Category: Sciences 2502

The species, Neumania papillate, is a water mite invertebrate of the Neumania genus and Arthropoda phylum as described by Marshall in 1922 (ITIS 1996). This particular species is commonly found in natural aquatic ecosystems such as freshwater lakes (Thorp & Covich 2001), small rivers, and the Atlantic Maritime (Smit & Hammen 1992). According to Thorp & Covich 2001, this species is known to form discrete communities mostly based on their adaptations in the natural setting. The table below shows the Linnaean taxonomy of the species as reflected in both the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) and the University of Michigan Animal Diversity Websites. Trouessart (1888) as cited in the ITIS database gives a more detailed example of how the genus was discovered. It is imperative to note that the NCBI PubMed online does mention the species together with its genus while websites such as National Centre for Biotechnology Information database fail to give much detailed information about these classifications.

As the above table depicts, the Neumania papillate belongs to the Arachnida class. The arachnids are known for their paired and often disjointed appendages, hardened exoskeleton, a segmented body, and a comprehensively developed head. The body of the arachnids consists of two components  head fused with a thorax and an abdomen and comprises of six pairs of appendages on their bodies. The ones that are segmented into three components-head, thorax, and abdomen are the prosoma and opisthosoma. To mention them summarily, the appendages can be grouped into three main categories, namely the claw-like fangs, the walking legs, and the general-purpose mouthparts (Arachnids 2009). Most arachnids are known to live on land and are fresh-eating predators. However, the species is mostly aquatic.

The Neuman papillate species is closely related to 14 other species within the Neumania genus. These species include Neumania armata, Neumania Oenothera, Neumania distincta, Neumania extends, Neumania fragile, Neumania Hickman, Neumania kodiakica, Neumania longiseta, Neumania ovata, Neumania pubescent, Nuemania semicircular, Neumania spinipes, and Neumania tenuipalpis (Myers et al 2008). According to NCBI (online), the genus family taxonomic hierarchy consists of 35 members such as hydrachnidae, Krendowskiidae, Unionicolamong others. Examples of other animals that are closely related to the species include wandering, attractive, Estonia, and wetting (Thorp & Covich 2001).

Although there has been a noted difference of habitat preference between the male and female members of the species, successful incursion and exploitation of preferred geographical localities have often depended on the development of compatible adaptive approaches for the invertebrates. Adult members of the species have been found to favor freshwater lakes and ponds for their feeding, growth, and reproduction. The female species live longer than their male counterparts and produce multiple clutches of eggs. In their larval stage, this type of water mites has been found to prefer parasitism and dispersal on hosts. The seasonality of the termites varies from one season to the other. For instance, in temperature latitudes, they live for one year. These seasonal variations minimize the risks associated with the parasitic larva stage. Parasitism occurs mainly in hot spring and late summer since hosts are seasonally limited and larva spends several days in their hosts which later results in modest growth. Species in this group undergo modest growth during the larvae stage which results in to increase in volume to 700 times their original size and the larva lasts approximately one week (Thorp & Covich 568).

As is the case with other species of the genus, the water mites are consistently provided with chances to colonize new geographical locations by the passive transport mode of their larva on hosts. Overall, the species is mostly found in seepage areas of streams, riffle habitats, and sand and gravel deposits found in rivers to depths of 1mm or more. Other preferred natural habitats include permanent ponds, marshes, temporary pools, swamps, and bogs. (Thorp & Covich 2001).

The lifespan of most water mites of the species is generally short. Consecutive studies have revealed that most water mites of this species living in temperament latitudes do not exceed one year of life. Most of this time is exhausted in deutonymphal and adult stages. However, males have a far shorter lifespan than their female counterparts since they die immediately after or a few days after mating with females (Thorp & Covich 2001). During the initialization of the mating season, males are known to chemically communicate with the females by vigorously fanning some water over the spermatophore nets towards the females. In other words, the courting males vigorously vibrate their legs to fan pheromones directly to their female counterparts. The females respond to this stimulation as they usually respond to vibrations caused by moving prey (Manning & Dawkins 1998).

During the mating process, the females distinguish the males as prospective mates only after the courting males have deposited some spermatophores (Mate Choice 2000). The fact that this type of water mite appears to have no identifiable sex chromosomes, a condition is known as Diplo-diploid, is rather interesting. According to Thorp and Covich (2001), the mated females can live for many months, continuing to feed in their natural settings while producing some clutches of eggs. The water mites mostly mate towards the end of summer but fertilization is usually delayed. However, the females release their eggs only when they are fertilized by the males. In the species, the males do not appear to discriminate between unmated and previously mated females. Indeed, they undertake to mate with all the female members they encounter. Eventually, the male water mites within this species produce a considerably higher number of spermatophores for unmated or virginal females (Thorp & Covich 2001).

According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2009), Neumania papillate is not endangered as it is not included in the database. The threat that can be depicted regarding the species is the continued human encroachment in its natural habitats. Ponds, streams, and lakes continue to be polluted by human activities at an alarming rate, and its only a matter of time before the species is included in the red list of the worlds most endangered species.

Works Cited

Arachnids. 2009. Web.

Google. 2009. Web.

ITIS Report. 1996. Neumania Papillator. Web.

ITIS. 2000. Catalogue of life. Web.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009. Web.

Manning, A., & Dawkins, M.S. 1998. An Introduction to Animal Behaviour. London: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Mate Choice and Genetic Variation in Male Courtship Song in Drosophila Montana. 2000. Web.

Mitchell, R.D. 1995. Anatomy, Life History, and Evolution of the Mites Parasitizing Fresh Water Mussels. Web.

Myers, P.R., Espinosa, C.S., Parr, T.J, G.S., Hammond, G.S., & Dewey, T.A. 2008. The Animal Diversity Web.

Smit, H., & Hammen, H. Water Mites as Indicators of Natural Aquatic Ecosystems of the Coastal Dunes of the Netherlands and North-western France. Hydrobiologia, vol. 231, No. 1 (2004): 46-76.

Thorp, J.H., & Covich, A.P. Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates. New York: Academic Press, 2001.

The development of new branches within biology laid the foundation for understanding the subtle mechanisms of cell functioning in general and of its components. It became apparent that the genetic apparatus occupies the central place in a cell. Thus, a prospect of directed influence on the structure and functioning of the genetic apparatus, in particular genome-editing, was introduced. In human bodies, cells are organized into an extremely complex molecular structure responsible for immunity. However, bacteria also have their own, but much simpler molecular immunity systems, which protect the bacterial cell from pathogens. In 1987, a Japanese researcher found in the genome of Escherichia coli a region containing numerous repeats and called it the CRISPR locus (¹, p. 2). Later, CRISPR-Cas9, prokaryotes adaptive system, was adjusted to be used as a genome-editing tool (1). The discovery of 1987 launched the future of CRISPR-Cas9  one of the most promising technologies of the last years.

