Category: Sciences 2502

Introduction

The Pearsons correlation coefficient r is a statistic that shows the degree to which the values of two variables x and y are in the linear correlation; r takes values from -1 to 1, with r = 1 when the correlation can be described with the linear function (y = ax + b), r = -1 when the correlation is linear and negative (-y = ax + b), and r = 0 when there is no correlation (Field, 2013). This statistic can be provided when conducting a simple linear regression in SPSS. Furthermore, for the results of a simple linear regression to be adequate, it is important that the independent and dependent variables are in a linear relationship, and not in any type of non-linear relationship (Warner, 2013). Because Pearsons r can be used to assess the degree of the linear relationship, it is of particular importance for a study employing simple linear regression. The simple linear regression will be utilized in the future study of the relationship between perceived social support and HIV treatment compliance among African American females who are infected with HIV, which is why Pearsons r is discussed in this paper. Furthermore, knowing Pearsons r between the variables of the current study can also provide additional insights into the researched problem (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2015).

The Assumptions for Pearsons r, and the Situations in Which It Is Appropriate to Use It

There are a number of assumptions for Pearsons r test. The violation of these assumptions leads to an inadequate estimation of this statistic. The assumptions are as follows (Field, 2013; Statistics Solutions, n.d.):

• Both variables need to be measured on a continuous scale. Pearsons r for nominal or ordinal scales cannot be adequately computed.
• Normality of distributions.
• There should be no (extreme) outliers.
• Each case (participant) in the sample needs to have values for both variables.
• Linearity and homoskedasticity.

Pearsons r is appropriate to use if it is needed to see whether or not two phenomena often occur together, roughly speaking. It should only be used when there is no need to assess the causal relationship, for this statistic cannot show whether there is a causal relationship.

The Number of Dependent and Independent Variables Involved

Pearsons r can only assess the correlation between two variables. However, if there are more than two variables, Pearsons r can still be supplied as part of SPSS output for some statistical tests; the program will usually provide a table showing the value of Pearsons r for every two variables used in the test.

Social Change Implications

If Pearsons r between perceived social support (higher values=more support) and HIV treatment compliance (higher values = higher compliance) is close to 1, then it might be hypothesized that higher perceived social support can help achieve higher treatment compliance. If Pearsons r is close to -1, it might be assumed that lower support can help achieve higher treatment compliance. Pearsons r=0 will show that the phenomena are uncorrelated. However, it is important that these assumptions will only remain assumptions, and that another research design will be needed to establish a causal relationship.

For researchers, Pearsons r may indicate in which direction further research should proceed. For practitioners, it will help to understand whether or not it may be fruitful to increase or decrease the level of perceived social support in order to stimulate treatment compliance (but further studies will be needed). For social change, it may also be helpful to know whether greater perceived social support is often accompanied by higher treatment compliance.

References

Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2015). Research methods in the social sciences (8th ed.). New York, NY: Worth.

Statistics Solutions. (n.d.). Pearson correlation assumptions. Web.

Warner, R. M. (2013). Applied statistics: From bivariate through multivariate techniques (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Introduction

Effect size is an important statistic that reflects the strength/magnitude of a relationship between two variables. This paper uses the article by Mancuso (2010) as an example to show that effect sizes should be reported in studies because they allow for assessing the practical importance of the attained results, whereas statistical significance (p-value) only permits for estimating the statistical trustworthiness (or, more precisely, non-extremity) of the obtained results of a test (Forthofer, Lee, & Hernandez, 2007).

Summary of the Article

Mancuso (2010) examined whether trust of patients with diabetes and their health literacy could predict glycemic control; such factors as socioeconomic status, knowledge of diabetes, demographical issues, depression, and activities related to self-care were also taken into account. The data was gathered from 102 participants, and subjected to a simultaneous multiple regression. The study showed that all the named factors together can provide a model accounting for a substantial amount of variance (28.5%), but further analysis demonstrated that only patient trust (B=-0.873, SE=0.165) and depression (B=0.036, SE=0.014) were statistically significant when it came to assessing the correlation between glycemic control and each of these variables taken separately.

Relationship between Effect Size, Power, and Sample Size in the Article

A pilot study was conducted to estimate the magnitude of the effect to be detected, supplying the result of R2=.19, and providing grounds for searching for an effect of medium size, i.e.,.15 (Mancuso, 2010, p. 97). For such an effect size, it was needed to use a sample of 92 participants to attain a power of 80%. However, 102 individuals were studied, offering the statistical power of 85% to detect an effect of a medium size (.15) (Mancuso, 2010, p. 97).

Practical and Statistical Significance of Effect Size

The correlation detected by Mancuso (2010) was practically significant; the author used effect size to describe its magnitude. It is stated, for example, that for the overall model, R2=.32, R2adj.=.285, so the effect size was close to large (Mancuso, 2010, p. 98). Practically, it means that the model accounted for 28.5% of the variance in glycemic control (Mancuso, 2010, p. 98), so the magnitude of the correlation between the model and the perceived control was practically important enough to be taken into account. On the contrary, if the effect size had been very small (e.g.,.0001, accounting for 0.01% of the variance), it would probably have meant that even though the (statistically significant) correlation between phenomena had existed, it had been so weak that it had not been worthy of being taken into account practically.

