Category: Sciences 2502

The two hypotheses of the article include: H₁  Grabbing water bodies have a negative socio-economic impact on indigenous residents with different livelihoods, H₀  Grabbing water bodies do not have a negative socio-economic impact on indigenous residents with different livelihoods. The hypothesis is correct since the research is focused on studying why grabbing water bodies occur in the city of Dhaka and the results of such actions (Sujauddin 242). The hypothesis also matches the main objectives of the research being carried out. The research study was done between 2019 and 2020 in three rivers.

Both qualitative and quantitative research methods were used in this study. The researcher did the study in three main rivers in Dhaka city: Balu River, Turag River, and Buriganga River. The purpose of selecting the three rivers is because of easy accessibility and being prone to the grabbing problem. Proportionality principle and simple random sampling techniques were applied, and 130 (N=130) people participated as respondents generalized from the communities around the three rivers (Sujauddin 245). Case studies, interviews, and discussions in groups were also used in the study to get enough data on the water bodies grabbing issues and their impacts.

The interviews combined a survey design and the one-on-one method. The survey approach involved interview questions that were both open-ended and closed, and then the one-on-one interview was carried later on ten people (Sujauddin 248). Later the data was checked again, and the classification of variables done to ascertain integrity. Input and analysis of data were done in SPSS and Microsoft Excel software. The researcher used graphical presentation and descriptive statistics to analyze data and present results.

The researcher used a field research tool in conducting the study. The fieldwork was done in Dhaka city around the three main rivers; Turag, Balu, and Buriganga (Sujauddin 243). The residents around the three rivers were the main target for the research. These residents were easily available as they are informally employed around the area, they had a lot of information about water bodies grabbing around the area, and they were also directly impacted by the grabbing. Field research provided enough data that was analyzed and presented demographically.

Researcher Sujauddin reported both qualitative and quantitative reports. The quantitative report was that most participants in this study were young peoplea small proportion comprised of adults ranging between 46 and 55 years of age (Sujauddin 250). The participants comprised males and females who were mostly the head of the families visited and were also the main providers of their families. The participants occupations were diverse, including farmers, fishermen, shopkeepers, and business people. Notably, a good number of women were identified as housewives.

The best responses came from the youths who seemed informed about the impacts of the water bodies grabbing issue in the region. The qualitative report showed that the economic status of people around those areas was very low due to the negative effects of the grabbing issue. Most participants displayed illiteracy in the way they responded to questions. Most residents in the area were unemployed due to their low educational standards. Most of them were primary school graduates, with few post-primary school graduates.

The income percentage from the study showed low economic income. With the large families reported in the area, 10000 to around 15000 Bangladeshi taka was a low income for them (Sujauddin 245). From both the quantitative and qualitative reports, various people were involved in the grabbing of water bodies. Governments, political people, and big people who own companies were termed being at the forefront in the grabbing process. Development of industries and construction of houses were some of the main activities contributing to the grabbing of water bodies.

Qualitative reports explained the impacts of grabbing water bodies not only on the society but also on the residents of the area. The social-economic results of grabbing water bodies identified were; income reduction, high cost of food, mental stress and pressure, problems in transportation, household difficulties, and workplaces being insufficient. Livelihood threats leading to migration were also an impact mentioned. So, it is true grabbing water bodies negatively impacts the natives. Microsoft excels, and the Statistical package for social science was used to analyze the collected data (Sujauddin 246). The data was presented in a socio-demographic profile with different elements indicated with their percentages. The socio-demographic profile contained percentage ages of people interviewed and surveyed percentages of their occupations, their academic qualification percentages and households income per month. This profile was simple to understand as the data was clearly analyzed.

The causes and effects of grabbing water bodies were also analyzed and demo-graphically presented. The profile had grabbers such as government, politicians, nomads, businessmen, and local people, among others (Sujauddin 246). Reasons for grabbing water bodies such as the establishment of apartments, sand business, constructing markets, making garage, and building slams are also represented. Effects of land grabbing are also analyzed and represented; high cost of living, low income, fishery problem, and difficulty in transportation.

From the research study, the researcher concluded that grabbing water bodies negatively affects people in a specific society. The lives of Dhaka people were seen to deteriorate massively due to the grabbing effects (Sujauddin 251). It is recommended that awareness should be increased on the importance of water bodies. Several seminars and talks should be organized between residents and the authorities on the grabbing of water bodies. Since the grabbing of water bodies takes place gradually, the government should monitor water bodies frequently for the safety of the locals and the society as a whole.

Work Cited

Sujauddin, K. M. Socio-Economic Impact of Grabbing Water Bodies: A Sociological Study. EAS Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies, vol. 2, no. 5, 2020. Web.

Introduction

Phytoremediation is when green plants are used to treat and control hazardous chemicals and contaminants from groundwater and soil by uptaking the pollutants into the plant tissue or leaves. Examples of these contaminants are metal and metalloids, sludge, convectional wastes, and xenobiotic pollutants. The process is eco-friendly, which can mitigate various methods that remove and destroy hazardous chemicals and contaminants in the soil in a cost-effective approach (Muthusaravanan et al., 2018). There are multiple types of phytoremediation; they include phytostabilization, rhizosphere biodegradation, rhizofiltration, and phyto-volatilization.

Plants Used for Phytoremediation

Indian mustard

The plant is essential to accumulate metals and produces a large amount of biomass during the process. According to research, Indian mustard removes Cadmium from soil three times more than all plants (Muthusaravanan et al., 2018). The plant reduces Lead by 30% and Selenium by 50% (Muthusaravanan et al., 2018). Besides, it also reduces the quantity of copper, zinc, and mercury.

Willow

Willow reduces amount of diesel and heavy metals in soil through its roots. The plant reduces Cadmium and Lead quantity in the soil. Also, it is effective in mixed heavy metals like areas that have been polluted by diesel.

Poplar Tree

The critical effect of poplar trees on groundwater and soil has been researched thoroughly. They are well known for their roots which take up a large amount of water (Muthusaravanan et al., 2018). Research has shown that poplar trees can degrade hydrocarbons of petroleum, such as toluene, although the tree is not widespread in public gardens.

Indian Grass

Indian Grass is a plant which is essential for underwater and soil around them. The research has proved its detoxifying power of agrochemicals like herbicides.

Sunflower

Through sunflowers, the PAH level is reduced from the soil. Zinc, Copper, and Lead, which are heavy metals, are fed on by sunflower hence reducing their quantity in soil and groundwater.