The innovation allows researchers to manipulate the genome in just a few days, and it is the first such accurate tool designed for this purpose. Besides the relatively short time of editing, the device also may be considered simple to use: making changes to CRISPR-Cas9 set-up so that various genomic regions could be edited is deemed straightforward (²). Gupta et al. (1) note apropos the directness of the tool usage the system serves as yet another that nature holds some of the simplest solutions to some of the most complicated problems (p. 12). CRISPR-Cas9 also renders generating disease models, for instance, for cancer, more unchallenging  this brings researchers closer to a comprehensive picture of the mechanisms behind genetic disorders and a number of illnesses (³). In this way, one of the primary advantages that the genome-editing tool possesses is its rapidity and straightforwardness in usage.

Another significant positive side that CRISPR-Cas9 has is the costs associated with its usage. The genome-editing tool may be considered a comparatively inexpensive technique to manipulate a gene or gene regions (2). Gupta et al. conducted a comparative study between CRISPRCas9 and several other similar technologies  Zinc finger nuclease (ZFN) and transcription activator-like effector nuclease (TALENs)  noting their cost-effectiveness among other measurements (1). The researchers note that CRISPRCas9 is the most inexpensive tool, followed by TALENs, and ZFNs usage necessitates the most prominent budget among the technologies (1). The costs linked to CRISPR-Cas9 are part of what makes this tool revolutionary, as financial limitations may be one of the reasons for research postponement or even cancellation.

The fact that the implementation of CRISPR-Cas9 in ones research does not entail significant expenses leads to another advantage that this genome-editing tool has brought. The discussed above positive effects of CRISPR-Cas9 made it somewhat popular within the researcher circles. The number of publications connected to the technology has grown significantly over recent years, and, for instance, PubMed has approximately fifteen thousand research papers registered under the corresponding category (2, para. 3). Shepherd (2) states that considering the publication bias towards positive results, this means that there are probably thousands of additional labs, projects and scientists around the world using this system (para. 3). Hence, the introduction of CRISPR-Cas9 potentially popularized gene-editing research and topics within it.

Despite the numerous benefits connected to the technology in question, it perhaps could not be considered a perfect gene-editing tool. One of its drawbacks is related to the notion of efficacy. Even though Gupta et al. describe CRISPR-Cas9 as having high targeting efficacy and specificity, especially compared to TALENs and ZFN, contradictory opinions also may be found (1). By editing efficiency, the number of well-edited cells is understood. As stated by Shepherd, the editing tool is not always 100% accurate (2). This fluctuation that does not reach the absolute percentage of accurateness may not nullify the efforts that a potential researcher invested in the operation, but rather exacts mindfulness and cautiousness when deciphering the editing results.

An additional disadvantage that usage of CRISPR-Cas9 entails is a lack of specificity in a practical setting. The technologys off-target effects result in the appearance of mutations in genetic regions that were supposed to be unaffected directly by editing, even if all the procedures were respected and the guide RNA sequence is particular to the genome (2). Wang et al. (⁴3) explain that tight regulation of Cas9 expression and activity may potentially reduce its offtarget effects and, thus, this is a prerequisite for the future use of Cas9 in clinical applications (p. 247). Consequently, the presence of off-target effects in editing is an issue that may be solved and does not hinder the potential of CRISPR-Cas9 and its inclusion into medical trials.

The times when the primary research method for biologists was observation are long gone. Biology in this century has changed qualitatively to a degree due to the development of such branches as biochemistry, biophysics, molecular biology, and molecular genetics. CRISPR-Cas9 is one of the culminations of these transformations. Undeterred by the issues described, this genomeediting technology eclipses others by its low cost, straightforwardness in use, and relatively high efficacy. CRISPR-Cas9 remains a significant breakthrough in biological sciences, developed in close conjunction with medicine, the significance of which is yet to be understood.

References

Gupta, D., Bhattacharjee, O., Mandal, D., Sen, M. K., Dey, D., Dasgupta, A., Kazid, T., A., Guptaa, R., Sinharoyb, S., Acharyaa, K., Chattopadhyaye, D., Ravichandiranc, V., Royc S., & Ghosh, D. (2019). CRISPR-Cas9 system: A new-fangled dawn in gene editing. Life Sciences, 232, 115.

Shepherd, C. (2019). CRISPR-Cas9 genome-editing: Weighing the pros and cons. Bitesize Bio.

Wang, H., La Russa, M., & Qi, L. S. (2016). CRISPR/Cas9 in genome-editing and beyond. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 85(1), 227264.

Footnotes

1. Gupta et al., 2019.
2. Shepherd, 2019.
3. Wang et al., 2016.

Introduction

QSAR analysis for nitroaromatic compounds is the process through which; these nitrogenous compounds are exposed in to various conditions under which they undergo different mutagenic reactions resulting in to reduced compounds referred to as hydrolamines. On this context therefore, throughout the process of reaction, the nitroaromatic compounds correlate with their mutagenic activity resulting into yielding of molecular energy. More specifically, during such reactions, the determination of the energies of the respective LUMO and HOMO molecular orbital is necessary which would thereafter provide a basis a comparison between the two reactions (Benfenati, 2007).

QSAR 1 analysis using log TA 100 and log P

Generally, in any reaction involving nitroaromatic compounds; QSAR are established using regression analysis of the variables involved. On this basis therefore, QSAR 1 results can be used to deduce that; log TA 100 is likely to correlate well with just log P because any change in log TA 100 results in to a corresponding change in the log P. However, this correlation between the log TA 100 and log P is negative as any increase in the log TA 100 leads to a decline in the log P which even to negative values (Devillers, 2009).

More so, from the QSARs 1-3 the multiple R undergoes an activity which is satisfactorily with various individual properties. As it has been observed, correlation coefficient 0.6 is the best as it gives the lowest negative value among the other correlations indicating that; the reaction will have yielded the best results possible. Further, the multiple R has strong correlation with log P, LUMO and EUMO reactions which results in to the ultimate correlation of the three variables (Benfenati, 2007).

The correlation of E_EUMO and E_LUMO

Perhaps from QSARs 1 and 4 the quadratic function of P is not better than a linear function because, as it the outcome depicts; the representation of the results using the quadratic function of log P and linear function would give similar interpretation. More precisely, the use of the quadratic function of log P and the use of linear equation would have no difference in giving the inference over the reaction involved (Devillers, 2009).