The estimated effect size of the correlation was also used to calculate the sample size needed to achieve an acceptable level of statistical power (85%), meaning that effect size was utilized to help run a powerful enough test. It should be noted, however, that increasing sample size could potentially raise statistical power almost to 1.0 (Ellis, 2010), allowing for detection of even the smallest, almost non-existent, and thus practically uninteresting effects (Field, 2013).

Conclusion

Therefore, it is important to report both practical (effect size) and statistical (p-value) significance of the results of studies. p-values indicate statistical significance of tests, that is, whether the results are statistically reliable, whereas effect sizes show whether the magnitude of the detected effect is large enough to be taken into account.

Also, because the power of a statistical test depends heavily upon the sample size, if a large enough sample is used, it might be, for example, possible to detect even the tiniest differences in a practically homogenous population, which is why reporting effect size is paramount to show the actual magnitude of these differences and assess their practical importance.

References

Ellis, P. D. (2010). The essential guide to effect sizes: Statistical power, meta-analysis, and the interpretation of research results. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Forthofer, R. N., Lee, E. S., & Hernandez, M. (2007). Biostatistics: A guide to design, analysis, and discovery (2nd ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press.

Mancuso, J. M. (2010). Impact of health literacy and patient trust on glycemic control in an urban USA population. Nursing and Health Sciences, 12(1), 94-104.

The process of electromagnetic assist impact collision (MAIC) is used to combine reactive nanoparticles with activated carbon bead to produce a multi-functional particulate. A reactive-adsorptive multi-functional protective particulate contains both chemically and biologically protective capabilities in a form whose handling during use and manufacture does not pause difficulties. The nanoparticles on the other hand are capable of reacting with the toxic excreta of microorganisms while concurrently keeping from producing oxidizing agents or other agents that are capable of polluting the activated carbon. Due to the micro size of the nanoparticles, they are best used when agglomerated into larger aggregates, in a manner that maintains their surface to volume ratio of component ions, and promotes handling in the process of manufacture (Axtell, Hartley and Sallavanti 6).

The MAIC process imbeds the surface of activated carbon beads with the smaller adsorptive or reactive nanoparticles. It is necessary to imbed nanoparticular agglomeration entities into the surface of carbon beads, where they can be held in position by the topographical imbedding in the carbon beads and the van der waals forces between the particle ions and the surface of the carbon beads proximate to the nanoparticle. For this to occur, the MAIC process uses an electromagnetically induced impaction process in combination with simultaneous sieving. The MAIC process imbeds the nanoparticulates onto the surface of the bead permanently to form a unique multi-functional particulate that is reactive-adsorptive. It is advantageous in that it combines the quick adsorptive kinetics of activated carbon with the destructive-adsorptive-biocidal qualities of reactive nanoparticle technology. What results is hybrid with a minimum of two distinct and synergistic capabilities (Axtell, Hartley and Sallavanti 7).

An example of the new features is that the beads can be incorporated into reticulated foams, permeable fabrics and filtration media, therefore protecting textiles from biological warfare agents or infectious microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi, among others. This superior quality makes the beads ideal for military textiles. The MAIC process can be used to load nanoparticles onto the Kurha brand and Ambersorb brand carbon beads as well as the CarboTex activated carbon beads. In a much preferable embodiment whereby the MAIC treatment process is used to treat the Gentex activated carbon beads, the resulting bead advantageously boosts the combined qualities of the carbons hyperadsorptivity. In addition to this, it increases the chemically reactive and biocidal properties due to the imparted nanoparticular entities, in a form that promotes handling. The nanoparticles would otherwise be difficult to handle by themselves (Axtell, Hartley and Sallavanti 8).

The MAIC process requires that the activated carbon substrate used has sufficient hardness and is of appropriate size, without necessarily being spherical. A reactive-adsorptive multi-functional protective particulate may be spherical, non-spherical, a fragment or a powder. The loading or concentration of nanoparticles on the surface of the carbon can be modified to either increase or decrease particulate add-on. The reactive/adsorptive nanoparticles are permanently bonded one they are imbedded in the carbon through MAIC treatment. The treatment involves coating smaller particles onto larger particles by a peening process (Axtell, Hartley and Sallavanti 8).

By adding a smaller sized particle and a large core particle into an assembly of small oscillating magnets, the small particles are readily coated onto the larger core particles. The process is continuous, whereby the rate of separating the magnets from the products range from 100-600 pounds per hour. The MAIC process has many advantages including eliminating the requirement for adhesives. This reduces the possibility of over occlusion or undesired chemical reactions with the reactive/adsorbent nanoparticulates (Axtell, Hartley and Sallavanti 9).

Works Cited

Axtell, Holly C., Scott M. Hartley and Robert A. Sallavanti. Multi-Functional Protective Materials and Methods for use. United States Patent (2007): 6-9.

