Category: Sciences

In physics, a new waveform results when two or more waves superimpose on each other, and this development is referred to as interference. This interference, as it applies to waves, is either constructive or destructive, or a combination of both. In constructive interference, “the amplitude of the wave that results is greater than that of the original waves” (Hecht 87).

This occurrence is in contrast to destructive interference whereby the amplitude of the resultant wave is lesser than that of the original. Light is made up of waves, obeys all the rules of waves, and is thus subject to superimposition, and hence interference.

For interference to occur, some conditions that relate to the source of light or waves should be taken into consideration. There should be coherence of the sources, that is, they must maintain a constant phase with respect to each other. The sources should also be monochromatic meaning that they have a single wavelength.

A commonly used method to produce coherent sources is by using a single source of light and illuminating a barrier with two slits. The light emerging from these slits is, thus coherent. The waves spread out from the slits according to Huygens principle, and this divergence of light from the initial line of travel is what is called diffraction (Gordon, Beichner, and Serway 23).

Thomas Young first demonstrated the principle of interference in light waves from two sources in 1801, where two slits acted as sources of the light waves. The waves were always in phase since they were from the same wave front. The light passed through the slits and illuminated a screen.

A stationary interference pattern occurred on the screen. Constructive interference occurred where dark fringes resulted while destructive interference occurred where bright fringes occurred (Jenkins and Harvey 65). This case is an outstanding example of interference of light from a coherent source.

The phenomenon of interference, depending on the mode of production, has traditionally been divided into two classes. In the first class, the division of the wave front into two parts produces the interference by use of the phenomenon of diffraction, refraction and reflection (Fowles 89).

Young’s double slit experiment falls under this form of interference. Amplitude division of the incident light produces the second nature of interference. This occurs by either parallel reflection or refraction of the incident light. The resulting light waves reinforce each other after covering different distances producing interference. An example of this form of interference is Newton’s ring.

The phenomenon of interference can explain the colors commonly seen on soap bubbles, oil slicks or even thin films. In all the above examples, interference pattern formation is by amplitude division. In the thin film observation, for example, plane waves fall on it, and light waves reflected from the lower and upper surfaces interfere with each other.

Since the condition of interference is influenced by the thickness of the film, angle of refraction and the wavelength, the eye observes different colors at different positions. Other colors will be absent where an only one-color maximum is satisfied, and hence only this color will be seen at this position (Knittl 43).

By using the same principle, Newton’s ring becomes easy to understand. If a Plano-convex lens is placed on a glass plate with its convex surface, a film of air with a gradually increasing thickness is formed in between the two. Alternating dark and bright circular fringes are seen when monochromatic light falls normally.

The fringes appear “circular because the air film has circular symmetry” (Jenkins and Harvey 49). The Newton’s rings are formed because of “the interference of the reflected waves from the top and bottom surfaces of the air films between the plates” (Knittl 46).

For the soap bubble, “light traveling through air strikes the soap film” (Bass 87). Air with has a larger refractive index than the film. Refraction occurs at the upper film surface, and transmission to the lower surface occurs interfering with the other waves. This creates the observed patter (Bass 88).

The soap bubble thus appears lovely with colors of the rainbow due to this phenomenon. The striking resemblance of the color patterns observed in the oil film and soap bubble only serves to indicate the similarity in the formation process of the two.

There are many similar applications of this phenomenon of interference. Some animals we consider beautiful with iridescent colors apply this principle. An example is the Morpho didius butterfly, which commonly inhabits the Amazon rainforest and can be found flying high on a normal day.

It appears bright blue due to the natural grating on its wings. Most people would think that it is due to a dye. Another animal considered being among the most beautiful and attractive is the peacock with its colorful tail. It applies the principle of interference of colors that it acquired naturally to produce the different colors observed on its tail. Pearl shells and opals also utilize this principle of interference of light and colors for camouflage and beauty and is an eminent character in their process of finding a mate.

One or more colored light rings are usually seen around the moon when it shines through light clouds. This occurrence is due to the light from the moon diffracting as it penetrates the water and ice droplets in the light clouds.

These haloes seen around the moon also appear around streetlights on foggy or misty nights and are all because of the principle of diffraction and interference (Gordon, Beichner, and Serway 75). The colors appear beautiful and are because of the many wavelengths in light. Another example is the hazy appearance of smog.

Light passing through the smog particles is diffracted, scattered and absorbed producing the hazy appearance (Knittl 67). Research around this property has resulted to highly innovative inventions applied in some areas, around the world, to establish the cleanliness of air and water turbidity. This has contributed in efforts of environmental health and assessment of levels of pollution especially in the major cities of the world enabling proper environmental rehabilitation measures.

Holograms, like those seen on credit cards, for example, diffract each color from a different angle creating a complicated pattern of lines on the card. This behavior is utilized or security purposes. Diffraction is applied to measure exceptionally small distances, and diffraction grating is applied, in spectroscopes, to investigate the color component of light from specified sources. In diffraction grating, each color of light diffracts, at a specified angle, producing the various colors.

Thin films have the commercial use in mirrors, optical fibers and anti-reflection coatings as well as other optical materials. For a given wavelength, “thin films are in the market engineered to control the amount of light transmitted or reflected through a surface” (Jenkins and Harvey 35). A Fabry-Perot etalon utilizes “the principle of the thin film interference to select the wavelengths of light transmitted through this device” (Bass 47).

A special application of the above properties of light is in interferometry, which is the science, and art of using coherent light to make measurements. When interference of light is measured, then the distance it has covered is easily established. Some of the applications of interferometry are optical testing, which is the use of interferometry to measure surface quality and inspection of slip gauges and measurement standards.

Another application in interferometry is direct phase measurements in multiple wavelengths and phase stepping and phase shifting. Another use is in the alignment of unusually high quality lenses such as those used in telescopes, cameras, and steppers, which are photolithographic tool used in fabricating intricate circuit patterns.

Another use is to measure small angular sizes from distant stars. The oldest form of interferometer that is used is the Michelson interferometer, but which has been modified with the introduction of sophistication (Fowls 56).

In conclusion, the interference of colors, which is due to interference of light, results in the production of wavelengths, which are different from incident light. This principle of waves has many applications in nature as seen above and science is in the forefront in the application of this phenomenon. Advances in the field of interferometry applied this principle, and is a fundamental branch of science. A lot of research still needs to go into this branch of science to maximize on the principle, which is not fully exploited.

Works Cited

Bass, Michael. Handbook of Optics. 2^nd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Print.

Fowles, Grant. Introduction to Modern Optics. 2^nd Ed. New York: Dover Publications, 1975. Print.

Gordon, John, Robert Beichner, and Raymond Serway. Student Solutions Manual & Study Guide to Accompany Physics for Scientists and Engineers. 5^th ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt College Pub, 2000. Print.

Hecht, Eugene. Optics. 4^th ed. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley, 2002. Print.

Jenkins, Francis, and Elliott Harvey. Fundamentals of Optics. 3^rd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965. Print.

Knittl, Zdenek. Optics of Thin Films: An Optical Multilayer Theory. London: Wiley, 1976. Print.

Today our society lives in the world of numbers because it became so important for people to value everything in numbers. A lot of modern information is perceived and analyzed not according to its qualitative parameters, but according to its quantitative characteristics.

To understand the peculiarities of many phenomena, it is necessary for people to focus on the data presented in numbers, but not in words. Now it is rather difficult to determine what influenced the increase of the effects of algebra on the modern society. It is possible to state that the processes of the development of our society and the progress of the role of algebra in it are interdependent. Thus, algebra has influenced the development of modern business, and it has been actively used for the progress of our digital world.