In addition, for QSARs 4 and 5 a correlation with E_EUMO is better than E _HOMO because from the observations made in the experiment, the reactants involved have the lowest negative correlation coefficient which definitely indicates a better correlation in E_EUMO than as it is in E _HOMO. Meanwhile, the F stat is affected in various ways in which the significance of the correlation is largely determined by the size of F. For instance, the F stat in the reaction involved is affected by the amount of reactants involved and the conditions under which the reaction is taking place like the pressure and the temperature levels (Benfenati, 2007).

Ring structures with more than two fused rings

As it could be observed, some particles were poorly predicted because they can be seen to lie far from the line prediction. For example, the particles of 1-chloro-2, 4-dinitrobenzene and 2-nitro-9, 10-dihydrophenanthrene can be observed to have a significant difference in the predicted and the observed values of correlation. It was also found that various ring structures had more than two fused rings of various kinds in which they shared edges (Devillers, 2009).

On assigning a value of I=1 for each of these and I=0 for the other systems, majority of the molecules with I=1 predicted were more active than found experimentally. On the other hand majority of those molecules with I=0 predicted to be less active than found experimentally. Perhaps, the incorporation of the indicator value helps to improve the correlation to a greater extent whereby, the variables involved would exhibit a better and a more eligible degree of reactivity. For example, when NH-OH is exposed to sulfotransterase it gets oxidized to NAc-OSO₃H which gives a higher value of correlation coefficient than without the indicator (Benfenati, 2007).

Further, the findings discussed above can also be explained in terms of the type of Salmonella typhimurium strain used in the experiment. As it was observed the strain contains nitroreductose which activates in to groups at various rates in different conditions. From the experiment, the strain was observed was induced to intercalate with DNA by various substances (Devillers, 2009).

Comparison of E_{EUMO and} E_LUMO reactions

From QSAR 7 the inclusion of E _HOMO improves the quality of the fit as it can be seen that, the correlation becomes better with the inclusion of the E _HOMO. Generally, the E _HOMO inclusion in the reaction helped to improve the quality of the reaction which further enhanced the achievement of better results which were easy to interpret. The graph below shows the comparison between the E_LUMO and E _HOMO (Benfenati, 2007).

Conclusion

From the graph it can be seen that, E_EUMO and E_HOMO are inversely related in the sense that; an increase in the E _HOMO leads to a consequent decrease in the E_LUMO and vise versa. Generally, the results obtained can be used to predict the results of another related activity by studying closely the effect of each input on various variables and the output obtained. On this basis therefore, the results obtained can thus be used to predict the outcome of any other related reaction.

Reference list

Benfenati, E, Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships (QSAR) for Pesticide Regulatory Purposes, Elsevier Science Publisher, London, 2007.

Devillers, J, Endocrine Disruption Modeling (QSAR in Environmental and Health Sciences), CRC Press, New York, 2009.

The aim of this experiment is to show how natural enzymatic reducing agents are as effective as the chemical ones.

A reduction process is characteristically the gain of two hydrogen atoms or the loss of an oxygen atom, or both (Fox & Whitesell, 2007). This results to a structural configuration conversion reaction, where aldehydes and ketones are reduced to primary and secondary alcohols. Curvularia Lunata conceived the Prelogs rule in the reducing of decalones where the hydrogen transfer to the S alcohol will continue on the re-face of the prochiral ketone, in this case the reduction process gives the S enantiomer (Chenevert & Soniat, 1985 & Zhu, et al.2006).

Chenevert & Soniat, (1985) confirm that it is possible to determine the absolute structural make-up of the consequent product after microbial reduction on a carbonyl group that has the large group L and a small group S to the alcohol through use of Prelogs rule (1599). Prelogs rule (1599) states In the presence of tertiary aliphatic amine, reaction of phenylmagnesium bromide with ethyl (S)-(+)-3-hydroxybutanoate the Grignard reaction with an ester gives a ketone as the major product hence the yeast reduction of 1-phenyl-1, 3-butanedione gives the title compound with S configuration.

Since it has been established that yeast has three of carbonyl-reducing enzymes and with the various abilities of enantio to differentiate, it is advisable that care should be taken when conducting the process. During this series of reactions, the reduction process has the potential to convert achiral compounds to chiral ones (Fox & Whitesell, 2007). The analysis of nuclear magnetic resonance is able to establish the result due to composition of enantio. Chenevert & Soniat, (1985) gives an example of how nuclear magnetic analysis can be applied using tris [3-(heptafluoropropyIhydroXymethylene)-d-camphorato] europium (III) as a chiral shift reagent. According to Ohta et al. (1990) The nuclear magnetic resonance analysis usually needs the use of racemic 3-hydroxy- 1 -phenyl- 1-butanone, which can be prepared by condensation between acetaldehyde and benzoylacetic acid.

In the results captured, Ethyl ethanoate has four types of peaks recorded, in this experiment these are at 3.042; 2.798; 1.818 and 2.000, sequentially.

3453 0.022; 2976.334 240.638; 1716 0.1113; 1448.296 0.000; 1407.458 0.000; 1372.144 183.660; 1248.3171 81.456; 1296.906 260.605; 1177.895 709.159; 1027.599 453.953; 947.685 147.942; 844.333 52.179; 809.806 47.158; 725.111 0.000

Asymmetric synthesis has relied on the use, as starting materials, of optically active compounds that are members of the so-called chiral carbon pool, i.e. easily available chiral substances produced by living organisms including amino acids, terpenes, carbohydrates, etc (Chenevert & Soniat,1985 and Sih & Chen,1984). According to Seebach et al.( 2006), the spectral properties of (S)-( + )-ethyl 3-hydroxybutanoate are as follows: IR2a (film) cm1: 3440, 2980, 1730, 1375, 1300, 1180, 1030; 1H NMR2b (CCl4) ´: 1.15 (d, 3 H, J = 6.5, CH3), 1.28 (t, 3 H, J = 7 Hz, CH3), 2.35 (d, 2 H, J = 6.5, CH2CO), 3.15 (s, 1 H, OH), 4.05 (q, 2 H, J = 7, CH2O), 4.15 (m, 1 H, CHOH). The reduction process gives a (S)-(+)-3-hydroxy-1-phenyl-1-, which is 33 percent pure, product which entire depends on the starting materials.

Kuramoto et al. (1999) attests a similar case. The specific Enantiometric purity of product can be calculated given that the enantiometrically pure (S)-ethyl 3-hydroxy-butanoate has (±)²⁵_D=+43.5(c=1,CHCl₃) and that [±]_D=±IXC where ±]_D is specific rotation; ± is the observed rotation in degrees; I is the path length in dm and c is the concentration in g/ml. This gives a product of 0.3234.