Toxic Chemicals Removed by Water Hyacinth

Water hyacinth can absorb toxic chemicals from water, such as Strontium 90, Lead, and Mercury. Water hyacinths achieve this through their tough fibrous roots to purify water (Muthusaravanan et al., 2018). They absorb phosphorus and nitrogen, and others contaminants that toxify water. It purifies water with hazardous chemicals 10,000 times that in the surrounding.

Advantages of Water Hyacinth

Water hyacinth is used to remove agrochemical residues, like herbicides, from contaminated water. Also, hyacinth removes cyanide and arsenic from dirty water besides, the plant removes heavy metals through uptake methods.

Objectives

This lab aims to determine the rate at which water hyacinth plants remove total hardness in the form of calcium metal from a water sample.

Materials

1. Water Hyacinth Plant (for $30/10 plants).
2. Burette and burette stand.
3. 0.01 M EDTA Titrating Solution.
4. Eriochrome Black T Indicator (0.2 g in 15 mL of distilled water).
5. Buffer solution.
6. Calcium solution.

Experimental Procedure

1. Obtain 50 mL of the initial calcium solution from the instructor (Time = 0 min sample).
2. Place 2 liters of calcium solution in the aluminium container.
3. Obtain a water hyacinth plant from the instructor.
4. Place two of the plant in the aluminium container so that the roots are entirely underwater.
5. To the Time = 0 min sample (step 1), add 1 mL of buffer solution and swirl to mix (Solution will appear wine red if calcium is present) and swirl to mix.
6. Titrate slowly with 0.01M EDTA until the solution becomes blue (swirl to mix after each addition).
7. Record the volume of EDTA used.
8. Repeat steps 5  9 for solutions removed from the aluminium container at 15 min, 30 min, 60 min, 90 min, 120 min.

Results

Data Analysis

????? ???????? (??/? ?? ????3) =? ? ? ? 1000?? /?????? ????

Where:

Total hardness is calculated using the formula

Total hardness = (A×B×1000)/ mL sample used

Where A= Volume EDTA used, B=1 (in present case)

• At 0

  • (14.52×1×100)/ 50 = 290.4
• At 15

  • (13.72×1×100)/ 50=274.4
• At 30

  • (12.74×1×100)/ 50=248.8
• At 60

  • (11.18×1×100)/ 50=223.6
• At 90

  • (9.94×1×100)/ 50=198.8
• At 120

  • (7.34×1×100)/ 50=146.8

The total hardness of mg CaCO3 increases with an increase in the volume of EDTA used and decreased with time.

Gradient (value of slope) = change in total hardness/ change in time = (223.6-290.4)/ (60-0) = -1.113

The plotted value of the slope is -1.113, while the rate of total hardness removal is 1.113 mg / (L × min).

Conclusion

The rate at which water hyacinth plants remove total hardness was found to be -1.113 mg / (L × min); however, the value is negative, meaning the rate decreases with time. Through the experiment, one can learn the advantages of water hyacinths and plants used for phytoremediation. One can learn to calculate the rate at which water hyacinths remove total hardness from water using the gradient. The experiment was generally simple since it involved simple calculations, including addition and division, to calculate total hardness. Similarly, the graph was easy to plot and gradient simple to solve.

Reference

Muthusaravanan, S., Sivarajasekar, N., Vivek, J. S., Paramasivan, T., Naushad, M., Prakashmaran, & Al-Duaij, O. K. (2018). Phytoremediation of heavy metals: Mechanisms, methods, and enhancements. Environmental Chemistry letters, 16(4), 1339-1359.

Introduction

Statistical research is one of the most popular modes of examining patterns and variable associations. It entails collecting a large amount of numerical data and analyzing it to make meaningful conclusions. Its three most important phases are data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Often, data analysis can only occur when the researcher has correctly arranged the data and identified the appropriate analysis tool based on their studies aims and objectives. SPSS, R, and MATLAB are some examples of common statistical analysis software that researchers utilize often. These tools can produce such statistical measures as chi-square tests, t-test, and parametric analyses that illustrate variable relations, variations, and patterns (Shih & Fay, 2017). However, one needs to possess many statistical analysis skills to use these tools and interpret the outcomes correctly. Statistical research remains popular because it helps formulate and test hypotheses and make generalizations about a population based on the behaviors of a sample obtained from it.

In this research, the author identifies three statistical research articles about diabetes that utilize the chi-square test (also called the X2-test). The researcher then reviews these articles and includes information about their aims, objectives, and results where applicable. None of the three articles that the researcher identifies explicitly describes its research question or specific objectives. The authors also fail to present their hypothesis exclusively. However, in all of them, the aim of the study is clear and well represented. In all of them, the chi-square test proves that the leading risk factors of type 2 diabetes mellitus include body age, mass index, hypertension, blood sugar levels, cholesterol levels, and triglycerides. The risk of a person becoming diabetic increases significantly as they age. Some factors such as dyslipidemia and positive family history become important predictors of diabetes if assessed collectively.

Context Development

Zou et al. (2016) conducted a critical analysis of type 2 diabetes mellitus risk factors and their association. Their work focused on Chinas Guilin region and involved 6,660 individuals. The authors selected the participants using a cluster random sampling method and sent them a cross-sectional survey to collect data. The researchers then took the participants physical measurements and did liver and ultrasound on them. Zou et al. (2016) also conducted a general laboratory investigation on the participants and asked them to respond to structured questionnaire questions. Once Zou et al. (2016) collected all the needed statistical data, they used a classification tree to analyze diabetes Mellitus risk factors and their relationship. The authors then compared the metabolic and clinical characteristics between patients and the control population. In quantitatively analyzing the association between these risk factors, Zou et al. (2016) utilized the non-conditional logistic regression model. They also relied on version 18.0 of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software to conduct all analyses.

Regarding categorical variables, Zou et al. (2016) expressed them as percentages and used the x2-test (Chi-square test) to analyze them. Zou et al. (2016) used the statistical research process to identify 338 individuals with type 2 diabetes; 217 were men. The researchers also realized that individuals with type 2 diabetes also had hypertension, high body mass index, and high total cholesterol from examining the decision tree. They also found high levels of high uric acid and large amounts of low-density lipoproteins. They concluded that type 2 diabetes in most patients results from the interaction of more than one factor, with age, BMI, and hypertension being chief among them. Without statistical analysis, Zou et al. (2016) would have had difficulties performing the study or coming up with conclusions. The classification and regression tree (CRT) model utilized in this regard is a non-parametric analysis applicable to potential interactions between categorical or continuous variables. For the parent node and the child nodes, the minimum sample size was 100 and 50, respectively.