The final stage of cellular respiration  oxidative phosphorylation  requires the presence of the oxygen and special enzymes to successfully perform all needed reactions. Mansilla et al. (2018) state that the respiratory chain is composed of several multiprotein complexes, which are involved in the transfer of electrons and the translocation of H+ for ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation (p. 662). The first part of the phosphorylation is the electron transport chain, ETC  with it, electrons can be transferred between molecules, and the released energy supplies the electrochemical gradient. After that, the energy of this gradient is used to synthesize ATP  it is called chemiosmosis, the second part of phosphorylation. During the reactions in the ETC, oxygen, accepting protons and electrons from the oxidized substrate, is reduced to various end products, depending on the number of electrons attached to its molecule. However, there is one reaction that uses the most of the absorbed oxygen  the astounding 90%  and it is considered the main biological oxidation pathway. This process is localized on the inner mitochondrial membrane.

A special transmembrane protein complex participates in the final stage of phosphorylation  the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase or Complex IV. The Complex IV transfers electrons from cytochrome c to oxygen, thus, oxygen gets reduced to water. Cytochrome c-oxidase carries two copper-containing centers (CuA and CuB), as well as hemes a and a3 for carrying out redox reactions, through which electrons finally enter oxygen. When O₂ is reduced, a strong basic O₂ anion is formed, which binds two protons and transforms into a water molecule. The electron flux is coupled with the formed Complexes I, III, and IV by a proton gradient. During the reaction, four more protons are transferred from the stroma to the intermembrane space. As a result, there are few protons in the stroma, and, on the contrary, there are many in the intermembrane space, thus, a proton gradient arises. After all respective reactions are performed and the necessary energy is gathered, the protein complex ATP-synthase, which is often called the respiratory Complex V, uses the energy of this gradient to synthesize ATP in the mitochondria.

Reference

Mansilla, N., Racca, S., Gras, D. E., Gonzalez, D. H., & Welchen, E. (2018). The Complexity of Mitochondrial Complex IV: An Update of Cytochrome c Oxidase Biogenesis in Plants. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(3), 662. Web.

Introduction

The objective of investigations in oncology is the discovery and assessment of therapeutic strategies on models. These studies require efficient and modern functionalized contrast agents to envisage tumor growth, for evaluating the effect of treatment, and/or for propagating the annihilation of cancerous tumors. These applications involve ample pharmacokinetic aspects and minimal levels of nonspecific accumulation in the body (Alric, Taleb and Le Duc 5909).

Advantages of Developing Nanoparticles as Contrast Agents for Medical Imaging

Previously documented research has focused on the development of nanoparticles as contrast agents for medical imaging. This is because their vascular half-life is longer than molecular contrast agents. Consequently, the particulate contrast agents can be examined for a longer duration after the delivery to a living organism. When a clinical diagnosis requires the rapid elimination of the contrast, then their presence for a longer time is necessary for examining the biodistribution of drugs or radiosensitizing agents for cancer treatment and the response to therapy in animal models (Alric, Taleb and Le Duc 5910).

The nanoparticles are also advantageous over molecular contrast agents due to their capability to assemble in the same object, many complementary properties. It is because of this attribute that the development of multifunctional nanoparticles, which can be detected by several in vivo imaging techniques, was developed. The most commonly studied possibilities are the nanoparticles combining fluorescent imaging and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This can be tied to their ability to ally the high sensitivity of the fluorescence phenomenon to the high spatial resolution of MRI (Alric, Taleb and Le Duc 5910).

Techniques in Diagnostic Clinical Medicine

MRI has, over the years, become a major non-invasive technique in diagnostic clinical medicine. This is due to the likelihood of getting highly resolved three-dimensional images of living bodies. One of the limitations of MRI is that the in vivo application of the fluorescent MRI contrast agents is restricted to small animal imaging due to the autofluorescence, the strong light absorption, and scattering, which limit the spatial resolution (Lewinski, Colvin and Drezek 29).

Contrast Agents for Computed Tomography (CT)

The extensive use for X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging diagnosis is because of the ability for X-rays to go across the human body. It is therefore, possible to visualize internal anatomic structures externally, without surgery; however, it may be necessary to administer contrast agents. The daily application of Iodinated molecules as contrast agents for CT imaging is necessary due to the high X-ray absorption coefficient of iodine and their innocuousness (except in a few cases of patients with poor kidney function), but their rapid pharmacokinetics and the high viscosity of the injectable solution can however, constitute a handicap (Lewinski, Colvin and Drezek 33).

CT has a ubiquitous nature in clinical settings, though the development of nanoparticles as contrast agents for CT got minimal notice, though they can provoke superior contrast enhancement of CT images than iodinated compounds.

In addition to this, the nanoparticles are renowned for their multifunctionality, which is the main benefit over conventional methods, since it allows merging of a variety of imaging techniques or imaging and therapy (Lewinski, Colvin and Drezek 33).

The use of dense nanoparticles, which bear high atomic number elements as contrast agents for X-ray CT imaging, was a newly introduced concept. Gold nanoparticles were efficiently applied in vivo as X-ray contrast agents. It was expected that these particles induce, for the same content of absorbing element, higher contrast than iodinated compounds; an ability that was observed to be independent of the diameter of gold nanoparticles since similar contrast enhancement is observed for both 1.9 and 31 nm sized particles (Lewinski, Colvin and Drezek 34).