(S)-Ethyl 3-hydroxybutanoate C6H12O3

(c0.77, CHCl3) Source of chirality = microbial reduction

In conclusion, Bakers yeast is a chiral reagent that will catalyze and cause chirality to a molecule. Reaction changes that are bio-catalyzed are useful since are acclimatized to the surrounding conditions of temperature and pressure.

References

Banora, G.M., Drily, S., Format, C., Nitti, P., & Pittance, G., 2005. Bakers Yeast Reduction of PEG-Linked Acetoacetate. Letters in Organic Chemistry. Web.

Chenevert, R. & Hiboutoct, S., 1986. Enantiospecific synthesis of optically pure (S)-(+)-3-hydroxy-1-phenyl-1-butanone, by bakers yeast reduction. Web.

Fox & Whitesell. Experiment 7  2007: Reduction of Ethyl Acetoacetate: Achiral and Chiral Reduction. Web.

Hamdania, M., De Jeso, B., Deleuzea, H., Sauxa, A. & Maillard, B., 1993. The product of Bakers yeast reduction of ethyl 2-chloro-3-oxobutanoate as a precursor of the 1-ethoxycarbonyl 2(S)-hydroxypropyl radical. Web.

Kuramoto, T., Iwamoto, K., Izumi, M., Kirihata, M., & Yoshizako, F., 1999. Asymmetric Reduction of Ethyl 2-methyl 3-oxobutanoate by Chlorella. Japan Society for Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Agrochemistry. 63(3), p.598-601. Web.

Ohta, H., kobayashi, N. & Sugai, T., 1990. Reduction of Acyl Enolates of ±-Substituted ²-Keto Esters by Bakers Yeast. Japan Society for Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Agrochemistry. 54 (2), p. 489-4923. Web.

Seebach, D., Sutter, M. A., Weber, R. H. & Züger, M. F., 2007. Yeast Reduction of Ethyl Acetoacetate: (S)-(+)-Ethyl 3-Hydroxybutanoate [Butanoic acid, 3-hydroxy-, ethyl ester, (S)]. Web.

Salvi, N. A. and Chattopadhyay, S. (2004). Rhizopus arrhizus mediated asymmetric reduction of alkyl 3-oxobutanoates. Elsevier Ltd. 15(12), p. 3397-3400. Web.

Sih, J. and Chen, C-S. (1984). Microbial Asymmetric Catalysis  Enantioselective Reduction of Ketones [New Synthetic Methods (45)] Web.

Spectroscopy, n.d.. Interpreting C-NMR Spectra. Web.

Zhu, D. Yang, Y. and Hua, L. (2006) Stereoselective Enzymatic Synthesis of Chiral Alcohols with the Use of a Carbonyl Reductase from Candida magnoliae with Anti-Prelog Enantioselectivity. American Chemical Society. 71 (11), p 42024205. Web.

Introduction

Chemistry education is aimed at preparing one for better living. Chemistry occupies a central position among science subjects. Chemistry is conceptualized as gaining knowledge problem-solving and constructing personal understandings.

Chemistry can be defined as using our knowledge of how matter is put together and how it interacts with other matter to solve confusing problems.

What are linseeds?

Linseed and camelina are ancient crops containing seed oils with a high potential for nutritional, medicinal, pharmaceutical, and technical applications.

Analysis of Triacylglycerols from Linseed by Lc-Ms3

In the present study, linseed and camelina oils of plant varieties grown under Central European climate conditions were examined concerning their volatile and triacylglycerol (TAG) components (Bogomolova et al, 2004). Solid-phase microextraction was applied to the study of volatile compounds of several linseed and camelina oils, which have not been described before this publication. Hexanol (6.5-20.3% related to the total level of volatiles), trans-2-butenal (1.3-5.0%), and acetic acid (3.6-3.8%) could be identified as the main volatile compounds in the linseed oil samples. Trans-2-butenal (9.8%) and acetic acid (9.3%), accompanied by trans, trans-3,5-octadiene-2-one (3.8%) and trans,trans-2,4-heptagonal (3.6%), dominated the headspace of the examined camelina oil samples. TAG was analyzed by MALDI-RTF-MS and ESI-IT-MS, providing information about the total TAG composition of the oils as well as the fatty acid composition of the individual components (Bogomolova et al. 2004). More than 20 TAG could be identified directly from whole linseed oil samples, mainly composed of linolenic (18:3), linoleic (18:2), and oleic (18:1) acid, and to a lesser degree of stearic (18:0) and palmitic (16:0) acid (Lobert, 2004). While in linseed these tags comprise more than 60% of the oils, Camelina sativa exhibited a wider range of more than 50 constituents, with a considerable amount (>35%) of TAG containing gadoleic (20:1) and eicosadienoic (20:2) acid (Bates, 2009).

The reactions leading to triacylglycerol (TAG) synthesis in oilseeds bed been advisably characterized. Still, numeric analyses of radical meet and alcohol grit fluxes that comprise extraplastidic emulsifier and TAG synthesis, including group writing and phosphatidylcholine-diacylglycerol interconversion, are nonexistent. To canvas these fluxes, we apace tagged processing soybean (Glycine max) embryos with [14C] dyestuff and [14C] alcohol.

Cultured integral embryos that process in planta growth was utilized (Cautisan, 1998):

Most 60% of the newly synthesized fat acids opening enter glycerolipids through PC radical writing, largely at the sn-2 lieu.  (Heacuteron et al.1995).

This mix, mostly of oleate, was over iii present the denseness of nascent [14C] greasy acids incorporated into the sn-1 and sn-2 positions of DAG through glycerol-3-phosphate acylation (Lodgsdon, 1994). Furthermore, the adipose resolvent reasoning (Philip et al, 2009).

Borage oil is a gripping oil because it is affluent in navigator linolenic Elvis (. Ln 18:3 Z6, Z9, Z12). Yet, since triacylglycerol standards with. Ln chains do not subsist, there is difficulty identifying these special triacylglycerols (MaDkowski et al, 2000).

Because the hyphenated techniques (GC-MS, LC-MS) do not resign adequate adjudicate for reasonable finding, an easier process is discussed here.

It consists of using other oil of notable property as a definitive arm. Use this process is usually used for the duty of triacylglycerols in borage oil.

This mix, mostly of oleate, was over iii present the denseness of nascent [14C] greasy acids incorporated into the sn-1 and sn-2 positions of DAG through glycerol-3-phosphate acylation (Lodgsdon, 1994). Furthermore, the adipose resolvent reasoning (Philip et al, 2009).

Result

As a result, recycled acyl groups (16:0, 18:1, 18:2, and 18:3) in the acyl-coenzyme A water endow with most of the radical chains for de novo glycerol-3-phosphate acylation (Cautisan et al., 1998).