Liu et al. (2019) also used statistical methods to predict the risk of diabetes. They constructed a logical regression model, a decision tree model, and a neural network model to analyze type two diabetes risk factors. They then compared the three models prediction accuracy by calculating the relative operating characteristic (ROC) curve. Liu et al. (2019) then inputted the data obtained from this calculation back into the three statistical models. Their results showed that type 2 diabetes prevalence in 4177 subjects not previously diagnosed with the disease was 9.31 percent. They also found that age, triglyceride, hypertension, alcohol consumption, and total cholesterol are the most influential type 2 diabetes mellitus factors. The neural network models, logistic regression models, and decision tree models prediction accuracies were 0.780, 0.711, and 0.698, respectively. The differences in the area under the curve after back-inputting the data (i.e., back probation) for all the three models were statistically significant.

Liu et al. (2019) created a database to help them finish a consistency test using the Epi Data 3.1 software with double-entry data. For general descriptive analysis and chi-square generation, they utilized version 24.0 of the SPSS software. Liu et al. (2019) also created the neural network, logistic regression, and decision tree models using the SPSS software. Out of the 4177 participants, they randomly selected 2924 individuals, representing 70 percent of the total, to provide the training data set. They also randomly selected 125 participants, representing 30 percent of the total, to offer the decision tree model and the logistic regression model a validation data set. 115 (9.18 percent) and 274 (9.37) people with diabetes fell in the decision tree and logistical regression model data sets. For the neural network model, Liu et al. (2019) extracted one-third of the people from the training set and the testing set, with each cohort containing 193 and 81 people with diabetes, respectively. Liu et al. (2019) included the chi-square test in their neural network model.

Lastly, Urrutia et al. (2021) investigated diabetes mellitus and associated risk factors incidence in Spains Basque Countrys adult population. For them, the chi-square statistic helped scrutinize relationships and the baseline characteristics of the studys population. The exercise was essentially a reexamination of an adult population after a seven-year follow-up program. Urrutia et al. (2021) compare their study findings with previous research conducted seven years earlier that involved randomly selected 847 individuals aged 18 and above. Notably, the participants in that previous study came from Spains Basque Country and answered questions from a structured survey. They then took an oral glucose tolerance test and underwent a physical examination. In the 2021 reassessment, Urrutia et al. (2021) collected the same variables from 517 participants, 43 of whom had diabetes. After doing some statistical examinations, the authors realized that the diabetes cumulative incidence was 4.6 percent for seven years, with 6.56 cases per 1000 person-years being the raw incidence rate. Fifty-nine percent of those who had diabetes were undiagnosed, suggesting that the diseases incidence in the general public might be higher than previously anticipated.

Urrutia et al. (2021) identified age as the most important diabetes marker regarding the leading risk factors of the disease. Specifically, they found that the diseases likelihood increases by 1 percent per decade for individuals aged 60 years and above. The authors also identified dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and prediabetes as other major risk factors. Urrutia et al. (2021) also found an association between diabetes and hypertension, body mass index (specifical obesity), positive family history, and low education levels. It is unclear how a lack of education leads to diabetes, but poor nutrition, ignorance, and lack of exercising increase among the illiterate population, possibly contributing to such lifestyle diseases as diabetes. The authors successfully identified the most important risk factors in diabetes using the univariate analysis. Sex- and age-adjusted multivariate analysis revealed to Urrutia et al. (2021) that the predictive value of some factors (such as waist-to-hip ratio, dyslipidemia, and family history) increased when they were assessed collectively. They performed all the statistical analyses using version 4.0.1 of the R software.

In all three types of research, the authors did not explicitly identify their research questions or objectives. Instead, they stated their studies aims, described the methodologies used, discussed the results, and made concluding remarks. The authors in all three studies did not create any hypotheses for their respective studies. Instead, they focused on achieving their aims by creating an effective and reliable research methodology. All the articles utilize the chi-square statistic and other statistical tests to prove that indeed body mass index, hypertension, and high blood sugar levels are among the leading diabetes risk factors. The researchers statistical methods simplify and make numerical data meaningful and useful by showing correlations, associations, and patterns. Statistical researchs ability to simplify data also makes it an important tool for generalization. Notably, every research aims to originate specific findings and generalize them back to the population from where the researchers obtained the participants.

Statistical Tool Discussion

One of the major roles that statistics plays in research is that it helps researchers determine observation patterns. It is useful in scientific investigations as they provide evidence of trends and relationships between phenomena or variables. Statistics also help authors to compare observations with theoretical predictions. Mathematical models and theories often provide ideal situations regarding relationships and the interaction of variables (Nibrad, 2019). Through the statistical analysis, researchers can see how well actual events resemble those predicted mathematically. Generally, statistical methods also help researchers apply scientific methods in research, assist in hypothesis formulation, aid in experimental design, provide probability information, and test hypotheses. It is also useful in collecting, organizing, and analyzing data and expressing inference uncertainty at any preassigned probability level.

Examples of common statistical tests include chi-square, mean, mode, ANOVA, and t-tests. They are used to identify patterns, associations, relationships, and variations in phenomena (Turhan, 2020). Often, the effectiveness and reliability of statistical analysis depend on the methods utilized in examining the data and the accuracy of the information used. If the researcher fails to define the statistical data well within the analysis software, they may have wrong and unreliable outcomes. Another disadvantage of statistical data is that one needs to possess many technical skills to do it at a professional level. Although various software that could help individuals do statistical analysis exist, one needs knowledge on how to organize the data, upload it to the analysis software, and interpret the outcomes. Notably, without effective interpretation, statistical data are useless. They only become meaningful when skilled individuals interpret them and conclude them. Statistical data may require cleaning sometimes. Therefore, the information it represents is not necessarily the whole truth. It is liable to be miscued and does not depict the entire story. Most importantly, since statistical research aims to make generalizations back to the population, its accuracy depends on the size.