Our modern society develops according to the business principles. The quantitative data and bookkeeping materials determine the process of the business strategy’s working out. Algebra is used by businessmen on every stage of the development. The business organization of the company is a complex process which is connected with such spheres as bookkeeping, economy, and finance.

The elementary rules of algebra used by specialists can combine all these fields in a strong structure. Thus, business managers use the algebraic rules every day for providing the elementary calculations, for accounting the profits and ratios, for presenting their business reports (Larson).

Algebra is one of the oldest sciences in history which has influenced the development of all the other sciences and spheres of scientific knowledge which depend on definite kinds of calculations.

Algebra can be considered as the fundament for providing the effective business because the usage of the algebraic rules and formulas is an efficient way to solve such everyday business problems as the counting of the taxes, costs, and prices. It is impossible to control the effectiveness of the business affairs and the company’s income without using algebra (Larson).

Nowadays many researchers state that our contemporary society becomes the digital nation for which computers and electronics is the main part of the everyday reality. Nevertheless, it is significant to note that the computer science which progress gives people the opportunity to use all the advantages of the digital world and information technologies was developed with basing on the principles of algebra. Modern computer technologies are the result of using the peculiarities of the linear, abstract, and geometric algebra (Gilbert).

These branches of algebra are not elementary and cannot be used effectively by non-specialists in the field. However, professionals and inventors in the industry have achieved the highest results in the progress of information technologies and computer science which depend on algebraic models.

Moreover, the process of working out more and more inventions continues. Specialists use the algebraic rules and principles which were developed earlier. These principles are in most cases stable and that is why they guarantee the effective results which it is possible to predict.

Furthermore, this steadiness gives the opportunities for the researchers and inventors develop new approaches to examining and using different variables and diverse improvements. The whole digital world with the variety of computer programs, computer technologies and electronics depends on the principles of algebra. All this digital world functions according to the basic rules of algebra and its development influences the development of our modern society (Gilbert).

That is why it is possible to say that the usage of algebra determined the progress of two main spheres such as business and computer science according to which the modern society develops.

Works Cited

Gilbert, Robert P. Recent Developments in Complex Analysis and Computer Algebra. USA: Springer, 2000. Print.

Larson, Ron. College Algebra with Applications for Business and the Life Sciences. USA: Brooks Cole, 2007. Print.

In physics matter is regarded as anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter can either be formed from particles of same or different kinds. Elements are those substances that are formed from particles of the same kinds, while compound are formed from particles of different kinds.

Compounds and elements are formed of smaller particles referred to as atoms which are regarded as the smallest particle of an element that cannot be spilt into smaller particles. An atom is mainly composed of a nucleus that consists of positive charges particles known as protons and neutral charges referred to as neutrons.

The nucleus is centrally located and is usually surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged particles known as electrons. The size of an atom is not well defined and is often measured in terms of the size of its diameter which is considered to be approximately 10^-10 meters (Williamson, 2008).

Normally, the radius of observable universe is considered to be approximately 10²⁸ centimeters. However, the size of the observable universe is not given in terms of the size of the radius of the observable radius. Instead its size is given in terms of the difference between the smallest and the biggest units.

The smallest possible unit in the observable universe is considered to be about 10^-33 centimeters. Thus, the size of the observable universe is 10⁶¹ centimeters which is the distance between the smallest and the largest possible unit.

The Hubble Ultra- Deep Field is considered to be an image of a small region of space in constellation Fornax that is combined to Hubble Space Telescope data that was collected in the period between September 24, 2003 and January 16, 2004.

The image is regarded to be the deepest image of the universe that has ever been taken. The image reflects back to about 400 and 800 years back after the Big Bang. The Hubble Ultra- Deep Field is normally used to locate galaxies that existed during these eras.

The image was captured in a part of the sky that had “a low density of bright stars in the near-field” that made sure that the image formed had a better vision of dimmer as well as more distant objects (Kuhn, 2010) It is believed that the image has over 10,000 galaxies. In 2009 between August and September a more refined image was generated by using a more advanced Wide Field Camera.

The modification enabled the astronomers to identify a new list of prospective distant objects. Some of the objects spotted include southern-hemisphere constellation Fornax which is an image that is approximately 3 arc minutes across. The image is normally smaller than 1mm by 1mm squire of paper when it is held at a distant of one meter away.

A multiverse is considered to be a set of probable hypothetical universes that forms the physical reality. The diverse universes contained in a multiverse are regarded as parallel universes. It is noted that multiverses have greatly been hypothesized in physics, cosmology, fiction, philosophy, theology and more specifically in science, fiction and fantasy.

Multiverse hypothesis in physics is of the opinion that there are extra universes other than the ones that we are aware of. It also goes ahead to offer taxonomical data with regards to parallel universes which are structured in various levels (Kuhn, 2010). This notion has enabled many scientist come up with various theories that try to explain about multiverse.

Reference List

Kuhn, R. (2010).How Vast is the Cosmos? Web.

Williamson, P. (2008). More about Compounds and Elements. New York: Prentice Hall

Introduction

Maori is a unique indigenous society that had a special developmental pattern, i.e. they moved from sedentism to hunting and again to sedentism. More importantly, now Maori constitute 15% of the population of New Zealand and they have managed to preserve their culture up to these days.

In this paper, I deal with the history of this indigenous society and focus on Maori people’s attempts to preserve their traditions and their culture. Understanding cultural peculiarities and being aware of the struggle of Maori will help better understand the importance of culture for a human society. It is necessary to note that Maori still cherish their traditions and are proud of their culture and history.

Background

According to archeological research, first settlements in New Zealand appeared as early as the twelfth century AD. This was the start of Maori society that has developed and changed several times since then. It is often believed that Western colonists used to bring a new order with them and change traditions and customs.

However, Maori society had undergone a number of changes before Western settlers came to New Zealand (Walter, R., Smith, I., Jacomb, C., 2006). It is important to note that roots of Maori society are found in East Polynesia (Walter, R. et al., 2006).

Therefore, it is not surprising that first settlers (who became Maori) had come to New Zealand with a certain societal order and culture. This peculiarity explains the shift from sedentism to hunting and fishing and to sedentism again. The newcomers came with their strategies which proved to be ineffective at certain period and it took some time to develop new strategies, e.g. to develop horticulture.

History

In 1300, settlers were involved in hunting, fishing as well as developing horticulture. As has been mentioned above, Maori society can be characterized by sedentism at early stages of their development (Walter, R. et al., 2006). However, Maori’s sedentism was a bit specific. Maori people lived in quite large settlements (villages), but these villages were mobile and were a part of a larger system. Walter, R. et al (2006) note that Maori’s sedentism was possible due to abundance of resources in certain regions.

It is necessary to note that Maori’s hunting and horticulture exhausted the environment. Thus, many species of game became extinct due to activities of Maori (Walter, R. et al., 2006). Thus, when a community exhausted some area, they simply moved to another place. It is necessary to note that different communities often had military conflicts.

The first contacts with Europeans started in the middle of the seventeenth century when first sailors and missionaries came to the islands (Pearce, G.L., 1968). The first contacts were friendly, so-to-speak. However, later there were a lot of conflicts. Europeans often killed Maoris and Maoris avenged and killed Europeans.

There were even cases of cannibalism (Pearce, G.L., 1968). In the nineteenth century, there were a number of military conflicts between Europeans and Maori people, e.g. the Anglo-Maori Wars which took place in the 1860s (Gump, J.O., 1997).

