inaccurate because of the possibility of errors. Second, the doctor can also run a series of tests designed for PKU (Ceberio et al., 2019). The tests that can be used are Plasma phenylalanine screening, Guthrie inhibition assay test, Urine tests, and assess Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) changes in patients. This is the most preferred test because of its accuracy during diagnosis.

Prognosis of Individuals with PKU

PKU is a genetic disorder that occurs gradually disorder and lacks a specific life expectancy. It does not reduce life expectancy with or without treatment. If it is discovered and treated promptly, one can lead a normal life. However, if it is not treated, the disorder can cause brain damage, behavioral issues and many more. People with PKU who stopped eating the PKU diet may benefit once they start the process again (Ceberio et al., 2019). Also, PKU can cause a stressor on family members with an individual with the disorder especially on the area of additional support and treatment adherence.

Medication of PKU

The following are treatment options for PKU:

1. Low-protein diet: This is due to the fact that individuals with PKU lack an enzyme allows them to effectively digest the phenylalanine, which is a component of protein.
2. The current treatment involve eating of specialized diet that limits foods containing phenylalanine.
3. Gene therapy: the process utilizes an injectable version of phenylalanine ammonium lyase, an enzyme that can replace phenylalanine hydroxylase (Ceberio et al., 2019).

Current Research

The National PKU Alliance is an organization established to improve the lives of individuals and families who have PKU. They are an important voice to the PKU community to assist solve some of the issues they experience. In addition, they are using peer-reviewed and targeted research in order to advance PKU research and accelerate the timeline for a cure. People with PKU receive education on issues experienced by individuals and families and offer necessary support.

Summary

One of the interesting stories about PKU is that of Bailey. He was diagnosed with PKU at birth and have managed to live with the disorder. When growing up, Bailey had to be conscious of his diet. He tagged along with his specially-prepared meals when going to school and other events. In addition, he had to drink his formula every morning, which contains all amino acid except phenyl (BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc., 2020). After all this, Bailey is now an aspiring pilot and he is almost through with first-pilot license.

References

BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc. (2020). Bailey  PKU: patient stories. BioMarin. Web.

Ceberio, L., Hermida, Á., Venegas, E., Arrieta, F., Morales, M., Forga, M., & Gonzalo, M. (2019). Phenylketonuria in the adult patient. Expert Opinion on Orphan Drugs, 7(6), 265-276. Web.

Harding, C. O. (2019). Prospects for cell-directed curative therapy of phenylketonuria (PKU). Molecular Frontiers Journal, 3(02), 110-121. Web.

Hozyasz, K. K. (2020). Atypical phenylketonuria: Over 60 years from the discovery of tetrahydrobiopterin. Pielgniarstwo i Zdrowie Publicize Nursing and Public Health, 10(4), 277-282. Web.

Mayo Clinic. (2018). Phenylketonuria (PKU)  Symptoms and causes. Web.

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