Conclusion

Researchers use different statistical tests to generate or test hypotheses or examine patterns, variations, and associations, among other things. For example, researchers use the t-test inferential statistics to determine if two groups means differ significantly. The chi-square test is also another popular statistic used to understand how categorical variables are related to each other. It is also expressed as the X2-test, and its null hypothesis is that no relationship exists between a given populations categorical variables. It is often effectively utilized in the evaluation of tests of independence by comparing patterns. In diabetes, common risk factors associated with the disease include body mass index, age, hypertension, and blood cholesterol levels. The three research articles examined in this study used the chi-square test effectively to show how various diabetes risk factors are associated with each other. Without using the chi-square test and similar statistical tests, it would have been difficult or impossible to establish with some degree of certainty the identified variables association.

References

Liu, S., Gao, Y., Shen, Y., Zhang, M., Li, J., & Sun, P. (2019). Application of three statistical models for predicting the risk of diabetes. BMC Endocrine Disorders, 19(1), 1-10.

Shih, J. H., & Fay, M. P. (2017). Pearsons chisquare test and rank correlation inferences for clustered data. Biometrics, 73(3), 822-834.

Nibrad, G. M. (2019). The importance of statistical tools in research. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences, 9(11), 45-54.

Turhan, N. S. (2020). Karl Pearsons Chi-Square Tests. Educational Research and Reviews, 16(9), 575-580.

Urrutia, I., Martín-Nieto, A., Martínez, R., Casanovas-Marsal, J. O., Aguayo, A., Del Olmo, J., Arana, E., Fernandez-Rubio, E, Castaño, L., & Gaztambide, S. (2021). Incidence of diabetes mellitus and associated risk factors in the adult population of the Basque country, Spain. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1-8.

Zou, D., Ye, Y., Zou, N., & Yu, J. (2016). Analysis of risk factors and their interactions in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A crosssectional survey in Guilin, China. Journal of Diabetes Investigation, 8(2), 188-194.

Sampling is an important component of research that can have a substantial impact on the findings, their validity and reliability. The article understudy is written by Labrague and McEnroe-Petitte (2016) and is concerned with the influence of the level of anxiety among women undergoing gynecological surgery. The study involved 97 participants, and it was found that exposure to music in the preoperative period reduced anxiety and associated symptoms in females undergoing gynecological surgery. This post includes a brief analysis of the sampling method Labrague and McEnroe-Petitte (2016) employed.

The researchers recruited 105 patients from a 150-bed government hospital in the Philippines (Labrague & McEnroe-Petitte, 2016). Eight women withdrew from the research due to different reasons. The purposive sampling method was utilized, and it is noteworthy that quite limited data on this process is provided in the article, which increases uncertainty regarding the validity and reliability of results. The purposive sampling implies the researchers reliance on their judgment when choosing the participants from the target population (Howlett et al., 2020). This sampling technique is commonly used with a comparatively small sample or when the perspective of knowledgeable individuals is needed. In the present case, the sample size was rather small, so the use of purposive sampling could be justified.

The strength and benefits of this sampling method are its cost- and time-effectiveness. The researchers recruited and chose the patients who volunteered to participate in the study. These females were also willing to respond properly to the given questions, which contributes to the reliability of the findings. At the same time, this sampling technique is associated with some limitations and weaknesses. Labrague and McEnroe-Petitte (2016) did not include sufficient details regarding the allocation of the participants into the control and experimental groups. Hence, it can be difficult to estimate the criteria used in this process, which can be associated with a substantial degree of bias. The method enhances vulnerability to mistakes in researchers judgments defining the participation of individuals (Howlett et al., 2020). Most importantly, the findings of such studies can hardly be generalized, which is a considerable weakness.

As mentioned above, due to the small sample size, the use of purposive sampling is possible. However, it does not promote valid and reliable results that included physiological parameters and anxiety questionnaires. Random sampling could have been a better option for the study under analysis. The purposive sampling is more justified with such data collection methods as interviews and the studies focusing on participants thoughts, views, and opinions (Howlett et al., 2020). Therefore, the study could have been improved if both qualitative and quantitative (or qualitative only) data had been collected. For instance, physiological parameters and anxiety levels could have been measured, but the participants (or some of them) could have been interviewed or invited to participate in focus group discussions.

On balance, it is necessary to note that the use of the purposive sampling method in the study in question was possible due to the limited sample and the focus on people committed to participating. However, this technique is associated with certain weaknesses, making the findings non-generalizable and prone to bias. The use of this sampling method could have been more justified if the researchers had analyzed qualitative data as purposive sampling is usually employed when peoples insights and perspectives on some issues, aspects, or trends are needed.

References

Howlett, B., Shelton, T. G., & Rogo, E. (2020). Evidence-based practice for health professionals. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Labrague, L. J., & McEnroe-Petitte, D. M. (2016). Influence of music on preoperative anxiety and physiologic parameters in women undergoing gynecologic surgery. Clinical Nursing Research, 25(2), 157-173.

Secondary Structures in Proteins

Secondary Structures in Protein entail the local folded structures forming within a polypeptide following interactions between backbone atoms. They entail the polypeptide chain, which is not part of the R groups. The most common structures are the ² pleated and ± helix sheets (Taechalertpaisarn, 2019). Hydrogen bonds hold the structure in shape that forms between the amino H and carbonyl O of different amino acids. This paper explains proteins common secondary structures and signaling lipids from Arachidonic Acid.

The carbon and nitrogen atoms have a high magnitude bond angle of approximately 110° making it impossible to form a straight line in a peptide chain. Every carbon and nitrogen atom tends to rotate limiting its flexibility. Peptide chains develop an asymmetric helical shape because almost all amino acids are asymmetric l-amino acids (Taechalertpaisarn, 2019). Glycine is the only exceptional amino acid that does not have the shape. Notably, certain fibrous proteins have elongated helices appearing on a straight screw-like axis. All peptides usually have common chains determining their structural features. The secondary structure is developed following the peptides effect and bonding.

Beta sheets are developed following the H-bonding occurring in adjacent chains between backbone residues. The sheet forms following the creation of a single chain when H bonds the neighboring chains where the acceptor (carbonyl) and donor (amide) atoms point sideways instead of forming a straight chain. They can be either parallel or antiparallel determining the developed shape. The parallel beta sheets occur when the chain points in a similar direction in the amino-carboxyl terminus while the antiparallel shape is noted when adjacent chains take a matching point.

At least two polypeptide segments form a chain next to each other resulting in the development of a sheet-like structure in a ²-pleated sheet. Hydrogen bonds hold the chain together where they form between amino and carboxyl groups in the backbone and extend below and above the plane. The sheet may point in the same direction or take a parallel position implying that their C- and N- termini tend to match up (Taechalertpaisarn, 2019). They can also take an antiparallel position where it points in opposite directions suggesting that one strands N-terminus are placed next to another C-terminus.