Gold nanoparticles are more attractive candidates since it is easier to control their size, shape, and surface chemical composition. The facile derivatization of gold nanoparticles is central to developing new tools for biomedical application, which meet the criteria of clinical use. Gold nanoparticles functionalized by gadolinium chelates are able to induce in vitro positive contrast in the MR images; this makes the particles very attractive since they can behave as contrast agents for both X-ray imaging and MRI (Lewinski, Colvin and Drezek 35).

Experiment

This paper looks at the results of the in vivo application of gadolinium chelate coated gold nanoparticles, after intravenous injection to mice and rats. The biodistribution of the nanoparticles was monitored by MRI (at 7T) and X-ray imaging, which was performed at the biomedical beamline of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF). This biomedical line affords attractive conditions for computed tomography (SRCT for Synchrotron Radiation Computed Tomography) because synchrotron radiation provides monochromatic X-ray beams whose intensity is 5 orders of magnitude higher than the one provided by conventional X-ray sources (Krause and Schneider 112).

Conventional scanners are not ideal since their performance is limited by intensity variations, limited flux and broad energy spectrum. SRCT is, on the other hand, ideal since they allow quantifying the contrast agent concentration in the tissues. The non-destructive and absolute quantitative in vivo measurement of gold concentration constitutes an original and attractive feature of monochromatic X-ray beams for monitoring in real-time, the bio-distribution of gold nanoparticles since it does not require the sacrifice of the animal in contrast to the post-mortem ICP analyses (Krause and Schneider 113).

Conclusion

X-ray imaging and MRI experiments coupled to ICP analysis show that Au@DTDTPA-Gd nanoparticles can be applied as in vivo contrast agents for both imaging techniques, which are the most widely used for preclinical research. Despite the low content in gold (10 mg·mL-1) and in gadolinium (5 mM), the particles were easily detected. Their ability to liberally flow in the blood pool with no detrimental build-up in the lungs, liver, and spleen, along with the fact that they can be followed up by either MRI or X-ray imaging, is very attractive for specific targeting (Rabin, Perez and Grimm 119).

This is because the accumulation would result only from the specific interaction between the bio targeting groups on the particles and the targets present in the zone of interest. Specific targeting, which is required for the early detection of cancer and its treatment can be achieved by the covalent grafting of bio targeting groups on the organic multilayer of the Au@ DTDTPA-Gd nanoparticles since each DTDTPA ligand possesses three COOH moieties as anchoring sites.

Since gold nanostructures can induce the destruction of cancerous cells after activation with an external physical stimulus (electromagnetic radiation in X-ray and near-infrared spectral domains), the development of nanoparticles for targeted diagnosis and therapy can, therefore, be envisaged with Au@DTDTPA-Gd nanoparticles (Rabin, Perez and Grimm 120).

Works Cited

Alric, Christophe, et al. Gadolinium Chelate Coated Gold Nanoparticles As Contrast Agents for Both X-ray Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 9 (2008): 130(18), 5908-5914.

Krause, Werner and Peter Schneider. Chemistry of X-ray Contrast Agents. Journal of the American Chemical Society (2002): 222, 107-150.

Lewinski, N., V Colvin and R. Drezek. Cytotoxicity of nanoparticles. Small (2008): 4(1), 26-49.

Rabin, Oded, et al. An X-ray computed tomography imaging agent based on long-circulating bismuth sulphide nanoparticles. Nature Materials (2006): 5, 118-122.

This laboratory experiment demonstrated the method used to identify different bacterial shapes. The manual provides background information on the three most common bacterial shapes before providing manual guidelines for the examination and identification of respective bacterial shapes. It begins with extensive insight into bacteria and their unique characteristics. Bacteria are stated to be prokaryotic organisms, meaning that each is a singular cell which lacks a nucleus. (Carolina, 2017, p.3) An in-depth discussion on the effects, role, and importance of bacteria reveal that bacteria are also known as pathogens. They are responsible for causing infectious diseases, including strep throat, gonorrhea, and Lyme disease. Therefore, it is important to have the necessary knowledge and skills to identify and classify different types of bacteria according to their shapes and arrangement.

The identification process was aided by the use of a microscope-one of the best ways of identifying bacteria, as recommended in the discussion section of the lab report is through their cell shapes. The study material for the experiment included readily available slides with embedded specimens hence eliminating the need for external sourcing. Through the microscopic lens, smeared cells were identified and documented in tables as recommended. The three identified included the bacillus, coccus, and spiral: Bacillus is a rod-shaped cell; coccus is a spherical cell, while spiral cells are shaped like coils. The findings are consistent with information available in the discussion section of the lab manual, which cites the existence of three common bacteria shapes and arrangements cocci, spirals, and bacilli (Carolina, 2017)

This experiment aids in the cell identification and classification process. This exercise is vital, especially in the medical sector, as it helps practitioners make an informed diagnosis of bacterial infections. Apart from medical use, bacteria identification is utilized when monitoring bacterial cultures in food production.