Our results also state as defined DAG pools.

Borage oil is a gripping oil because it is affluent in navigator linolenic Elvis (. Ln 18:3 Z6, Z9, Z12). Yet, since triacylglycerol standards with Ln chains do not subsist, there is difficulty identifying these special triacylglycerols (MaDkowski et al, 2000).

Because the hyphenated techniques (GC-MS, LC-MS) do not resign adequate adjudicate for reasonable finding, an easier process is discussed here.

It consists of using other oil of notable property as a definitive arm. Use this process is usually used for the duty of triacylglycerols in borage oil.

Conclusion

Molecular species of triglycerides (TG) were determined in vegetable fats and oils, both qualitatively and quantitatively by capillary action, Gas chromatography (CGC) on a polarizable column, reversed-phase C18 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC), and desorption chemical ionization mass spectrometry (DCI-MS).

The determination of CGC and part of RP-HPLC not only with Oils with either a complex distribution of chain lengths, ie, linseed oil and black currant oil.

References

Bates, Philip, D., et al. 2009. All about Plants. Plant Physiology. Web.

Bogomolova, et al. 2004. the forensic medical diagnosis of intoxication of alcohol surrogates by morphological findings. Sudebno Meditsinskaia Ekspertiza. 47 (5), 22-25.

Cautisan, et al, 1998. In Advances in Plant Lipid Research, New York: Mcamillane.

Heacuteron, S., et al. 1995. Liquid Chromatography. Journal of Liquid Chromatography & Related Technologies. 1 (3), 43.

Lobert, S., 2004. Ethanol, isopropanol, methanol, and ethylene glycol poisoning. Critical Care Nurse. 20 (6), pp. 41-47.

Lodgsdon, J., 1994. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 4th ed. New York: Wiley & Sons. 820.

MaDkowski, et al., 2000. How to differentiate acute isopropanol poisoning from ethanol intoxication?. a case report (Polish) Przeglad Lekarski. 57 (10), 588-590.

Water is a key component of life on earth. It covers slightly more than 705 of the earth surface. The hydrological cycle explains the behavior of water within the planet. Among the processes supported by water are: farming, construction, power, and human consumption. It is right to say that without water, human life would be impossible (The Hydrological Cycle1).It is through the hydrological cycle that the continued presence of this crucial commodity is maintained on the earth.

The hydrological cycle is made up a number of stages. These stages are evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. In between these three stages are small but equally crucial stages such as the formation of convectional currents and vapor cooling which comes just before condensation. Before the first process which is evaporation can take place, there must be water bodies. The seas, oceans and rivers have the water from which evaporation take place. The process of evaporation is followed by the condensation of the water vapor to form clouds which are then moved to some areas sometimes beyond the area above the water bodies. Jet stream is one of the mechanisms involved in cloud movement. After the movement of the condensed clouds, the heating up of the earths surface raises hot air that generates rain from the condensed clouds. The rain is what we call precipitation. The rain that falls on the earths surface creates runoff water while some of the water sinks to the ground to form ground water. The processes can occur all over again.

The hydrological cycle is significant in that it plays a major role in human activities such as farming. It also regulates climatic conditions; a phenomenon that helps eliminates extremes of weather.

Geological Features of Glacial Landscapes and Desert Landscapes Comparisons and Contrasts

With close to 33% of the earths surface being desert or semi desert, deserts are a significant part of the geological domain. They possess a number of geological features that are very significant. These include dunes, the loess, ventifacts, the mesa, blowouts, alluvial fan, pediment, and hoodoo. These desert features or landforms are formed through different processes. A dune is formed as a result of strong wind blowing desert sand and silt, which then accumulate over time at an angular position (Desert Usa 1). To form a significant sand dune, the winds must be strong and sufficient time is required. The Loess emanates from angular wind-blown silt that gets held together by calcitic cement.

The ventifact is a rock like landform that forms a flat top over a long time of wind action whereas a mesa normally forms as a result of either loss of material around it leaving a table-shaped hill or the long term accumulation of silt and sand. Then we have the depressions that are formed due to the erosion that takes place in deserts (Mangimeli 1). These depressions are what is referred to as blowouts. The other very important geologic landform that is very common in deserts is the alluvial fan that forms as a result of wind action on sand, silt and sometimes rocks leading to the formation of small cracks and holes. This normally occurs at the base of mountains (Mojave Desert Geology 1).

Glacial geological landscapes on the other hand are a product of ice. The best known forms of glaciers are sheets of ice. Glacial geological features include crevasses, eskers, fjords, rock flour, striations and piedmont glaciers (Glaciation 1). Piedmont glaciers are glaciers that flow out of areas of higher ground towards the slops, whereby they spread out into sheets. A fjord is usually formed as a result of the formation of a depression on ice under water in seas. The bottom of a fjord is usually flat. When a stream runs under a glacier, lengthy sediment is formed. This is what is called an esker. Eskers are also formed after the melting of ice sheets, an act that leaves behind debris that is in a nearly linear feature. A crevasse is a split of crack that is fairly deep and it is found at the upper part of a glacier ice.

The various geological landforms that are found in the desert and those found in glacial landscapes form a crucial part of the geological world. They both shape the face of the earth and influence mans behavior. Most importantly, these landforms influence the climatic conditions that prevail in the environments where the features are found.

There are a number of differences between desert geological landforms and glacial geological landforms. Desert geological landforms mainly originate from the action of the strong desert winds on loose rocks, silt and sand. Glacial geologic landforms on the other hand originate from the movement of ice either on land, water or rocks. Also, the conditions under which they are formed are different. The desert climate in which desert geological features are formed is far much different from the climate in which glacial landforms are formed. Glacial geologic landforms are formed under wet, cold or humid conditions whereas the desert climate is windy and dry. Besides conditions of formation and mode of formation, most desert geological landforms are formed after a considerably long period of time. This is not the case with glacial geological landforms that take a shorter period.

References

Desert USA.Exploring desert Geologic Features. Web.

Glaciation. Web.

Mangimeli,J A Geology Of Sand dunes. Web. 

Mojave Desert Geology. Web.

The Hydrological Cycle.Web. 

Introduction

Background of ESI-MS

Research studies by Tang et al (2001:1658-1663), Bruins (1998:345-357) and Kebarle and Tang (1993:972A-985A) reported that ElectronSpray ionization (ESI) is a method that is employed in mass spectrometry to produce charged particles. Bruins (1998:348) reported that ESI is employed to molecules of high molecular mass because it has potential to overcome fragmentation of the molecular or intra-molecular rearrangement.