Hydrogen bonds join amino H (N-H) and the carbonyl (C=O) of a different amino in the ± helix sheet. Amino H (N-H) is usually four down the chain in amino acid. The bonding pattern influences the polypeptide chain to form a helical structure looking like a curved ribbon where each contains 3-6 amino acids. This implies that the R groups can interact freely because they stick outward in a helix structure.

Some amino acids are less or more likely to be found in either a ² pleated or ±-helices sheet. The term helix breaker is sometimes applied to refer to the amino acid proline due to its unusual R group forming a ring after bonding with the amino group. It is usually incompatible with the formation of the helix since it creates a bend noted in the chain. Some of the amino acids found in ²-pleated sheets include tyrosine, tryptophan, as well as phenylalanine since their R groups have large ring structures. This is following the many spaces created for the side chains in the ² pleated sheet structure (Taechalertpaisarn, 2019). Notably, most of the proteins have both the ² pleated sheets and ± helices. However, some proteins contain one of these types while others lack either form. The secondary structure can be applied to predict the possibilities of having a tertiary structure since analyzing the amino acid sequence may fail to offer accurate results. The pattern of hydrogen bonding determines the secondary structure of the protein.

Molten globule (MG) is a protein state that is usually less or more compact. They have partially folded confrontations and compact proteins with native substantial and compact secondary structures. Their surface area is highly solvent-exposed hydrophobic and it has a limited detectable tertiary structure due to its native state. They have a solid state similar to tertiary structures since they lack specific amino acid residues that are tight packing (Parray et al., 2020). It entails diverse partially folded protein states that can be found in conditions that are slightly denaturing including high temperature, mild denaturant, and low pH.

Cytochrome c is one of the examples of acid-denatured proteins, and it tends to unfold completely in the presence of HCL at pH 2 when salt is unavailable. The MG is a protein folding intermediates marked with native-like compact and perturbed tertiary interaction. It influences the advent of protein aggregation since it is marked by about a 10-30% increase in the gyration radius, intact secondary structure, and loss of tertiary structure (Pedrote et al., 2018). There exists a relationship between the development of MG and N-homocysteinylation.

Signaling Lipids from Arachidonic Acid

The hydrolysis of phospholipids in the presence of phospholipase A2 results in the freeing up of arachidonic acid. The cytosolic phospholipase A2 help generate the arachidonic acid for the signaling purpose. Cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 enzymes facilitate the conversion of the acid into thromboxanes, prostacyclin, and prostaglandins (Dean & Lodhi, 2018). Epoxygenase enzyme triggers the conversion of the acid into epoxyeicosatrienoic acids and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) while the 5-lipoxygenase influences the oxidation of arachidonic acid into 5-hydroperoxy-eicosatetraenoic acid.

Some the examples of bioactive lipids are ceramides, steroid hormones, eicosanoids, and diacylglycerols (DAGs). Ceramides are sphingolipids serving many roles including linking internal cell metabolism to external signals, influencing cell differentiation, and apoptosis. It affects cell growth and triggers migration, senescence, and adhesion. Diacylglycerols (DAGs) promote metabolic pathways where they influence membrane function and structure. They activate regulatory proteins by enabling and altering cell-signaling cascades (Dean & Lodhi, 2018). Eicosanoids entail lipid-soluble molecules obtained through the oxidation of arachidonic acid. They take part in vasoconstriction and vasodilation and improvement of the quality of sleep. Steroid hormones entail chemical messengers facilitating the movement of signals from one cell to the next. There are five classes and they have a similar structure and are synthesized from the same cholesterol and parent sterol. They are progestogens (progesterone), androgens, mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and estrogens.

Paracrine signaling is a cellular communication where cells generate signals to influence changes in the neighboring cells affecting their behaviors. Molecules usually diffuse over a limited distance since it influences local actions. Involved cells tend to secrete paracrine into the extracellular environment where it travels to other cells and influences the outcome (Gonzalez-Gonzalez et al., 2017). Lipids usually act as paracrine signaling molecules by binding cell surface receptors of the target cells. Eicosanoids including leukotrienes, prostacyclin, thromboxanes, and prostaglandins are the most important molecules in this function. They act locally in paracrine signaling pathways because they are broken down rapidly.

Bioactive lipids play a role in the signaling in an organisms cells. They are signaling molecules present in the immune system where that facilitate the proper functioning of the adaptive and innate immune systems. They help maintain structure and order in cells and transfer proteins to the right organelles. Moreover, metabolic pathways usually depend on lipid signals to serve basic cell functions such as exocytosis and endocytosis (Luo, 2018). They also serve the specialized functions of neurons and endocrine cells.

The majority of lipids that serve as the second messenger during cell signaling come from the arachidonic acid (AA) pathway. Lipids play an important role and usually include phospholipids, mono and diglycerides, and sterols. They are structural cell membrane components and energy contributors to metabolism (Luo, 2018). Lipids are also signaling molecules and intracellular transport participants that facilitate the movement of organelles. Apart from the role of storing energy and a passive component, they support signal transduction. The interior components tend to respond to the external part of the cell and environment. The primary messenger refers to the chemical signal influencing the cell response.

The information transmitter does not enter the cell but tends to bind with the surface receptors located on the membrane surface. The communication happens through sensing of a ligand to the outside. This results in the activation of the lipid bilayer at the intracellular or membrane surface (Luo, 2018). Enzymes usually cleave lipid molecules where it functions as the secondary messenger by sending intracellular signals. It binds the intracellular enzyme to trigger processes inside the cell. Lipid signaling facilitates appropriate cell response based on the environmental situation that is likely to affect certain activities.

Lipid signaling entails biological events where the messenger binds a targeted protein such as phosphatase, kinase, or receptor. It entails the propagation of signal or lipid-dependent activation within a cell. Lipids are considered key components of biological membranes sensing extracellular conditions. Signaling involving mediated lipid arises as an attempt to respond to diverse environmental stresses including drought, pathogen attack, and changes in salinity and temperature (Luo, 2018). Many substances serve as signal lipids including fatty acids, sphingolipid, diacylglycerol, and Nacylethanolamine, lysophospholipid, oxylipins, and inositol phosphate. Every lipid class has specific signaling cascades, biosynthetic mechanisms, and biological relevance.