Reference

Carolina Biological Supply. (2017).Bacterial Shapes: Investigation manual. Carolina Biological Supply

A mixed method research design is a research approach that primarily utilizes both quantitative and qualitative methods in order to cover a wide range of data assessment criteria. It is stated that it is comprised of seven main aspects, which include complexity, plan, typology, integration, timing, theory, and purpose (Schoonenboom & Johnson, 2017). In addition, one should be aware of the fact that the mixed methods research designs can sample the subjects or objects in a purposeful manner due to the high validity of the analysis (Morse & Cheek, 2015). Bible states: beloved, do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are from God, for many false prophets have gone out into the world (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, John 4:1). In other words, there is an encouragement for a more vigorous and complex testing process, which is in accordance with mixed methods. Therefore, a person seeking knowledge needs to be willing to analyze the target from a wide range of perspectives.

It is important to point out that the overall thread is an outstanding piece of precise and accurate information on the topic at hand. One should also add the fact that mixed methods research design can be conducted in a series or cumulatively depending on the procedural characteristics (Shahhosseini & Hamzehgardeshi, 2015). For example, such measures are highly useful in the extrapolation of complex and massive statistical data alongside non-numerical features (Yurt & Tünkler, 2016). The Bible also states: desire without knowledge is not good, and whoever makes haste with his feet misses his way (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Proverbs 19:2). This means that mixed methods might take prolonged periods of time, but it is worth it due to the amount of knowledge gathered.

References

English Standard Version Bible. (2001). Crossway Bibles.

Morse, J. M., & Cheek, J. (2015). Introducing qualitatively-driven mixed-method designs. Qualitative Health Research, 25(6), 731-733.

Schoonenboom, J., & Johnson, R. B. (2017). How to construct a mixed methods research design? KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift Für Soziologie Und Sozialpsychologie, 69(2), 107-131.

Shahhosseini, Z., & Hamzehgardeshi, Z. (2015). The facilitators and barriers to nurses participation in continuing education programs: a mixed method explanatory sequential study. Global Journal of Health Science, 7(3), 184-193.

Yurt, E., & Tünkler, V. (2016). A study on the spatial abilities of prospective social studies teachers: A mixed method research. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16(3), 184-193.

The results obtained in the experimental test with Mannitol salt agar (MSA), showed that there was microbial growth in the plates inoculated with staphylococcus aureus. However, the colonies of S. aureus were quite different in size and color components. Actually, the colonies of S. aureus were small in size, but there was almost no colony for S. epidermidis. These S. aureus colonies were surrounded by yellow coloring, which acted as a confirmation of their presence. In this connection, the results were consistent with our expectations. The Mannitol salt agar had its color change with S aureus while remaining the same with S. epidermidis. Several reasons might have contributed to the observed results, especially those factors which affect the physiological functions and metabolic processes of an organism (Otto 557).

Even with this kind of knowledge and understanding, the most probable reason for this to happen is intimately related to the organisms production of acidic substance, which reacts with phenol red indicator in the medium. Based on this kind of thinking, we argue that the species of S. aureus was able to carry out Mannitol substrate fermentation at a higher salt concentration environment than it is with S. epidermidis, a process that ended up with a production of an acidic by-product, and which in turn, reacted with the indicator used in the experiment, changing it from its red color to yellow.

It is established that S. aureus has very strong cell walls; moreover, it has a range of osmoprotectant accumulations responsible for responding to osmotic pressure stresses. What this implies, in general, is that S. Aureus was able to produce all the enzymes needed for the metabolism of Mannitol substrate without obstruction by the high salt concentration, or any other factor in the medium (Pommerville 223)

On the other part of the experiment in which blood agar plates (BAP) were used, the outcomes of the throat swab sample from a patient showed a greenish ring around the colonies. For the case of a surface swab, the results for the blood agar plates showed a clearing, intersecting with a few green zones. We, therefore, see that these results were to a large extent consistent with our expectations that hemolytic processes would have to take place in the test.

In the first case, green surroundings showed that there were microbial pathogens capable of lysing red blood cells without destroying them. The microbial bacteria present in the throat swab produced hemolysins, which partially lyzed the red blood cells in the blood agar, by reducing their hemoglobin to methemoglobin. Based on this observation, we can say that the hemolytic activity of these microbial bacteria was thus in the category of alpha hemolysins (Otto 560).

Looking at the second case in which a clearing intersecting with green zones was formed, we find that the hemolytic process took place as per our hypothetical expectations. Even though we see there was mixing up of the experimental indicators needed for identification of the organisms, the results would not just be discarded, ignored, or be counted trivial in this experiment; however, there was a lot much that could be given within the interpretative section. The combination of clearing and green zones showed that there were two types of enzymatic extracts being released to the medium. This implies that there were two species found in the medium, as each of the organisms produced a specific hemolysin. The lysing of the red blood cells at different degrees showed that both organisms may perhaps be pathogenic.