Those conflicts resulted in certain treaties which were often reconsidered. Basically, those wars could be regarded as the last attempts of Maori to defend their boundaries and preserve their autonomy^[1]. The first part of the twentieth century was the period when Maori lost most part of their land, and anthropologists even expressed concerns that Maori were almost extinct (Hanson, A., 1989).

Nonetheless, in the mid of the twentieth century, it became obvious that Maori were likely to preserve their culture and their language. In the 21^st century, a variety of regulations aimed at development of Maori language and Maori culture exist in New Zealand (Hanson, A., 1989). It is necessary to note that Maori’s resistance to influences from outside played the crucial role in the development of their culture and language.

Political organization

As has been mentioned above, Maori settlements (villages) were mobile. These villages combined into communities which had chiefs (Walter, R. et al., 2006). Therefore, it is possible to state that in prehistoric period Maori had decentralized governance that was similar to the systems developed in Polynesian tribes and communities. This political structure has not dramatically changed throughout centuries. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the structure was predominantly the same and communities had their leaders.

Importantly, in the second part of the nineteenth century, British colonists started a large-scale acculturation and assimilation program (Gump, J.O., 1997). The governor in New Zealand George Grey believed that “rapid assimilation” will contribute to acculturation of the “savages” and it will put an end to the tension between indigenous people and European settlers (as cited in Gump, J.O., 1997, p. 25).

However, chiefs of Maori communities were against such acculturation, which led to a number of military conflicts and the movement called Maori King Movement, which was aimed to defend Maori people’s rights to own their land.

In the early twentieth century Maori people had certain governance bodies which addressed the parliament of New Zealand and even tried to address the British parliament, though it is necessary to add that these attempts were not successful and the government of New Zealand restricted political power of Maori communities (Gump, J.O., 1997). Maoris were still seen as aliens who had to be assimilated. Europeans still tried to ignore Maoris’ needs and demands.

One of the major reasons for Maoris’ failures can be decentralized social structure the Maori (Bourassa, S.C. & Strong, A.L., 2002). Maori still live in communities which are often hostile to each other. There is no unity among Maori communities. People of these communities still see each other as rivals, and fail to understand that together they can achieve more.

However, it is necessary to note that Maori people are represented in the parliament of New Zealand and this contributes to development of the movement aimed at development of Maori culture.

Subsistence/economic patterns

Maori used to rely on hunting, fishing and horticulture in prehistoric times. Abundance of natural resources made Maori prosper. However, when the resources became quite scarce, Maori had to move and find other ways to feed themselves. They were also involved in agriculture in later periods. In the eighteenth and especially nineteenth centuries, Maori started interacting with Europeans and they started relying on agriculture.

In the late nineteenth century and the first part of the twentieth century, Maori faced a variety of economic constraints. In the first place, acculturation and assimilation policies implemented by Europeans led to alienation of land. Maori were deprived of the right to own the land of their fathers.

Maori people often had to seek employment on Europeans’ farms, which contributed greatly to further economic difficulties for Maori. For instance, financial wellbeing of Maori was very moderate compared to that of Europeans. Maori used to fulfill low-paid jobs, which contributed to their financial problems.

Nonetheless, the rising interest to Maori culture led to attention to the land issues. In the second part of the twentieth century, Maori obtained an opportunity to restore some of the land that their ancestors used to own. Many communities and individuals were allowed to submit certain documents that could prove their rights on a particular site (Dixon, S., & Mare, D.C., 2007).

This positively affected Maoris’ wellbeing. They have become able to start small businesses. This contributed to prosperity of some communities. Maoris have become able to get a higher education, which led to new job opportunities.

Importantly, Maori were affected by financial crises of the 1980s-1990 most as they were involved in doing low-paid jobs. However, in the 2000s, financial well-being of working Maoris improved significantly (Dixon, S., & Mare, D.C., 2007). Now the difference between Europeans’ and Maoris’ incomes has decreased as Maori have started occupying well-paid jobs. Maori young people also obtain appropriate education which enables them to seek for better job opportunities.

Gender, marriage, family structure

It is necessary to note that Maori people can be regarded as one of the most unique indigenous nations as they managed to preserve their culture to a great extent. It is necessary to note that Maori society was predominantly patriarchal.

Chiefs were selected among men and men made the major decisions concerning warfare, leaving a particular area, etc. (Pearce, G.L., 1968). However, it is also necessary to note that women often played a significant role in the development of Maori society. Now Maori women are represented in the parliament of New Zealand.

It is also important to note that European settlers did not change family structure to a great extent. Christian values were quite similar to those of Maori people’s values. Interestingly, there are some peculiarities in Maori people’s attitude towards sexuality (Aspin, C., & Hutchings, J., 2007). Maoris could be characterized by certain sexual diversity as many other indigenous people. Contemporary Maoris also accept sexual diversity as they tend to focus on spiritual connection rather than gender.

Religion

Maoris’ religious beliefs are also quite specific. As any other indigenous people, Maoris had polytheistic religion. They worshiped many gods that were believed to control powers of nature. However, A. Hanson (1989) notes that Maori’s religion can also be regarded as monotheistic as there was a superior entity Io. Io was the embodiment of justice and the superior rule. Io was the power that created the universe.

Notably, Io was quite a specific cult as many Maori people were ignorant of this divine entity. Io cult was often for the chosen who were aware of the superior entity (Hanson, A., 1989). Maori believed that only highest priests and chiefs could be aware of the great god, as this knowledge was almost dangerous for ordinary Maori people.

Importantly, Io cult was quite similar to the religious beliefs brought by European settlers and missioners. Maori had quite similar values and similar understanding of the right and the wrong (Pearce, G.L., 1968). This was one of the reasons why Christianity spread among Maori people so fast (Hanson, A., 1989).

It is necessary to note that the cult of Io became a certain part of Christian beliefs of Maori people. Io was associated with Jehovah and Maori people were tolerant to the new religion. It is also necessary to note that Christian missionaries and settlers tried to eliminate ‘pagan’ beliefs and make Maoris accept Christianity which was a part of the acculturation strategy.

Therefore, it is possible to note that there were two major factors that contributed to spread of Christianity among Maori. On the one hand, Christians tried to convert the savages into their religion. On the other hand, Maoris accepted Christianity as a similar kind of faith (Pearce, G.L., 1968). Now most of Maoris are Christians who share Christian values, but still they cherish the beliefs of their ancestors.

The people today

As has been mentioned above, Maoris managed to preserve their culture to a great extent. They managed to preserve their language and their traditions. For instance, Io is still an important part of Maori cosmology even though most of Maori are Christians. Maori still have the same ideas concerning the right and the wrong. The superior entity is still seen as the embodiment of justice. Notably, these beliefs are intermingled with Christian principles, which makes Maori a unique society.

It is also important to state that Maori people have been struggling for their rights to remain Maori throughout centuries. The struggle is not over as Maori have to take a stand to advocate their rights (Dixon, S. & Mare, D.C., 2007).

The struggle for the land is not over as well. Maori still have to prove their rights to live on their land as predominantly European officials and entrepreneurs try to obtain this important resource. Apart from this, Maori also have to protect their culture and their language. The interest to indigenous people and their culture rose in the 1970s and this positively affected the development of Maori culture.

As far as economic well-being is concerned, it changed quite significantly compared to the situation in the twentieth century. Now income of working Maori has risen as they started occupying well-paid jobs. This became possible as higher education is now available to Maori. Of course, land policies and returning Maori land to them contributed greatly to economic empowerment of Maori people.