Arachidonic acid (AA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid and a precursor for many signaling lipids that are present in cell membranes phospholipids. Receptor activation influences their release where phospholipase A2 is turned on. The outcome is hydrolyzed sn-2 ester bond and subsequent generation of AA. This initiates various events and the production of many lipid mediators increasing vascular permeability, triggering inflammation, and boosting platelet activation (Luo, 2018). Enzymatic or non-enzymatic pathways can lead to the generation of these mediators. The enzymatic breakdown takes place through lipoxygenase, cytochrome P450s, or the cyclooxygenase pathways resulting in the generation of inflammatory mediators

The nonenzymatic pathway results in the production of free radicals following excess oxidative stress that influences the generation of isoprostanes. In enzymatic breakdown, LOX and P450s pathway tends to metabolize AA to generate hydroxy eicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs). Enzymatic reactions are responsible for most of the pro-inflammatory lipids from the AA metabolism (Luo, 2018). These inflammations serve an essential role in chemotaxis especially neutrophils implying that their presence is an indication of a reaction.

References

Dean, J. M., & Lodhi, I. J. (2018). Structural and functional roles of ether lipids. Protein & Cell, 9(2), 196-206. Web.

Gonzalez-Gonzalez, F. J., Chandel, N. S., Jain, M., & Budinger, G. S. (2017). Reactive oxygen species as signaling molecules in the development of lung fibrosis. Translational Research, 190, 61-68. Web.

Luo, X., Zhao, X., Cheng, C., Li, N., Liu, Y., & Cao, Y. (2018). The implications of signaling lipids in cancer metastasis. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 50(9), 1-10. Web.

Parray, Z. A., Ahmad, F., Alajmi, M. F., Hussain, A., Hassan, M. I., & Islam, A. (2020). Formation of molten globule state in horse heart cytochrome c under physiological conditions: Importance of soft interactions and spectroscopic approach in crowded milieu. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 148, 192-200. Web.

Pedrote, M. M., de Oliveira, G. A., Felix, A. L., Mota, M. F., Marques, M. D. A., Soares, I. N.,& & Silva, J. L. (2018). Aggregation-primed molten globule conformers of the p53 core domain provide potential tools for studying p53C aggregation in cancer. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 293(29), 11374-11387. Web.

Taechalertpaisarn, J., Lyu, R. L., Arancillo, M., Lin, C. M., Perez, L. M., Ioerger, T. R., & Burgess, K. (2019). Correlations between secondary structure and protein-protein interface-mimicry: the interface mimicry hypothesis. Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry, 17(12), 3267-3274. Web.

The skin is the most critical and largest human organ. It provides a connection of the body with the surrounding nature and is also a feature that distinguishes one person from another. Moreover, it supports the homeostasis of body temperature, and changes in this indicator are called hypo and hyperthermia. The study of skin risk factors that can lead to severe consequences, such as cancer, hypo, and hyperthermia, are of critical importance for human health.

Regulation and control of the bodys heat balance are of high importance. Therefore, if this indicator is violated, either hyperthermic or hypothermic states develop. An increase in body temperature characterizes the first, more than 106F, and hypothermic  a decrease below 95F. When the body temperature decreases, the blood flow in the internal organs increases, muscle tremors occur, and diuresis increases. The main symptoms of hyperthermia are general weakness, rapid breathing, tachycardia, increased sweating, and fainting. The organism secretes a large number of hormones to increase the bodys protective functions, thereby fighting these two phenomena.

The color of peoples skin reflects the evolutionary development that has been taking place for many tens of thousands of years. Most scientists note that the skin tone changes due to a global gradient. Thus the darkest populations are located around the equator and the lightest near the poles. A significant role is assigned to such a component of human skin as melanin; the more it is in the skin, the darker the color.

Skin cancer is considered to be a malignant neoplasm of epithelial cells. They are a severe threat to human health. At the same time, skin cancer refers to oncological pathologies that can be easily detected and treated in a timely manner. The leading causes of this disease are sunburn, intense sunburn, congenital nevi, injury to the skin, especially birthmarks, and increased sensitivity to ultraviolet light. Melanoma, as a type of skin cancer, is the most aggressive (Carr et al., 2020). The human body reacts poorly to this tumor, so it develops rapidly. Skin melanoma requires complex treatment, which includes radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Prevention of this severe disease is reduced by limiting exposure to the sun and reducing risk factors for the skin.

Basal cell carcinoma is the most friendly type of tumor. It does not have clear stages of development; however, this tumor quickly destroys the surrounding tissues and often gives relapses. Depending on the type and condition of the disease, individual treatment is selected. Thus, surgical intervention is considered the most effective. The surgeon excises the neoplasm and puts stitches on the wound, and the removed tissues are sent to the laboratory for examination. Radiation therapy can also give quite high results. Such treatment is most often recommended for elderly patients, with the location of the focus on the face.

Reference

Carr, S., Smith, C., & Wernberg, J. (2020). Epidemiology and risk factors of melanoma. Surgical Clinics, 100(1), 1-12. Web.

All living beings, including humans, evolved to live in changing external environments and interact with them. Sensory reception, which consists of five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, is a complete system that enables one to survive effectively (Pfaffmann, 2017). Pain is usually attributed to touch, as it is the same somatosensory system, enabling one to recognize such characteristics as size, shape, the temperature of a surface of an object, and others. Therefore, humans have a set of valuable senses which complement each other.

Although all the bodys senses are equally important, there is one, I believe, it is most difficult to live without. Pain is the primary warning signal, which indicates that something is wrong with the body. Without this sense, it would not be possible to determine if an object is dangerous and take measures to prevent harming the body. People that do not feel pain are rare, which is partially an indicator that it is the most difficult to survive with such a condition.

Vision is vital, as most parts of the information people collect with the help of their eyes. However, if someone is blind, they utilize other senses to obtain the lacking details and successfully survive, frequently even without someones assistance. If a person cannot hear, there are still other methods to collect information. Moreover, in most cases, contemporary medicine can help a patient with such a diagnosis. However, it is not possible to replace pain with any other sense, as they do not fulfill the warning function as this sense does. Vision and hearing sometimes can indicate the potentially harmful factor, but without pain, people would not even have the initial information to recognize danger. Therefore, it is most difficult to live without pain.

References

Pfaffmann, C. (2017). Human sensory reception. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web.

People have always been looking in the sky to find an answer to the question, what our world actually is. Admittedly, the 17^th century brought about specific conditions that promoted the rapid development of astronomy. These are mainly the geographical discoveries of that time, the invention of tools necessary for astronomical observations, and the impact of the Renaissance on peoples minds. No surprise, the period of time between Copernicus and Newton is considered to be the heyday of the science of cosmos and the cornerstone of the Scientific Revolution.