From this point of view, the one producing a clearing was believed to be the most dangerous due to its high degree of pathogenicity. Well, under the theory of organisms habitats, S. epidermidis is mostly found on the skin surfaces and nosocomial membranes, while the S. aureus habitats the nasal membranes. The S. epidermidis exists up to 90 % as normal flora on the skin areas, and its accounted for as of great benefits to the animal it habitats on. Through its acid production, it protects the animals from other pathogenic attacks. Therefore, it is rarely associated with disease attacks, which means the patient should not be much worried about it, not unless it exceeds the normal flora population percentage (Pommerville 233).

Finally, the techniques employed in this experiment are advantageous in that, the media used would reveal a change in color when a metabolic reaction takes place, and the specific color changes are useful for organisms identification. For the blood agar plate part, it is very selective and thus, it may be used for medical or clinical purposes in the identification and differentiation of closely related pathogenic and non-pathogenic species.

Works cited

Otto, Michael. Staphylococcus epidermidis-the accidental pathogen. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 2009, 7(8), 555-67.

Pommerville, Jeffrey. Alcamos Fundamentals of Microbiology. 9th ed. Sudbury: Jones and Bartlett, 2010. Print.

Introduction

Traditional Chinese medicine has a fundamental and very different outlook on human health developed and supplemented for over two thousand years. While modern Western medicine is reactive, focusing on the treatment of disease, traditional Chinese medicine focuses on health to prevent disease. This work in its content describes the fundamental substances of life, such as essence, Qi, blood, and body fluids. These substances are determinants of various processes in the body, which include diseases caused by their deficiency or malfunctioning. Their functioning and interaction also manifest itself in various aspects, which will be described below.

General Description and Functions

Energy is the manifestation and personification of the four main substances of life. Like the four cardinal points or the four elements of planet Earth  sunlight, air, water resources, and energy sources, the four essential substances also form human life (Xutian et al., 2014). An essence is a certain energy of constant growth that can be inherited from parents and stored in the kidneys. This substance is quite difficult to replenish, therefore it is considered indispensable. Close monitoring of a person and constant care for him is a mandatory aspect of well-being (Wijesekera, 2017). Qi is a cosmic force that flows through the body along the meridians and has various tasks. This list includes the control, management, containment and retention of blood and fluids in various organs. Unlike the essence, it is constantly replenished, and the correct way of life is the key to the constantly positive dynamics of its renewal. Blood is created by the spleen and represents the energy of one of the most important fluids in the human body. It is well studied by representatives of Western medicine, but in China its functions of delivering oxygen to organs and controlling body temperature are equally important (Wijesekera, 2017). Mucous membranes, urine, saliva and other body fluids are produced in various organs and serve the functions that will be described later. They have almost similar functions to blood, bringing nutrition to cells and removing the wastes from the human body. Improper movement of fluids, their filling and quantity can lead to obvious dryness of the mucous membranes, and also to edema.

Each substance has its specific functions. Qi corresponds to specific points on the body and flows along certain meridians. Stopping or complicating this flow leads to illness, breathing problems, dry mouth, insomnia, or stress. An entity is most often medically associated with genetic material or DNA (Unschuld & Tessenow, 2011). The best development of the essence is facilitated by sleep, the absence of bad habits, and the necessary rest time. The negative consequences of the absence of essence in the body can lead to depression and mental illness, and accelerated aging (Xutian et al., 2014). Blood is the bodys transport system for Qi and essence. Unlike Western medicine, where the lack of blood is almost certainly due to anemia or a pathogen, Chinese medicine works with categories of pain, pale skin, and emotions such as anger. At the same time, fluids within the body are inseparably considered by Chinese medicine in conjunction with other aspects of life. Excessive sweating also suggests that blood levels in the body need to be increased or not decreased (Maciocia, 2000). Liquids also have a transport function like blood; however, their importance is more on eliminating unnecessary substances and aiding in metabolism with the participation of blood, Qi, and essence.

All substances are formed in different organs and are replenished in different ways. Qi can be formed in the process of eating, walking in the fresh air, and the natural energy that is transmitted from parents. Contrary to popular belief, the human temperature is not formed by blood, but Qi, which is responsible for warming a person and, in addition, stimulating organs. Blood is formed in the heart and responds to the functions of nutrition and hydration as well as body fluids. Metabolism contributes to the replenishment of almost all body fluids, including blood, while the essence is almost impossible to replenish, and by old age, it decreases to a minimum. Balancing substances play an important role in understanding their function, and therefore they are often associated with the philosophy of Yin and Yang.

Yin and Yang

Yin and yang are often associated with these substances to better understand them. These philosophical ideas and concepts also constitute eight classical universal essential diagnostic criteria in Chinese medicine theory, such as temperature, lack, or excess of fluids. In this understanding of balance, harmony is created due to the correct circulation, while its violation leads to organ diseases. This balance can be maintained by way of life, but a certain part of it is the result of inheritance from parents. Cosmic Chi energy can be innate, protective, nourishing and breastfeeding (Leong et al., 2015). The essence is not divided into types but is a dense physical substance that circulates through the main vessels and promotes the production of bone marrow fluid and sperm (Unschuld & Tessenow, 2011). Blood is a Qi variety that has a distinctive circulating ability. The types of body fluids are listed above. Balance is a key concept in the philosophy of yin and yang, therefore its achievement in the human body between all substances is the key to health.