Jason S. Page, Ryan T. Kelly, Keqi Tang & Richard D. Smith, (2007), Ionization and Transmission Efficiency in an Electrospray Ionization-Mass Spectrometry Interface.

Kebarle and Tang (1993:975A) indicated that the mechanism through which ESI is achieved involves dispersion of a liquid that contains the analyte into a finely divided aerosol. According to Page et al (2007:1585), the mechanism involves a solvent that is prepared from a solution of water and a volatile organic compound like methanol or acetonitrile. Page et al (2007:1586) indicates that Acetic acid is added in the volatile solvent in order to help in decreasing the droplet size. Page et al (2007:1588) suggested that inert gases like Neon, Helium or argon are used for nebulization but in most cases nitrogen gas is commonly employed if large flow electrosprays are to be implemented.

This process is summarized in the figure 1 below, where the analyte which is a macromolecule is introduced to the source as a homogeneous solution from a syringe or in form of an effluent flow in case of a liquid chromatography (Kebarle and Tang, 1993:979). Tang et al (2001:1661) and Hubert (2003:361) agree that the rate of flow is standardized to 1 ¼l min^-1. Page et al (2007:1588) argue that the analyte sample flows into electrospray needle. Page et al (2007:1589) reports that the electrospray needle has a very high potential difference (pd) as measured from counter electrode. The pd has a range of 2.5 KV to 4.0 KV.

Page et al (2007:1589) have pointed out that the step is implemented in order to force spray of the charged fine droplets from the needle. Bruins (1998:351) argues that the droplets have same surface charge as the charge on the needle. Due to similarity of charges (Stewart (1999:1653), the law of charges applies and the droplets are repelled towards the source sampling cone on the counter electrode (in figure 1 it is blue in colour).

Jason S. Page, Ryan T. Kelly, Keqi Tang, Richard D. Smith, Ionization and Transmission Efficiency in an Electrospray Ionization-Mass Spectrometry Interface.

Page et al (2007:1586) indicate that as the finely charged droplets move across the space between the needle tip and the cone, solvent evaporation occurs (in figure 1, it is represented by a circled region which is expanded in figure 2 below).

Bruins (1998:349) argues that the finely divided aerosol is forced into the first phase of the mass spectrometer via a capillary. Page et al (2007:1584) argue that the first stage is heated to result into solvent evaporation. Bruins (1998:351) reported that the solvent evaporates from the droplet, because it has higher volatility and forms first vapour fraction before the analyte attains its vapourization. Page et al (2007:1585) indicated that this occurs because the solvent attains its Rayleigh limit. Accordingly (Bruins 1998:352), at Rayleigh limit, deformation of the droplet occurs resulting into emission of a charged stream via a process termed as Rayleigh fission. In the process of Rayleigh fission, the droplet loses percentage of its mass and charge.

Andries P. Bruins, 1997, ESI source design and dynamic range considerations.

Statement of the Problem

Studies on speciation analysis have been geared towards detection of unknown chemical molecules, identification, structural elucidation and quantitative properties. Research work on quantification have in the past directed to a target element where ICP-MS have been proposed to be able to provide best results that are a function of sensitivity and compound independent response. Other studies have reported that although ICP-MS is efficient, the plasma source or atomizer, damages crucial information like species characterization that is exposed to threat of limitation to retention time that chromatography can provide. However, use of retention time in order to determine a specific unknown species calls for standards that cannot be attained by other techniques except by using ESI-MS.

Aims and Objectives of the Study

1. To determine the ESI-MS in the positive and negative modes of Luthenium complex
2. To carry out analysis of two proteins namely lysozyme and cytochrome by ESI-MS
3. To carry out mass determination and correlation of charge distribution of electrospray mass spectra in the protein sequence by using MaxEnt and Mass Lynx computer software

Literature Review

Bruins (1998:346) reported that mass spectral analysis of proteins and ligands has characteristic disadvantages brought about by large molecular masses that are beyond range for many mass spectrometers. Tang et al (2007:1583) indicated that before ESI-MS was developed, some of ionization methods that were employed in studies included Fast Atom Bombardment (FAB) which is dependent on excitation states, ionization energies, analysis of singlet, duplet and triplet states. Tang et al (2007:1583) reported that the success of FAB depends on production of singly charged ions. Hubert (2003:357) argued that FAB worked best with sector instruments that had potential to attain m/z 8 kDa. Tang et al (2001:1661) proposed that the demand for the instrument to achieve a m/z 8 kDa was a limitation to chemical analysis.

Lobinski, Schaumloffel and Szpunar (2006:257) reported that limitation to analysis subject to failure of instruments to attain a 8 kDa lay in the digestion of the protein and preceded by analysis of the digested mixture. Lobinski, Schaumloffel and Szpunar (2006:287) reported that multiple charges obtained in ESI are statistically distributed on the site of the protein.

Manisali, Chen, and Schneider (2006:245), in figure 5 below illustrate a Horse heart myoglobin that was carried out at 16.9 kDa. Manisali, Chen, and Schneider (2006:246) reported that the peaks observed are subject to multiple charging affect. The charges are Gaussian distributed around the +15 charge state that ranges from +22 to +10. Similarly, Page et al (2007:1584) indicated that the distribution of the charges depends on electrospray conditions such as charge distribution and gross tertiary structure of the protein.

Irina Manisali, David D.Y. Chen, Bradley B. Schneider, Electrospray ionization source geometry for mass spectrometry: past, present, and future

McSheehy and Mester (2003:312) reported that ESI-MS provides opportunities for soft ionization for metal containing species like ligands for instance chlorophyll or haemoglobin. Bruins (1998:355) argues that Tandem mass spectrometry results into precise determination of molecular mass and structural characterization of trace quantities of molecules that are present in complex matrices.

McSheehy and Mester (2003:313) argue that ESI-MS utilizes three basic approaches in principle to characterize unknown molecules. The three identified techniques are identification of the molecular mass using high resolution QTOF or FTICR systems, identification of isotope patterns and determination of the elements in the molecular species.

Hansen et al (2002:S16) reported that evolution of speciation analysis into the field of metallomics and metabolomics has been contributed by spread of electrospray tandem quadrupole and quadrupole time of flight (Q-TOF) mass spectrometers that are employed in analytical laboratories. This is also coupled with hyphenation with high resolution techniques for separation like the HPLC and CE techniques.

Page et al (2007:1583) reported that medical drugs are analyzed by using ESI-MS. Hansen et al (2002:S16) reported that some of techniques that have been employed in structural studies include Cone voltage fragmentation with a single MS instrument, collisionally induced dissociation (CID) with triple quadrupole MS instruments, MS techniques using quadrupole ion-trap instrumentation and time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ToFMS).