Nonetheless, Maori people still have to face a variety of challenges. Globalization contributes to assimilation of Maori. Now many Maori tend to abandon their home places and search for better life elsewhere.

This trend can be quite threatening as fewer people are preoccupied with preserving their indigenous culture and traditions. Besides, assimilation is quite an inevitable process as Maori are affected by traditions and ways of Europeans. These influences inevitably affect the way Maori culture is developing, so it becomes quite challenging to sustain a truly Maori culture.

Conclusion

It is necessary to note that Maori is one of the most unique indigenous societies which developed in a particular way and, irrespective of many hazards and the course of time, Maori managed to preserve their culture. This society has a history of a constant fight for their right to develop. At present, Maori people are achieving a lot of goals which were unavailable in previous centuries. Thus, contemporary Maoris are gaining economic independence, so-to-speak, and this contributes to their empowerment.

References

Aspin, C. & Hutchings, J. (2007). Reclaiming the Past to Inform the Future: Contemporary Views of Maori Sexuality. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 9(4): 415-427.

Bourassa, S.C. & Strong, A.L. (2002). Restitution of Land to New Zealand Maori: The Role of Social Structure. Pacific Affairs, 75(2): 227-260.

Dixon, S. & Mare, D.C. (2007). Understanding Changes in Maori Incomes and Income Inequality 1997-2003. Journal of Population Economics, 20(3): 571-598.

Gump, J.O. (1997). A Spirit of Resistance: Sioux, Xhosa, and Maori Responses to Western Dominance, 1840-1920. Pacific Historical Review, 66(1): 21-52.

Hanson, A. (1989). The Making of the Maori: Culture Invention and Its Logic. American Anthropologist, 91(4): 890-902.

Pearce, G.L. (1968). The Story of the Maori People. Auckland: Collins.

Walter, R., Smith, I. & Jacomb, C. (2006). Sedentism, Subsistence and Socio-Political Organization in Prehistoric New Zealand. World Archeology, 38(2): 274-290.

Footnotes

1. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the difference between the boundaries of Maori lands in the 19^th and 21^st centuries.

Introduction

The concept of animal rights has gained a lot of concern in recent years, with several groups emerging to fight for the welfare of animals. These efforts are not aimed at attaining equality between human beings and animals, but ensuring that animals are reared in healthy conditions that do not undermine their survival. While this has been stepped, it is doubtless that concerned individuals and groups have had to confront inhumane practices and traditions, which demean animal rights in an array of ways.

One of these practices is animal hoarding, a behavior that continues to draw mixed reactions from all walks of life. It undermines animals kept like pets in numerous ways and is highly discouraged (Tremayne 12).

This research paper explores the concept of animal hoarding by synthesizing several issues that revolve around this topic of study. In laying the foundation of the research, background information and introduction will be covered to gain clarity of ideas. Additionally, this synthesis will explore causes of this practice and focusing on ways through which such “push” factors could be controlled to tame the impact of these inhumane actions to animals.

Moreover, the research will expound the implication of animal hoarding, with an aim of understating some of the negative effects of the practice to animals and to the community. In its concluding segments, the research will discuss approaches that have been adopted or proposed in combating this behavior together with the use of legal mechanisms to promote the welfare of animals around the world. To achieve this task, required information will be sourced from academic library databases to guarantee the authenticity of information.

Animal hoarding

Like many other issues, animal affects the community and it encompasses discrepancies from all walks of life. Whilst little or no attention is given to animal hoarding in some parts of the world, this practice has far-reaching effects, which may include but not limited to public health concern, animal rights and the mental health of individuals.

According to Patronek (1999), animal hoarding can be defined based on a particular criterion that captures three core issues that give way for the discussion of the topic. The first idea is that hoarders usually keep a large number of animals beyond the recommended size. Additionally, these animals are denied basic needs and conditions to promote their healthy living.

For instance, they are exposed to malnutrition, poor sanitation, inaccessible veterinary care, poor sanitation and negligence leading to starvation and death. The last point that characterizes this definition is consistent denial among animal hoarders, of their inability to provide required animal care. In most cases, these people lay blames on the animals, human occupants around or the households (Patronek 82).

It is however important to note that the issue of animal hoarding has received minimal scientific research coverage, making it a less recognized syndrome in the society. Nevertheless, there is sporadic animal hoarding in most parts of the United States. In a 1999 research, Patronek notes that the issue of animal hoarding goes beyond mere ownership of pets and other animals, and it is not determined by the number of animals being kept by an individual (Patronek 82).

Collecting and rearing of animals only becomes a point of concern when the person in-charge of the animals cannot sufficiently provide necessary care for the animals. The practice is commonly associated with hoarders holding hundreds of animals, which may include both dead and living, shut in cages, trailers, houses, apartments and cars. Additionally, sanitary conditions in these places significantly deteriorate to the level of being condemned for human habitation (Harvard Women’s Health Watch 4).

Due to a combination of factors like contagious diseases, large numbers of animals involved and ill health, euthanasia is usually the only option, thus terminating the lives of several animals prematurely (Gary 1). It is worth noting that at this point when the situation has deteriorated, veterinary cost, clean-up, litigation or even demolition of housing premises could be quite expensive.

In general, animal hoarding has countless effects ranging from transmission of zoonotic diseases to endangering the health of vulnerable members of the society like children and the elderly. Nonetheless, cases involving this issue are handled with laxity by government agencies. This is mainly attributed to the fact that the cases fall within several jurisdictions or in loopholes existing between the state and local government departments (Arluke et al. 125).

Reasons for hoarding

Why would someone confine several animals under inhumane and unhealthy conditions? Although there is little scientific research that expounds this issue, there are known reasons, which compel people to engage in this practice. The prevalence of this practice is usually high among people with mental disorders like OCD-Obsessive Compulsive Disorder.

Many OCD patients possess a sense of responsibility that entails the prevention of harm through ritualistic approaches (Arluke et al. 129). In the same way, animal hoarders get overwhelmed by the responsibility of protecting animals from harm by unreasonably confining them under unbearable conditions. Hoarding of possessions is a common feature among animal hoarders, who seem determined not to lose the animals regardless of existing unhealthy conditions (Tremayne 12).

Accordingly, some experts explain animal hoarding in relation to the analogy of drug, shopping or gambling addiction, while in some cases, this practice is viewed as a by-product of another compulsion, say, shopping. In most instances, animal hoarders portray certain characteristics that resemble substance abusers.

Such people are preoccupied with actions and intentions that are repetitive, of negligence and denial. On the other hand, focal delusional disorder may cause animal hoarders to believe that there is no suffering among animals kept in large numbers without the recommended care. This explains why most people who engage in this practice deny rearing animals under inhumane conditions and believe that their release would expose them to extreme harm (Arluke et al. 130).

According to the attachment model, animal hoarding is common among people who experience emptiness that cannot be satisfied through normal human relationships. In most cases, hoarding occurs frequently among individuals who have lost a close person through death, separation or divorce (Papazian et al. 115). It can therefore be argued that some people find solace in rearing animals to avoid loneliness, yet they do not appreciate the fact that animals require clean and healthy living conditions like human beings.

Effects of animal hoarding

Hoarding of animals affects both human beings and animals. Of importance is the fact that animal hoarding affects the health of animals and exposes them to diseases that eventually cause death (Castrodale et al. 14). It is therefore considered to be an inhumane and cruel way of keeping animals. Common health issues, which concern activists, include negligence, overcrowding and malnutrition.