However, there are different points of view regarding identification with yin and yang. (Xutian et al. 2014) believe that Qi is yang and body fluids are yin since essence and blood have a common source. At the same time, blood is often associated with yang, the personification of mobility due to its circulation (Che et al., 2017). The essence is almost always attributed to the nature of yin; its accumulation occurs in the kidneys. The stomach and the spleen are essential organs in producing blood and its healthy functions, although it is produced in kidneys. It is also believed that yin has a bodily form, which is why it is the personification of blood and body fluids, while the cosmic power and breath of Qi are symbolized by yang. Others identify the fifth component of human life  the spirit (Wang & Yan, 2018). Shen, or spirit, is the foundation of thinking, reason, memory, and intention. It is formed by combining essence and Qi energy. Due to the wholeness approach to everything related to traditional Chinese medicine, Shen was not considered as a separate entity or characteristic of a person. Practitioners in the field assume that physical indicators and aspects can reflect mental and spiritual problems, so there is no need to consider them in this vein. However, consideration of these substances in their interaction with each other requires attention.

Interactions

Harmony is the main goal of the interaction of substances in the body. The violation of this balance is fraught with disorders and poor health since all substances are interdependent (Maciocia, 2015). As a result, the vital necessity of each of the substances becomes clear. For example, Qi produces, controls, and promotes blood circulation. Therefore, a weak Qi of the spleen can limit the production of blood, heart, and lungs  circulation, and visceral organs  saturation. In turn, blood allows carrying and producing Qi (Yao et al., 2013). As a result of food processing, the digestive organs supply blood and other body fluids with useful substances, which can be freely transformed among themselves. Therefore, it can be argued that these substances are homogeneous, like blood with essence. In this vein, the well-studied properties of these substances make it possible to successfully use them in medicine.

Implementation

The advances in oriental medicine are partly the result of the study of body fluids. Most human diseases are related to body fluids, even in the case of asthma and edema. Approaches using Chinese herbal medicine, acupuncture, and other techniques are used following the teachings of the four essential substances of life (Maciocia, 2000). The study of their interaction leads to an understanding of the physiology and morphology of fluids and, accordingly, more careful control over them to maintain balance. Below are the main techniques used based on this knowledge.

Acupuncture relied on Qi points and years of experience in empirical observation, from which treatment models were built. In herbal medicine, for a long time, a system and classification of herbs have been created according to five main characteristics: taste, action, symptoms, nature, and tropism (Xuan et al., 2014). In addition, reflexology is now developing based on traditional approaches to medicine, which includes the achievements of modern science in conjunction with the practical experience of Chinese medicine.

Conclusion

Such a layer of Chinese medicine in the study of body fluids and energy determines the full growth of a person. The identification of substances with yin and yang is achieved through an understanding of balance and harmony. As a result, a number of practices are formed that promote a healthy lifestyle. Rejection of bad habits, healthy sleep, and, most importantly, understanding are part of the art of traditional medicine, bringing fluids and energy inside the body into harmony and norm.

References

Che, C. T., George, V., Ijinu, T. P., Pushpangadan, P., & Andrae-Marobela, K. (2017). Traditional medicine. In Pharmacognosy (pp. 15-30). Academic Press.

Leong, P. K., Wong, H. S., Chen, J., & Ko, K. M. (2015). Yang/Qi invigoration: An herbal therapy for chronic fatigue syndrome with Yang deficiency? Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 945901.

Maciocia, G. (2000). Fluid physiology and pathology in traditional Chinese medicine (2nd ed.). Elsevier.

Maciocia, G. (2015). The foundations of Chinese medicine: A comprehensive text (3^rd ed.). Elsevier.

Unschuld, P. U., & Tessenow, H. (2011). Huang Di nei jing su wen. University of California Press.

Wang, L., & Yan, L. U. (2018). Analysis of five visceral in polycystic ovary syndrome. Journal of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, 42(1), 71-73.

Wijesekera, R. O. B. (2017). The medicinal plant industry. Routledge.

Xuan, S., Tai, S., & Yuan, C. S. (Eds.). (2014). Handbook of traditional Chinese medicine (In 3 Volumes). World scientific.

Yao, W., Yang, H., & Ding, G. (2013). Mechanisms of Qi-blood circulation and Qi deficiency syndrome in view of blood and interstitial fluid circulation. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 33(4), 538-544.

General Description of Homo Floresiensis

Homo Floresiensis is a primitive hominine species that has become an object of active scientific debates. H. Floresiensis was discovered in 2003 in Lang Bua (Indonesia) in the Late Pleistocene sediments (Sutikna et al., 2016). For a long time, the scientists have been discussing the controversial questions concerning this species. First of all, it was unclear whether it had been an extinct Homo species, or a modern human that has migrated and pathologically changed. In this paper, the questions of distinctive features and discovery of H. Floresiensis will be analyzed.

Discovery of Homo Floresiensis

The bones of H. Floresiensis were first discovered during the excavations that took place from 2001 to 2004 in Lang Bua cave, Indonesia, on the Flores island. The skeletal remains were found in the Late Pleistocene sediments at the depth from 4 to 7 m in different excavated areas (Sutikna et al., 2016). The discovery was made in 2003 by a team of Indonesian and Australian archaeologists.