Page et al (2007:1586) provides that organic molecules that have a molecular mass below 1000 daltons are studied using ESI signals that corresponds to their [M+H] ⁺ ions. According to Page et al (2007:1587), some of the low molecular mass organic molecules include antibiotics, steroids, anti-diabetic drugs, anti-tumour drugs, erectile dysfunction agents, anti-epileptic drugs, b-blockers, anti-asthmatic drugs and psychoactive drugs like tranquillizers.

ESI-MS can be run on negative ion mode or positive ion mode. The molecule should however satisfy one condition, it should have at least one polar end before the charged particles can be formed by positive ion adduction or proton loss to form a carbanion or anion. Non polar molecules cannot therefore form ion in ESI-MS. The solvent that should be used should have potential to realize sufficient vapour pressure during vapourization process.

Methodology of the Study

Section 1: Inorganic Complexes

The Ruthenium Complex: ESI Mass Spectral Analysis Method

1. Determine the mass spectrum for the positive mode and the negative mode (select the region in the chromatogram, process by combining spectra (RH mouse button), then subtract blank, then OK) this should bring up the mass spectrum
2. In each spectrum, identify the parent peak and indicate what species is present from the ruthenium complex
3. Expand the parent peaks (using the LH mouse button) in your experimental spectrum and print the mass spectrum (label m/z values to two decimal places for ions above 1% abundance)
4. Using the species present in the positive mode spectrum, determine the theoretical isotope pattern for this part of the complex
5. Carry out an isotope analysis of the ruthenium complex by combining the theoretical isotope pattern with the experimental isotope pattern. (To calculate the experimental isotope pattern, use the Tool menu and then isotope model and enter the formula)

Section Two: Protein Analysis

1. With the raw data, using the MAxEnt Software deconvolute the spectra to deduce the M of the neural compound and determine the value of the MW of the protein.
2. When doing this, select a Da range to deconvolute over with a resolution of 1 Da/channel. The uniform Gaussian height peak width should be measured from the spectrum as this is representative of the isotopic distribution of the macromolecules. Select a representative peak with good symmetry from the spectrum and by using the left mouse button drag and measure the width manually.
3. Then select iterate till converges
4. (Smoothing of the raw spectral data should not be done before deconvolution, smooth only the output result from the MaxEnt.
5. Use the menu items: MaxEnt, OK. Check that the uniform Gaussian window is >1Da
6. Average between 5 and 10 mass spectra for each protein
7. Apply smoothing parameters (peak width 4 and 1Da) using the menu items (Process, Smooth)
8. In a new window, obtain the centroid mass spectrum and label ions to one decimal (peak width 4 and centroid 80% using the menu items (process, centre
9. Print each MaxEnt profiles and centroid mass spectra

Deliverables

1. Calculate the maximum charge for the two proteins
2. Compare the results from B1 to charge state distribution observed in the ESI mass spectra
3. Explain why the charge state distributions for the two proteins differ when these samples were both analyzed at similar solution condition (PH and Solvent)

Results

Resentation

Discussion of the Results

The Inorganic ESI-MS of Ruthenium Complex

The parent peak for the Ruthenium complex occurs at 371.10 followed by 370.10, 373.10, 369.10, 368.10, 372.10, 365.10, 374.10 and 367.10. The primary isotope for the Ruthenium according to scale ES+ 2.87e12 has a relative atomic mass of 371.10. Finer results are obtained by using scale ES+2.87e7 (figure 7a, 7b) that gives maximum peak of 371.16.The ruthenium complex has a molecular mass of 144.97 at ES+ 10.00e12 and ES+ 1.35e7.

The Organic ESI-MS of Cytochrome and Lysozome

The maximum charge of the cytochrome was found to lie between 27+ to 21+ respectively. The maximum observed charge for the lysozyme was found to be 10+ to 14+. The comparative data on the charge state distribution for the cytochrome and lysozyme suggests that there exists a small angle neutral scattering intensity distribution that is subject to an increase in intensity at a small wave factor. This can be interpreted in terms of presence of a weak long range attraction that occurs between the protein amino group in the protein chain.

The observed ion mobility occurs due to increasing number of charges on the cytochrome ion meaning drift occurs faster hence possibilities of increased higher mobility of the ions. It can also be proposed that a change in drift time or changes in protein conformation either through folding or unfolding is indicator of ion mobility in the lattice. From the results, multiple peaks are observed subject to more folding of the polypeptide. Cytochrome produced 13 peaks while lysozyme produced 42 peaks.

On considering drift ration with respect to rate of mobility of the ion, it appears a folded ion drifts at higher rate that a non-folded ion. The change in distribution occurs from +11 to +5 and shift in protein conformation is to the order of +11 to +8 for the higher state and +7 to +5 for the lower charge states. Cytochrome exhibited 13 peaks with parent peak occurring at 824.55 at 830 m/z. the lysozyme produced a parent peak at 1193.19 and another major peak at 1300.80. The molecular mass of the lysozyme was found to be 14346 for both ES+ 5.90e6 and ES+ 4.04e6. On the other hand, cytochrome was found to have a molecular mass of 12355.00 at ES+ 2.20e7 and ES+ 2.68e7.

List of References

Bruins, A.P., 1998: Mechanistic aspects of electrospray ionization, J. Chromatogr. A, 794 (1-2) pp. 345-357.

Hansen, S.H., Bendahl, L., Gammelgaard, B., Jons, O., and Farver, O., 2002, Hyphenation of CE to ICP-MS and to sheathless electrospray-MS for high sensitivity and selectivity in bio-analysis, Chromatographia, 55 (Sup.), S15-S19.

Hubert Chassaigne, Electrospray Methods for Elemental Speciation, in: Rita Cornelis, Joe Caruso, Helen Crews, Klaus Heumann (eds), Handbook of Elemental Speciation: Techniques and Methodology, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2003, pp. 356-377.

Kebarle, P. and Tang, L.,1993: From ions in solution to ions in the gas phase: The mechanism of electropspray mass spectrometry, Anal. Chem., 65 (22), 972A-985A.

Lobinski, R., Schaumlöffel, D., and Szpunar, J. 2006, Review: Mass spectrometry in bioinorganic analytical chemistry, Mass Spectrom. Rev., 25, pp. 255-289.

McSheehy, S. and Mester, Z., 2003, the speciation of natural tissues by electrospray-mass spectrometry: II: Bioinduced ligands and environmental contaminants, Trends Anal. Chem. (Pers. Ed.), 22 (5), pp. 311-326.

Manisali, I., Chen, D. D.Y., and Schneider, B. B., 2006, Electrospray ionization source geometry for mass spectrometry: past, present, and future, Trends Anal. Chem. (Pers. Ed.), 25(3); 243-256.