Indeed, astronomy used to be nearly prohibited back in times. Religion was generally accepted to be the only verified source of all knowledge. However, after the Age of Discovery, people started doubting that Christian priests could tell them undeniable truth about the world around them. If they had been mistaken about the Old World is the center of the Earth, there could be a possibility that the Earth is not the center of the Universe. It was Copernicus who demolished that myth once and for all (Skjelver, Arnold, Broedel et al., n. d.). Therefore, his peers and followers, such as Galileo Galilee, Johannes Kepler, Christiaan Huygens, and Isaac Newton, acquired the inspiration to make discoveries influencing natural science in general.

Sometimes there should be a small invention to cause a long chain of revolutionary discoveries in a certain field. As the telescope was created in 1608, modern astronomy was born as a branch of science (Rabin, 2019). Studying heavens, many enthusiasts began to open new cosmic bodies. Still, the main part of their researches was to summarise the current data and prepare their own theories about the way these bodies move. It turned out that astronomy was deeply connected with mathematics (Tyson, 2005). When Newton developed his three laws of motion, astronomy was destined to become an indispensable part of human thought.

Still, the Renaissance made an unprecedented contribution to astronomy because it drew attention to science in general. The gist of humanistic ideas of that time was the axiom that almost all progressive aspects of human activity are valuable and worthy of social approval. The stigma of sorcery and devilry was no longer attached to people studying the scientific laws. There was no longer a need to conceal passion for astronomy because there were more and more people ready to accept the newborn philosophy and methodology of natural science.

References

Rabin, S. (2019). Nicolaus Copernicus. (E. N. Zalta, Ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Skjelver, D., Arnold, D., Broedel, H. P., Glasco, S. B., Kim, B., Broedel, S. D. (n.d.). History of applied science & technology [eBook edition]. Creative Commons Attribution.

Tyson, P. (2005). Newtons Legacy. NOVA.

The shoot system of flowering plants consists of leaves, stems, and bud structures, as well as flowers and fruit.

The root system has mechanical and conductive functions. The mechanical role of the roots is to create a stable position of the plant on the surface. The conductive function is responsible for absorbing water and minerals from the soil using the roots.

Some examples of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants are shown in the table below:

The root cap protects the sensitive zone of stem cell presence for root growth.

Indeed, the Xylem and Phloem in dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants are arranged somewhat differently. In dicotyledonous plants, the Phloem is separated by the Vascular Cambium from the Xylem, which is located in the center of the root. In contrast, monocotyledonous plants have no vascular cambium, and so the Phloem and Xylem are adjacent in the root.

In dicotyledonous plants, the Phloem tends to be closer to the root walls than the Xylem, which traditionally occupies the center of the structure.

The scattered arrangement of the vascular bundles of monocotyledonous plants is explained by the absence of Cambium and the presence of only primary tissues within the bundle. Thus, such a structure precludes the possibility of secondary growth in thickness, which is why monocotyledonous plants are generally herbaceous.

Monocotyledonous (left) and dicotyledonous (right):

Introduction

Carbohydrates are sugar molecules that play crucial roles in our body system. Carbohydrates are involved in several significant functions in our body, which are discussed below. First, carbohydrates provide energy and regulate blood glucose in the body (Stoker, 2015). Once eaten, carbohydrates are digested and then consequently broken further into glucose. Second, carbohydrates provide stored energy in our body system (Stoker, 2015). Lastly, carbohydrates also help in sparing protein and preventing ketosis. Consumption of carbs regularly helps to avoid protein depletion as an energy source.

Fructose is a monosaccharide typically found in honey, fruits such as apples, pears, figs, dates, and prunes. It can also be found in vegetables such as asparagus, mushrooms, onions, and red peppers (Stoker, 2015). One ketonic group, five hydroxyl groups, two primary alcoholic groups, and three secondary alcoholic groups are among the functional groups found in fructose.

Fructose is a crystalline substance that is very soluble in water, less in alcohol but insoluble in either (Stoker, 2015). Glycogen acts as a vital energy source by supplying glucose to tissues all over the body. Glucose is the only monosaccharide that makes the building block of glycogen. Glycogen occurs naturally in the liver and the skeletal muscle cell of animals.

Cellulose is a polysaccharide made up of hundreds to thousands of glucose molecules joined together to form a chain. At the same time, starch is a polysaccharide carbohydrate made up of several glucose molecules linked together by glycosidic bonds. There are beta 1, 4 links between glucose molecules in cellulose, but between glucose molecules in starch, there are 1, 4 alpha bonds (Tortora & Derrickson, 2018). Furthermore, cellulose is a stiff structural carbohydrate, whereas starch is a storage molecule, the functional difference between the two (Tortora & Derrickson, 2018). Sucrose and lactose are examples of disaccharides, among many others. Sucrose and lactose are broken down into monosaccharides by hydrolysis (Tortora & Derrickson, 2018). This process is facilitated by enzymes sucrases and lactases, respectively. These enzymes aid in the digestion of various carbohydrates in the body (Tortora & Derrickson, 2018). Sucrases, for example, aid in the conversion of sucrose to glucose and fructose, while lactases convert lactose to glucose and galactose.

Lipids

Essential fatty acids refer to polyunsaturated fatty acids that must be obtained from food because they cannot be synthesized by the body but are vital for health. Only two fatty acids have been identified as necessary for human health: alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) (Rajna et al., 2018). Alpha-linolenic acid is mainly found in plant oils such as soybean, canola oils, and flaxseed. Triacylglycerols (TAG) are three fatty acids and a glycerol moiety (Rajna et al., 2018). The three fatty acids are esterified to the carbon-hydroxyl groups of the glycerol (Rajna et al., 2018). Each TAG may comprise a variety of fatty acids. These fatty acids are esterified in three distinct locations on glycerol, marked by the stereospecific numbering system (Sn): sn-1, sn-2, and sn-3 (Rajna et al., 2018). The small intestine participates significantly in the metabolism of dietary triglycerides (TGs).