Malnutrition emanates from insufficient food and water supply to hoarded animals. The commonest effect of malnutrition is death, which occurs as a result of starvation and dehydration. Furthermore, malnutrition predisposes some illnesses, since hoarded animals are characterized by weak immune systems to fight infections. In acute cases, animals may become aggressive and hostile in order to compete for limited food and water (Harvard Women’s Health Watch 4).

Due to such competition, cannibalism may be witnessed, where animals kill each other for food. Overcrowding is also a major concern of animal hoarding. Hoarded animals are always enclosed in small rooms, which may have carcasses. This may promote the spread of contagious diseases augmented by close proximity of animals as there is minimal living space (Papazian et al. 115).

On the other hand, animal negligence is rampant among animal hoarders. As a result, hoarders deny the exposure of animals to unhealthy living conditions. Negligence is also manifested in limited veterinary services, unavailable waste management programs and absence of standard care (Patronek 86).

Animal hoarding also threatens the life of people living within that neighborhood. For instance, households within close proximity experience stench from decomposing carcasses and unmanaged animal waste. They are also prone to contracting diseases as these animals act as carriers. As a result, areas bordering animal hoarding activities are always condemned by authorities for human habitation (Gary 1).

Recommendation and conclusion

From the above survey, it is doubtless that animal hoarding is cruel and unhealthy. This is the main reason why this topic of research was chosen. Consequently, there is every need for stakeholders and the general public to be involved in saving the lives of animals from hoarders (Castrodale et al. 15).

This can be achieved through several approaches, including treatment of individuals and using legal channels in promoting the rights of animals. Treatment can be achieved through a combination of both cognitive-behavioral and psychological methods. Strict legislation should also be enacted to guard against animal cruelty. Through fines and charges, most people who adhere to these rules and ensure that all animals reared are treated with dignity.

Works Cited

Arluke et al. “Health Implications of Animal Hoarding.” Health & Social Work 27. 2 (2002):125-131. Print.

Castrodale et al. “General Public Health Considerations for Responding to Animal Hoarding Cases.” Journal Of Environmental Health 7. 27 (2010): 14-18. Print.

Gary, Strauss. “Hoarding behavior takes on a four-legged twist.” USA Today (2010): 1. Print.

Harvard Women’s Health Watch. “When keeping stuff gets out of hand.” Harvard Women’s Health Watch 19.3 (2011): 4-6. Print.

Papazian et al. “Press Reports of Animal Hoarding.” Society & Animals 10. 2 (2002): 113-135. Print.

Patronek, Gary. “Hoarding of Animals: An Under-Recognized Public Health Problem in a Difficult-to- Study Population.” Public Health Reports 114 (1999): 81-87. Print.

Tremayne, Jessica. “Can you identify animal hoarders?” DVM: The Newsmagazine of Veterinary Medicine 36. 2 (2005):12-13. Print.

To begin with, it is imperative to note that color is derived from the distribution of light particles over a given wavelength which interacts with the observer’s eyes at normal range. The color of an object is associated with its material and the associated source of light that shines over it. It is also based on how the very materials absorb, reflect or emit light.

The perception of color depends on the sensitivity of its wavelength to the relevant parts of the eye. It is therefore quantified by the degree at which various parts of the eye are affected. According to Barker and Katie (65), the entire process of vision demands complex study especially when the concept of polarization of light is brought into discussion. Light is therefore defined as a class of spectrum that gives rise to the same color impression.

In spite of the fact that there are varieties of eyes in the animal kingdom, it is profound to note that the manner in which living beings correspond to cues within their immediate environment is more or less the same. In any case, opsin photopigment proteins are used by all animals in the process of receiving and capturing rays of light. In addition, there are quite a number of purposes that are served by the visual system.

For instance, the photophobic or photophilic behaviors are integral during the process of detecting light. The next stage is whereby the detected light is absorbed and transferred to the circadian clock. This is also believed to the point at which polarization of light begins to take place. It is vital to mention that the aforementioned functions do make use of sophisticated neural processing or complex optics.

On the other hand, composition can be defined as the arrangement of line, color and shape in order to make a harmonized picture. Composition is an important aspect of art which shows an observer where and how to move the eyes when observing an object. This aspect gives any piece of art work the kind of value it is worth. This implies that bad composition cannot be overcome by any other aspect.
Light is a form of energy that is transmitted in waves which travel in a vacuum.

The main cause of these waves is the electric charges which vibrate continually. In addition, no medium of travel is required by these waves. In this case, light is said to be unpolarized when it is vibrating across several planes almost simultaneously (Born and Wolf 56). Hence, unpolarized light can be changed to polarized light when the vibrations are compelled to take place in a single plane. The process of changing unpolarized light to polarized light is typically referred to as polarization.

Methods of polarization

There are different methods used to polarize light, and the most common method used is the use of a polaroid filter. Hence, light waves that approach a surface can be easily blocked by polaroid filters. It filters half of the vibrations, and the other half is allowed to pass through in a single plane.

The polaroid is capable of blocking some of the vibrations because of its composition. It is notable that its molecules absorb all the vibrations that are parallel to the alignment of its molecules. This leads to the formation of polarization axis. The vibrations that are parallel to the axis pass through and those which are perpendicular are blocked (Barker and Katie 65).

When two filters are placed back to back, one may not be able to see through the filters. Light is polarized on passing the first filter and the vertical vibrations are blocked then the parallel ones pass the first filter. The vertical ones are blocked by the second filter bearing in mind that the axis is horizontal. As a matter of fact, all the light is blocked and as a result, one cannot see through.

The second most important method through which light can be polarized is through bouncing back if light particles from a reflective surface. This is referred to as polarization by reflection. Surfaces that are not metallic in nature can allow the process of Polarization in a much easier way. Reflection is the bouncing back of light upon striking a shinny surface. As such, metallic materials are known to reflect light in diverse directions.

On the other hand, non metallic materials reflect light in a way that the vibrations are concentrated in a plane parallel to the reflecting surface (Goldstein and Collett 130). An individual viewing an object using light reflected by these materials see a glare if the polarization is more intense. An example of this kind of polarization is the one which takes place in water. This explains why it may be quite cumbersome to visualize well objects that are under water. The effect created by polarization of light deters clear visibility of such objects.

Light is also capable of bending as it finds its way from one medium to another. Therefore, when light changes its direction of movement as it traverse one region to another, it is referred to as refraction. The latter is also a major determinant of polarization due to the new angle created when rays of light are refracted. For two refracted rays, which are polarized with a perpendicular direction a filter is used to block one of the images completely (Marshal 123).

When the axis of polarization is positioned at an angle of 90 degrees to the horizontal surface of the beam of light, there is a tendency of the beam of light being blocked while it increases the brightness of the other image.

When a beam of light undergoes the process of scattering, it results into significant disturbance of particles. As a consequence, the light particles are eventually polarized. In addition, it is worth noting that polarization itself can hardly take place in the absence of a medium even if light particles are scattered.

When light hits a material, it causes the atoms of the material to vibrate producing their own electromagnetic waves. These waves are directed in all directions and this process leads to scattering light which leads to partial polarization. It is as a result of this polarization which brings about washed out sky. It is a condition that is easily corrected by using Polaroid filters which block the partially polarized light (Horvath and Varju 88).

Applications of polarization

From the above discussion, it is vital to mention that one of the main applications of polarization is clearly brought out in the process of making sunglasses that reduce glare from bright light.

In large scale, polarization is used to analyze stress in transparent plastics. In this case, light is passed through the transparent plastic and the different colors of visible light are polarized. This form of polarization takes place in different directions. In addition, placing the plastic between two polarizing plates leads to formation of a pattern with many colors which change as the plates tilt.