Page, J.S., Kelly, R.T., Tang, K. and Smith, R.D., 2007, Ionization and Transmission Efficiency in an Electrospray Ionization-Mass Spectrometry Interface, J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom., 18 (9),pp 1582-1590.

Stewart, I.I., and Horlick, G., 1996, Developments in the electrospray mass spectrometry of inorganic species, Trends Anal. Chem. (Pers. Ed.), 15 (2), pp 80-90.

Stewart, I.I., 1999, Electrospray mass spectrometry: a tool for elemental speciation, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 54 (12) pp. 1649-1695.

Tang, K., Lin, Y., Matson, D.W., Kim, T. and Smith, R.D., 2001 Generation of Multiple Electrosprays Using Microfabricated Emitter Arrays for Improved Mass Spectrometric Sensitivity, Anal. Chem., 73 (8) pp. 1658-1663.

In this task, it was necessary to define formulas for the function for which three features were given. The first of them was concerned about the decreasing of the chart at a given point. The second and third conditions were about the points of local minimum and maximum of the function: the so-called stationary points.

First of all, we used the concept of a derivative for a function and its property to be equal to zero in stationary points. That is, the fact that the required function had minimum and maximum testifies to the fact that, in these values (-2, 2), the derivative function was zero. In addition, using the properties of the roots, the formula of the derivative was written as a multiplication of two brackets, which could be simplified: (x-2)(x+2)=x^2-4

Finally, the defining value was what was the minimum and what was the maximum. The fact is that the reduction and increase of the function at a specific point is due to signs: they are replaced periodically. Since the minimum function was at -2, so to the left of this value, the function was positive. From -2 to 2: negative. From 2 to infinity: positive again. Since the construction of an already existing result was not proof of this reasoning, we decided to change the signs of the full function to the opposite, in other words, we made an inversion relative to the X-axis. In this case, everything turned out to be correct.

Answer: -(1/3)*x^3 + 4x

This is a worthy and harmonious answer, which fully demonstrates the understanding of the material. I honestly liked that the author of the post used numerical, analytical methods, and showed his calculations in detail. Thus, he turned to the search of the function integral and showed me the rule he uses for this purpose. This is a surprisingly strict and academic style. In addition, the author noted the necessary points on the graph. Therefore, in general, this work is worthy of high appreciation because it reflects logic, fidelity of judgment, and mathematical literacy.

The natural environment plays a critical role in the life of people as it shapes their culture, customs, and societies they form. This idea is also reflected in works by Jefferson and De Crèvecoeur, who discuss it from various perspectives. For instance, in Letters from an American Farmer, the second author cogitates about the physical environment and societies that might emerge regarding its unique features (De Crèvecoeur 87).

Exploring the conditions of a new American state, he tries to draw a parallel between them and citizens identity. Jefferson revolves around the same idea as both in Autobiography and Notes of the State of Virginia he assumes that natural resources of the land and its peculiarities are vital for the creation of a good society (Notes on the State of Virginia 45). This idea repeated by two authors seems interesting to me as it explains the differences between people living in various parts of the globe and the peculiarities of their customs and traditions. The area, nature, lands, and resources affect individuals, shape their mentalities and value systems, and precondition the appearance of a particular community that evolves and transforms into a unique society.

Analyzing the authors ideas from the historical context, their desire to cogitate about the origin of states or citizens identity is explained by the appearance of a new American state. Being a young country, it had to pass a long way to become a serious actor in international relations. However, it was critically important to generate the concept of peoples identity as all people living in the USA were newcomers and did not have a common culture. For this reason, Jefferson and De Crèvecoeur tried to explain how the land impacted people and helped to create a new value system fundamental for the formation of a nation.

Works Cited

Jefferson, Thomas. Autobiography. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017.

. Notes on the State of Virginia. Penguin Classics, 1998.

De Crèvecoeur, Jean. Letters from An American Farmer. Kessinger Publishing, 2010.

Ethnography is a formal process of intuitive understanding something people are keen on. The ethnographers observe, record, and describe social relations in written. Their primary sources of data are questions, conversations, notes, interpretation of conventional signs, and spending time in the environment they aim to investigate. The difference between ethnographers work and routine observation lies in the formalization of data collecting and interpreting process. Writing the notes is the primary tool of the ethnographer, as further the ethnography assumes the systematization of experience.

In a simplified form, ethnographical methods can be identified as involvement in the field in every possible way. They assume walking, driving, or flying  all kinds of interaction with the researched society. The leading ethnographers aim is to record the process of events being the part of them. The essential data collecting method of ethnography is fieldwork. It includes but is not limited to both participant and non-participant advertence, interviews, and so on. Writing is an essential part of the method for the ethnographer. Typically, ethnography results in report production in terms of a concrete situation. Therefore, the importance of documenting and journaling is incredibly high and quite noticeable. The final report brings together the whole conveyed study, including documentary evidence, conversations, observations of practices, rules, behaviors, and beliefs. Writing reflects an ethnographers vision of the studied social environment.

Ethnography studies the issues that need a solution collecting data from different sources in multiple ways. Thorough research of the situation assumes plunging in it to observe, interact, and document. Ethnography aims to provide the fullest possible picture of the social environment. Therefore, using multiple data sources and spending much time in the field, research and writing are equally important. Hence, if I want to apply ethnography in my place, I will approach social media sources (both official ones and forums as they provide an opportunity of virtual participant observation of the current social and behavioral environment). I will also use interviews and other kinds of communication and physical observation, putting down the notes that might be incorporated into my final ethnographic work.

The ethnographic approach usually emphasizes the ethnographers first-hand experiences. The researchers regularly write themselves into the field notes, being active and reflexive participants of the studied process. The research assumes the ethnographers thorough analysis and description. The ethnographer is usually focused on the naturally occurring data: it is a context but not artificial manufacturing or reconstructing, which is essential. The critical approach in ethnography is the use of a variety of methods. The ethnographer should resort to every available data source, including spontaneous and systematically planned interviews, keeping notes of observations, generating visual data, and documentary evidence analysis.

The ethnographic passage about Hobart captures the readers attention due to its tone and structure. It is not cold, official, dead, restrained, or estranged. It is a combination of a live speech, subtle humor with a touch of philosophy, and attention to detail. The author makes his readers feel like witnessing, and experiencing the described situation themselves, being involved in them. The passages purpose is to underline that even the most routine, trivial, and unremarkable case might be insightful from the point of view of social interest. Any experience teaches us to be social to a certain extent. Therefore, all the people are intuitively able to follow the path of ethnographical study, as they are, in fact, familiar with the ways social investigations are conducted.