Culture of H. Floresiensis

H. Floresiensis has used a range of primitive stone tools. The tools are similar to Oldowan ones and are represented by blades, perforators, and points (Baab, 2012). The instruments could be used for killing Stegodons, extinct elephants whose fossil remains were also found in the same cave with H. Floresiensis. Similar artefacts that were found in the Soa Basin cave, 50 km south, are attributed to H. Erectus (Baab, 2012). Thus, H. Floresiensis could use instruments despite its small brain volume.

Ancestry of Homo Floresiensis

The ancestry of H. floresiensis is a matter of controversy. According to one hypothesis, it has evolved from Asian H. Erectus (van der Bergh et al., 2016). In this case, it can represent an example of evolution among hominines put in an isolated environment. Sutikna et al. (2016) assume that H. Floresiensis could have been isolated during the Wisconsin glaciation. Thus, it can serve as a prove for evolution theory, as the isolated species have changed greatly.

According to the alternative point of view, this taxon has derived from Homo habilis or even from Australopithecus. This can mean that the hominines have dispersed from Africa to Eastern Asia by two million ago (van der Bergh et al., 2016, para. 7). However, the closest species recognized as H. floresiensis ancestor and discovered in Mata Menge is derived compared to H. Habilis and Australopithecus (van der Bergh et al., 2016). It can support the hypothesis that H. Floresiensis is still a descendent of Asian Homo habilis, although extremely dwarfed.

However, there are no skeletal remains that would prove the idea that there is a deeper ancestor of H. Floresiensis than H. Erectus. The only before H. erectus skeleton remains were found in Africa. Besides, there are not so many records of the hominines that preceded H. Erectus (Baab et al., 2012). This fact makes it difficult to compare the pre-Erectus fossils to H. Floresiensis. Thus, the ancestry of the species is unclear, as well as the time of its derivation. The probable representation of the hominine family tree is presented in Figure 2.

Distinctive Features of Homo Floresiensis

H. Floresiensis has a number of distinctive features that have become an object of discussion among the scientists. It has a small volume of brain (about 417 cm³), short stature (from 1.00 to 1.09 m), and features that appear phylogenetically primitive compared to modern humans (Baab et al., 2016, p. 1). Due to the small body size, this taxon is also known as Homo Hobbitus or just the Hobbit. These features differ the species from other hominines, although there are some questions to be discussed. For example, H. Floresiensis has small teeth, like other hominins, which allows assuming that this is a distinct hominin species tracing back to more than 700,000 years (Gomez-Robles, 2016). According to Van der Bergh, teeth of such size are typical for Homo Sapiens (Van der Bergh, 2016). The cranes and the jaws of H. Floresiensis are presented in Figure 1.

The Down Syndrome Hypothesis

However, other researchers argue that H. Floresiensis represents modern human species. In particular, it is claimed that H. Floresiensis is a modern Austro-Melanesian hominine with the signs of Down syndrome (Baab et al., 2016). Baab et al. have carried out a number of researches, including endocranial measurements, analysis of MRI data, analysis of neurocranial and mandibular symphysis shape, relative premolar length, etc. The results revealed that the cranial vault of Homo Floresiensis sharply contrasts with that of modern humans, including the patients with Down syndrome. The cranial vault of H. Floresiensis is more similar to H. Erectus, as its cranial base is not flat (Baab et al., 2016). Besides, the angle of its cranial base overlaps the euploid but not the Down syndrome range of values (Baab et al., 2016, para. 12). In the whole, the cranial morphology of H. Floresiensis is more common in archaic Homo than in the modern one.

Evolution Theory

The small stature of H. Floresiensis can support the evolution theory. If the hypothesis about its derivation from H. Erectus is right, then H. Erectus has adapted to the isolation on the island by dwarfing. Another species living on islands also tend to have small stature. This phenomenon has been also recorded in deer, mammoths, and primates (Baab, 2012). It seems that small stature helped the species to adapt to the limited volume of resources on an island.

Conclusion

To conclude, it can be said that the ancestry of H. Floresiensis is unclear. There have been several theories concerning their derivation from other hominines. Some researchers believed it to be a modern human with the signs of Down syndrome. However, the prevailing theory suggests that H. Floresiensis has acquired its distinctive features as a result of isolation on the island, which supports evolution theory.

References

Baab K. (2012) Homo floresiensis: making sense of the small-bodied hominin fossils from Flores. Nature Education Knowledge, 3(9).

Baab, K. L. et al. (2016) A Critical evaluation of the Down Syndrome diagnosis for LB1, type specimen of Homo floresiensis, PLoS One, 11(6), pp. 1-32.

Gomez-Robles, A. (2016) The dawn of Homo floresiensis, Nature, 534(7606), p. 188.

Sutikna, T. et al. (2016) Revised stratigraphy and chronology for Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua in Indonesia. Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health  Papers. Web.

van den Bergh, G. D. et al. (2016) Homo floresiensis-like fossils from the early Middle Pleistocene of Flores, Nature, 534(7606), p. 245. Web.