The structural stress is shown by locations where the color bands are more concentrated.
Polarization is also used in entertainment especially in the production and illustration of the three dimensional movies. What happens in this case is that two movies are filmed at the same time from different camera positions, and then they are both projected from different sides into a metallic screen through a polarizing filter.

Both movies produce light which is polarized and the axis of one is perpendicular to the other (Marshal, 123). It is usually advisable to put on glasses which have a pair of Polaroid filters as part of protection. This results to one eye of the audience seeing one movie and the other seeing the other from a different projector giving them a perception of depth.
To recap it all, it is imperative to mention that polarization techniques have been instrumental to scholars towards finding information on color composition.

By understanding the effects of polarized light and unpolarized light, an individual is capable of understanding why the color of a certain object appears the way it is. In addition, polarization helps in understanding light as a wave and associated effects. Polarization also offers the reason why objects appear differently when in dim and bright light. It has been proved to be a very important process in color theory.

Works Cited

Barker, Brett and Masopust, Katie. Color and Composition for the Creative Quilter. London, UK : C&T Publishing Inc, 2005. Print.

Born, Max and Emil, Wolf, Pinciples of Optics: Electromagnetic Theory of Propagation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Print.

Goldstein, Dennis and Edward, Collett. Polarized Light: Optical Engineering. London, UK: Marcel Dekker publishers, 2003. Print.

Horvath, Gabor and Dezso, Varju. Polarization Patterns in Nature. New York, NY: Springer, 2004. Print.

Marshal, Gerald. Handbook of Optical and Laser Scanning. London, UK: Marcel Dekker, 2004. Print.

Enzymes are described as biological proteins which accelerate the rate of reaction of a chemical substance, while inhibitors are elements which reduce the speed of catalyzed reaction of enzyme through connecting into the enzyme and jamming the reaction of enzyme (Hunter, 2009, p. 41).

Enzymes function in the human body through reducing the activation energy creating sure that reaction in the body will begin. From the biological statement, it is considered that for each action, there is an equal and opposite reaction and in this instance, issues which affect the function of enzymes are called modulators. If these modulators stimulate enzymes, the rate of reaction catalyzed will considerably raise, however if the modulators do not stimulate enzymes that rate of reaction catalyzed will considerably reduced.

The possible catastrophic effect of inhibitors, temperature and other kinds of proteins is an example of explanation why such modulators are extremely controlled by human body.

Temperature, considered as amount of the concentration of heat, is a significant feature in the functions of enzymes and the speed of an enzymatic reaction is greatly affected by temperature. This can be explained as substrates come into contact with active sites often in the existence of molecules which are in a fast motion. Additionally, even though such molecules in human body usually are in fast motions, the velocity of the reaction goes down instantly.

This shows that thermal agitation brings about enzymes (protein molecules) to these molecules do move rapidly the speed of the reaction drops piercingly (Karp, 2009, p. 102). In short, thermal agitation causes protein molecules (enzymes) to change its nature (breakdown of protein arrangements) and every enzyme has particular point of temperature where its rate of reaction become rapid without breaking down the enzyme.

The outcome of the test can be predicted that enzymes at 25˚C would be highly active than 12˚C, and that 12˚C would be highly active than 45˚C (Karp, 2009, p. 102). Furthermore, if the chemical potential energy generated in the process grows to be large enough, the activation energy present in an exergonic reaction may be attained and a transformation in the chemical form will occur.

The outcome of the chemical potential energy will depend on the degree of chemical kinetic energy on the enzyme molecules in the structure when there is collision of any two molecules. When the temperature of a system is raised, it is likely that large number of molecules per unit time will attain the activation energy; hence the speed of the reactions can go up.

From the above discussion, every enzyme has array of temperature where an optimal reaction rate is attained and this upper limit is called the temperature optimal of the enzyme.

Inhibitors on enzyme reactions

The enzyme acid phosphatase support as discharge phosphates and in this instance the phenolphthalein diphosphate substance is utilized to serve as a pointer of the reaction rate (Garrett & Grisham, 2005, p. 421). Biologically, acid phosphatase is utilized to denature phosphate compounds discharging phosphates and this is essential as biologically it creates accessible a metabolic group of phosphate ions, this acid phosphate is there in bean sprouts, tomatoes and even potatoes.

A non-competitive inhibitor remains unattached itself to the location which is examined as active, but remains attached in any other place on the enzyme and through this process of attaching itself anywhere on the enzyme, it influences the structure of the enzyme and this is the manner in which the enzymes function.

Since there is absence of competition engaged between the substrate and inhibitor, raising the substrate content would not aid and the inhibitor does not influence the capacity for the available substrate to attach with the location which is active, but ends it reacting at the time it is there.

The simple clarification (which appears to relate to a large number of enzymes) is that any reaction with the inhibitor brings about the appearance of the active location to be altered. Note that non-competitive inhibitors are not connecting openly to the active location, but somewhere else on the enzyme (Garrett & Grisham, 2005, p. 421).

The attachment of inhibitor occurs in the side set of the protein chain, and influences the manner the protein restructures into its tertiary form, which partly alters the appearance of the active location. If the appearance of the active location is altered, the substrate cannot connect or attach to it any further extent.

If, at any case, cysteine remains are anywhere on the chain of protein, which influences the manner it restructures its tertiary form, therefore changing this set can affect the appearance of the active location, and as a result end the enzyme from functioning.

In contradiction of other kinds of reversible inhibition, in which the impacts on the reaction of enzyme rely on the content of an inhibitor, there are several instances of compounds which react in chemical form with residues in the location of the active enzyme. In such examples, enzyme actions are wiped out, for instance the reaction between an active site Ser residue with “nerve gas” Sarin on the enzyme, which can be put as acetylcholinesterase (Russell, Hertz, & McMillan, 2011, p. 81).

In condition that acetlycholine may not be hydrolyzed by such enzyme, the indicators of the nerve may not be taken over the synapses of the structure of nerve. On any contact with such compound, it may cause death instantly because of respiratory problem.

Various non-competitive inhibitors connect permanently to the enzyme and as a result end it functioning enduringly, but some other types attach temporarily. The rationale of the analysis is to study the activity of enzymes when there is fluctuation, raise or reduced, temperature.

Hypothesis

The hypothesis which is related to temperature is that at 25°C the catecholase will show the most output. While the hypothesis for inhibitors is that there is no impact of changing the quantity of inhibitor applied and also the transmission percentage will stay steady for every solution regardless of changing concentration of inhibitor.

Another hypothesis is that while the concentration of sodium dihydrogen phosphate is raised the speed of reactions will reduce and this will be shown by reduce in percentage transmission as there is reduced concentration of inhibitor.

Methods and Materials

The effects of temperature would be investigated and three test tubes would have 3 ml of pH 7 phosphate buffer put in and one test tube would be put in ice with temperature of 10°C.

Another test tube would be put in a test tube holder at a temperature of 25°C and the last test tube would be put in a beaker which is set to heated water. A test tube which has the potato fluid was placed in the heated water in the beaker and as well a test tube which has Catechol would be put in the temperatures below 0°C and one test tube in the heated water in the beaker.

After 15 minutes, 12 drops of Catechol would be put into every test tube of buffer in the experiment in line to the temperature. After that, 12 drops of potato fluid would be put into every test tube of buffer in the experiment as well corresponding temperatures and finally the tubes would be permitted to stay for six minutes for mixing. The outcome will be recorded according to their concentration.

References

Garrett, R., & Grisham, C. (2005). Biochemistry. New York: Cengage Learning.