The initial phase in lipid digestion occurs in the mouth and stomach, where salivary and gastric lipases work in concert. After that, pancreatic lipases and bile acids work in concert to further break down lipids, enabling their absorption in the small intestine. Lipases hydrolyze TGs into fatty acids and monoglycerides, allowing the intestinal epithelium to absorb lipids (Dhull & Punia, 2020). Once inside the small intestine, they are resynthesized, and the monoglycerides and fatty acids reach the endoplasmic reticulum membrane (Dhull & Punia, 2020). The remaining lipids are trapped in cytosolic lipid droplets.

There are three types of lipids in the body; triglycerides, sterols, and phospholipids. Triglycerides are the primary fats we store in our bodies, which help produce energy (Dhull & Punia, 2020). Phospholipids make up cell membranes and lipid carrier molecules (Dhull & Punia, 2020). The plasma membrane comprises a bilayer of phospholipids connected by their hydrophobic, fatty acid tails (Dhull & Punia, 2020). The membranes surface is densely packed with proteins, some of which span the membrane. Carbohydrates are covalently linked to several proteins and lipids on the membranes outward-facing surface (Dhull & Punia, 2020). These combine to produce complexes that serve as a means of identifying the cell from other cells. The cell membrane helps in the molecular transport of food and water across the membrane, acting as an enzyme hence controlling all metabolic processes (Dhull & Punia, 2020). Furthermore, the cell membrane enables a cell to cell communication and recognition to work together in tissues, among others. Lipids in the cell membrane play vital roles as chemical messengers that transport signals to other cells.

Lipids also store and provide energy during fasting and form structural components of cells. Additionally, lipids help maintain body temperature due to layers of subcutaneous fat under the skin (Dhull & Punia, 2020). Proteins in the cell membrane also play various roles, such as playing enzymatic functions like breaking down sucrose into carbohydrates and then monosaccharides (Dhull & Punia, 2020). Proteins help intercellular joining via the gap junction and the tight junction, allowing cells to communicate with each other (Dhull & Punia, 2020). Proteins also aid in transportation which will enable hydrophilic molecules to pass through the membranes.

The precursor for bile acid synthesis is cholesterol which is a type of lipid. Bile acids help in the digestion of lipids because bile acids are amphipathic  contain a hydrophilic and hydrophobic face (Dhull & Punia, 2020). This property allows bile acids to facilitate emulsifying fats and the formation of micelles. Bile acids are essential for the digestion of lipids because bile works as an emulsifier during fat digestion, breaking big fat globules into smaller emulsion droplets (Dhull & Punia, 2020). Emulsified fats give a more significant surface area for fat-digesting enzymes (lipase) to work, which speeds up the process since bile is an excellent solvent.

Proteins

Proteins play the following four primary functions in the body. First, proteins help in defense where it protects the body against foreign pathogens for example immunoglobulin (Damodaran, 2017). Second, proteins act as digestive enzymes that help digest food by catabolizing nutrients into monomeric units, such as amylase (Damodaran, 2017). Third, they are essential in structural construction like cytoskeleton, for example, actin (Damodaran, 2017). Fourth, they help transport and carry substances in the blood or lymph throughout the body, for example, hemoglobin (Damodaran, 2017). Glutathione is a tripeptide consisting of three amino acids; glutamate, cysteine, and glycine Damodaran (Damodaran, 2017). Glutathione helps in combating free radicals in the body since it acts as an antioxidant.

Proteins are classified into three classes: primary, secondary, and tertiary. The unique amino acid sequence determines the primary structure. Local folding determines the secondary structure of the polypeptide into systems such as the helix and -pleated sheet (Damodaran, 2017). The tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional structure. Enzymes function as catalysts, decreasing the activation energy of chemical processes (Damodaran, 2017). Amylase is an enzyme essential in the digestion of carbohydrates, and it breaks down starches into sugars. Lipase is an enzyme responsible for breaking fats into fatty acids and glycerol (Damodaran, 2017). Proteases are enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids. They play a role in cell division, immune function, and blood clotting. Cofactors are molecules that function by assisting in enzyme activity. There are two types of cofactors: organic cofactors, for example, Flavin and heme, and inorganic cofactors, such as zinc and iron.

Nucleic Acids, Cells, and Transport

Guanine- DNA, Cytosine- DNA, D- Ribose- RNA, Thiamine- DNA, Uracil- RNA, and D- Deoxyribose- DNA. DNA is built from chemical building units referred to as nucleotides (Rádis-Baptista et al., 2107). Three components make up these building blocks: a phosphate group, a sugar group, and four different forms of nitrogen bases. The nitrogenous base includes adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine (Rádis-Baptista et al., 2107). Two of the bases, adenine, and guanine have a double ring structure. There are three major types of RNA: messenger RNA, which transports genetic information from a cells nucleus to its cytoplasm (Rádis-Baptista et al., 2017). Ribosomal RNA directs the translation of mRNA into proteins. Lastly, transfer RNA, which transfers amino acids to the ribosome.

Simple diffusion is when molecules move directly across the membrane with no assistance from a protein carrier. Facilitated diffusion is a process where the movement of molecules occurs down a concentration gradient with the aid of a carrier protein across a lipid bilayer (Rádis-Baptista et al., 2107). Active transport is the movement of molecules into or out of a cell from a lower concentration region to a higher concentration against the concentration gradient. The function of ribosomes in the cell is translation which allows for the production of proteins. Lysosomes are involved in the signaling and recycling of cellular waste (Rádis-Baptista et al., 2107). The nucleuss function is to control and regulate all activities in the cell (Rádis-Baptista et al., 2107). The mitochondria produce most of the chemical energy required to power the metabolic activities occurring within the cell.

References

Damodaran, S. (2017). Food proteins: an overview. Food proteins and their applications (pp. 1-24). CRC Press.

Dhull, S. B., & Punia, S. (2020). Essential Fatty Acids: Introduction. In Essential Fatty Acids (pp. 1-18). CRC Press.

Rádis-Baptista, G., Campelo, I. S., Morlighem, J. É. R., Melo, L. M., & Freitas, V. J. (2017). Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs): From delivery of nucleic acids and antigens to transduction of engineered nucleases for application in transgenesis. Journal of Biotechnology, 252, 15-26. Web.

Rajna, A., Gibling, H., Sarr, O., Matravadia, S., Holloway, G. P., & Mutch, D. M. (2018). Alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid differentially regulate the skeletal muscle secretome of obese Zucker rats. Physiological Genomics, 50(8), 580-589. Web.

Stoker, H. S. (2015). General, organic, and biological chemistry (7^th ed). Cengage Learning.

Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. H. (2018). Principles of anatomy and physiology. John Wiley & Sons.