Hunter, M. (2009). Effects of Temperature on Enzyme Kinetics. Boston: Ardent Media.

Karp, G. (2009). Cell and Molecular Biology: Concepts and Experiments. London: John Wiley and Sons.

Russell, P., Hertz, P., & McMillan, B. (2011). Biology: The Dynamic Science. Carlifornia: Cengage Learning.

Introduction

When we look around, there are many questions one would want to ask. Although most of the answers are found through academic approaches, the truth is that the broadness of this discipline makes it challenging to exhaust every natural phenomenon. Among the many questions asked is the explanation for the color of the sky. Have you ever imagined why the sky is not another color but blue? Is it natural or there are contributing factors which make it blue?

Could it be as a result of our natural color blindness that makes us perceive it to be blue? Definitely the questions are countless. This research paper explores reasons, findings, theories and the truth, which surrounds the blue color of the sky and the occurrence of rainbows. In order to achieve this, the research mainly analyses findings, gathered from reputable sources, including but not limited to online articles and books.

Blue sky

When observed on a clear day, without clouds, mist or dust, the sky always appears blue. Although there are several theories, which explain this concept, it is believed that the blue color is as a result of atoms of oxygen and nitrogen found in the atmosphere (Jacobs 1).

Due to the presence of these particles, the white light from the sun is separated into several colors, which are then scattered all over in the atmosphere. Additionally, based on scattering properties of these colors, it has been found that blue light has a wavelength that scatters in the atmosphere better than any other color.

This means that blue light dominates the atmosphere, making the sky to appear blue when observed by the human eye (Rea 10). On the other hand, the sun appears orange and red during sunset because the blue light is usually scattered far away from the visible line. This scientific phenomenon that explains light scattering and the appearance of the sky is commonly referred to as the Tyndall effect or the Rayleigh scattering.

Tyndall effect

This theory was put forth by John Tyndall in 1859, explaining the color of the sky. According to his discovery, blue wavelength is shorter and gets scattered better than other wavelengths, when light is passed through a fluid with particles. From a real life perspective, this can be illustrated by shining white light through water that has soap or milk.

When observed from the side of the container holding the water, it is possible to observe the beam of white light by the blue light, which is scattered (Mara 23). However, the light that is observed at the end of such an experiment appears red after the beam has passed through the entire vessel of water.

A filter of polarized light can also be applied to investigate the scattering nature of light. This can be compared to the deep-blue appearance of the sky, when viewed through sun glasses. Although the concept is commonly known as the Tyndall effect, many physicists refer to it as the Rayleigh scattering, based on the studies that were done by Lord Rayleigh a few years after it was proposed by John Tyndall in 1859 (Rea 10).

In their explanations, Rayleigh and Tyndall argue that the blue color of the sky is attributed to the presence of water droplets in form of vapor and dust particles in the atmosphere. However, if this were true, color variation in the sky would be a common occurrence due to ever-changing humidity. Based on this argument, it was agreed that the presence of nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere is the most appropriate explanation for the blue color of the sky (Jacobs 1).

This was fully backed by Einstein in 1911 when he developed a formula applied in determination of scattering light in different molecules. The results were acceptable as they had experimental evidence. From this discovery, it was also observed that the scattering of light by molecules is made possible because light waves have an electromagnetic field, responsible for dipole moments in these molecules.

Even though the sky is blue, it is clear that clouds appear white in color when observed. This is based on the fact that they contain particles, which are believed to be greater than the wavelength of light (Mara 23). As a result, all wavelengths are scattered equally, a concept that is commonly known as the Mie scattering.

However, the possibility of smaller particles in the atmosphere cannot be ruled out. This explains why some regions are famously known because of their blue haze. It is believed that the interaction between terpenes and ozone leads to the formation of tiny molecules that are approximately 200nm in diameter (Jacobs 2). Importantly, these particles give an explanation for the blue color.

Nevertheless, an eruption or forest fire may emit particles into the atmosphere, which end up scattering the red light. In such cases, the results would depict the opposite of the Tyndall effect. Consequently, the moon may appear blue since red light is commonly scattered out. However, it is important to note that blue moon is a very rare phenomenon (Rea 10).

Rainbows

Besides observing a clear blue sky or clouds, human beings equally get fascinated by rainbows. How are rainbows formed? From Greek mythology, rainbows were believed to be the path for a messenger of gods known as Iris. On the other hand, Norse mythology proposed that a rainbow acted as a link between human beings and their gods (Lee and Fraser 33).

All these myths make the understanding of the rainbow quite fascinating to human beings. Are they natural in existence or they are formed? These questions have been answered by scientists who spent their time analyzing the scientific explanation for the existence of the rainbow.

A rainbow can be described as arc that appears in the sky with colored light. A fact to note is that rainbows have a relationship with water droplets and light. It is believed that this arc forms due to reflection and refraction of light, mainly from water droplets, arising from rain or mist in the atmosphere (Lee and Fraser 322).

In other words, rainbows occur when there is splitting of white light into different colors, caused by water. In this line of thought, it is important to underscore the fact that when light falls on a drop of water, it enters into the drop. This penetration allows refraction of various light colors, depending on their respective wavelengths (Dwyer 4). Additionally, this separation of refracted light is similar to the analogy of the glass prism effect.

Furthermore, the position of a rainbow is very important with regard to its relationship with the sun. Under whatever circumstances, a rainbow naturally occurs on the opposite direction of the sun as viewed by an observer (Dwyer 10).

This position is crucial in explaining why rainbows mostly appear in the afternoon, when the sun is slightly low in the sky. If this occurs in the afternoon, the arc usually appears to the east of the person observing it and to the west if it occurs in the morning. On the other hand, the shadow of the observer is always at the center of the arc, with the rainbow forming the upper segment of the circle.

Besides the position of the rainbow, it is worth noting that the angle of reflection of its light to the eye is 42^o to the initial ray of light. Its bow-shape is believed to be a portion of the cone of light that is blocked by the horizon (Dwyer 10). Another important fact about rainbows is that no one can move ahead of it. If you tried to overtake the rainbow to be on the other side, it would appear moving, thus making it impossible to see the end of a rainbow.

Moreover, every person sees a different rainbow since the angle measured is based on the observer’s eye contact with the refracted light from the sun through a drop of water (Lee and Fraser 322). This therefore means that every rainbow observer is usually at the center of the cone formed by colored light. It is sometimes possible to observe a complete circle of the rainbow when flying or at the top of a mountain.

From the above analysis, it is clear that the blue sky and the rainbow are fascinating natural phenomena, whose existence has an array of scientific and traditional explanations. However, the two are closely linked to properties of light, with regard to the scattering effect. Nonetheless, contributions of John Tyndall, Lord Rayleigh and Einstein remain paramount in the understanding of this concept.

Works Cited

Dwyer, Jacqueline. Rainbows. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2001. Print.

Jacobs, Marian. Why Is the Sky Blue? New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 1999. Print.

Lee, Raymond, and Fraser Alistair. The rainbow bridge: rainbows in art, myth, and science. Pennsylvania: Penn State Press, 2001. Print.

Mara, Wil. Why Is the Sky Blue? Singapore: Marshall Cavendish, 2006. Print.

Rea, Thelma. I Wonder Why the Sky Is Blue. New York: Rosen Classroom, 2000. Print.

Introduction

A number of researches on hair color stereotypes and their associated perceptions prompted the current research. For instance, a research conducted by Lawson (1971) on hair color preferences enlightened on the affinity of certain colors.

Clayson and Klassen (1989) also confirmed this enlightenment when they found differing perceptions towards various models presented in the study. Another important study was done by Feinman and Gill (1978) indicating that color preference might not be affected by gender. However, hair color of the population majority is preferred as Thelen (1983) found out.

Other previous studies this topic focused on personality trait perceptions such as that done by Weir and Fine-Davis (1989) who found that people tend to perceive blondes as more popular, feminine and beautiful than brunettes and redheads. Rich and Cash (1993) reinforced the study by showing that broads were more popular and appeared more frequently in magazines.

For hostility towards redheads, Heckert and Best (1997) reaffirmed the earlier study by Weir and Fine-Davis and extended to show that people perceive redheads to be exceptionally smart despite other perceptions. Kyle and Mahler (1996) contradicted some of the earlier findings by showing that people perceive brunettes to be competent and intelligent than blondes and red heads. Apparently, it is due to this lack of consistency in previous studies that promoted the current research.

In order to have a defined focus of the study, Beddow, Hymes and McAuslan developed three hypotheses. First, they hypothesized that certain personality traits would be perceptually related to a certain hair color: that the participants would find blondes more attractive, feminine and immature; brunettes more intelligent, successful, mature and stronger work ethics; and redheads more aggressive and emotional.

Second, they hypothesized that the male and female models with brown hair would be viewed more favorably in the work setting than in the date setting. Third, it was hypothesized that the typical stereotypes associated with hair color would become stronger when combined with situations common to these stereotypes. Indeed, the main goal of the study is to enrich the previous research by examining the effects of stereotypes with respect to hair color, setting and gender.

Methods

The tested sample consisted of 180 participants all of which were undergraduate students from a Midwestern university. These participants were of varying ages, from different ethnic groups, wore different hair colors and had completed an introductory level psychology course.

For this qualitative study, the researchers examined the perception of the participants towards three color models with respect to work ethics, maturity, emotional, success and aggressiveness within the work and dating setting. This means that the variables included the three color models, work ethics, maturity, emotional, success and aggressiveness.

The study design was a correlation in which the researchers compared some variables against others. Specifically, the authors attempted to investigate the relationship between specific hair colors and certain qualities including work ethic, maturity, emotional, success and aggressiveness. The study was also designed to compare the outcome on two broader circumstances: working and dating setting.

The study procedure involved the development of questionnaire packets which directed the participants to pretend that they had visited a social network site to search for information about male and female target of the model. The participants then rated the individual models shown on the projector screen according to the directed scenario in the questionnaire packet. Later, the participants completed a brief demographic questionnaire.

Results

The results supported hypothesis number one that differential perceptions associated with hair color do exist. In regard to blonde hair stereotypes, the participants in this study considered blondes as more mature in a dating setting. For brown hair stereotypes, participants rated brown-haired men as the most masculine.

The results also supported hypothesis number two that brown hair models would be viewed more favorably in the work setting than in the date setting. For the models, the participants perceived that the blonde model was the least successful in the worker setting while the brown and red hair as the most successful in the same setting.

Similarly, the brown hair models were perceived to be competent and industrious which suggests that that an emotional display in the workplace setting would contradict these qualities. Indeed, the brown haired model was perceived to be the most successful in work setting, consistent with the general stereotypes of competence and intelligence, thus resulting in success.

The results also supported hypothesis number three that stereotypes associated with hair color would become stronger when combined with situations common to these stereotypes. For instance, temperamental redhead stereotype manifested itself in the participants, contrasting itself with the blonde model. However, the finding that failed to support hypothesis three as the participants did not perceive blondes to be more attractive in the dating setting as hypothesized.

Discussion

The researchers interpreted data in terms of probability and standard deviations of the measures associated with variables. For instance, a worker ethic measure with a standard deviation more than 1.00 was generally considered high as well as a probability greater than 0.01.

However, in correlating two variables, the authors considered a difference in the range of 1 percent. In essence, a difference of 0.01 in standard deviation was a significant comparative measure. For instance, the authors regarded the gender models as having a variation in work ethic simply because the difference in standard deviation between male and female model was 0.01 (1.32-1.31).

The major findings were that the blonde hair models were mature in dating implying dating experience. This aligns with the previous studies that blonde haired models stereotypes are attractive and flirts by the fact that the greater dating experience make them feel more uncomfortable.

Regarding the brown haired models, the findings suggest that men are most masculine, competent and industrious which coincides with the previous studies. For instance, the success in work setting reflects a research done by Takeda et al (2006) which showed that blondes are underrepresented in the workforce. The findings also indicate that the red haired models are temperamental and aggressive in nature which is also in harmony with previous studies (Feinman & Gill, 1978).

Critical reaction

The authors’ logic is sound and clear as depicted in the flow of the arguments. From the start, they highlight the purpose of the research as to enrich the previous studies by examining the effects of the hair color stereotype. This is followed by their reasoning that the previous studies identified the stereotypes but did not consider their effects.

Through the analysis of data collected from a diverse sample that can represent the entire population, the authors demonstrate the different effects of various stereotypes identified in the literature. The data is logically analyzed for individual models with reference to the perception of the participants.

The hypotheses developed by the authors are clear because they confirm the focus of the study and the variables relevant to the study. In harmony with the aim of the study, these hypotheses attempt to test the findings of the previous literature.

The various researches presented in the literature are adequate enough to suggest a deficiency in research pertaining to the effects of hair color stereotypes that were identified long time ago. However, the research articles used are not current and one may be compelled to assume that the authors omitted the contribution of contemporary gurus in this area.

The various variables included in this study are work ethic, maturity, emotional, success and aggressiveness. This collection however, omitted several important variables including goal commitment, interaction and defiance. These variables might be important in future studies due to their direct relationship with the human way of thinking.

With a particular focus on working and dating setting, the three variables are perceived by people as success factors. Therefore, it is justified to suggest that hair color stereotypes will be influenced greatly by these variables.

The sample tested by Beddow, Hymes and McAuslan was appropriate for this study due to two key reasons. First, the sample was diverse in various characteristics that may influence human perception such as ethnicity and age. Second, the sample comprised of participants who had psychological freedom to give genuine responses after undergoing the physiological course. These facts suggest that the sample could represent the population that the authors based their conclusions on.

The results of this study suggest that further research is needed on this topic because it is clear that the subjects were not exhausted. For instance, the findings were not enough to determine whether the participants perceived brown haired model to be more aggressive than the red haired models. In addition, there could be gaps in this research associated with the scale used to measure the results and the reliability of the instruments is not determined.

A follow-up to this study may perhaps use a new methodology that can correlate the stereotype results of this study with other studies related to the topic. This methodology should have the capacity to identify the most relevant variables to study through experimental approaches.

For instance, hypothesizing that the relationship between hair color stereotypes and the variables (work ethic, maturity, emotional, success and aggressiveness) is defined by other factors (commitment, interaction and defiance) would serve to include other relevant variables pertinent to human perceptions.

In connection to coursework, this article reflects the various components of a research paper in addition to the issues that are emended in psychology topics which need research attention. The first and important thing in a research is to select a researchable topic.

This topic will then determine the research focus in reviewing the literature as well as the deficiencies and weaknesses existing in the literature which require further consideration. Moreover, the article is important to a psychology student as a source of motivation for research. The authors have developed a research problem by simply acknowledging the efforts of other researchers.

This study implies to the general public in that, it facilitates the understanding on how to categorize the people around them. Naturally, it is important to comprehend what surrounds us and appreciate what others can offer in order to live in harmony. Perhaps by understanding the hair color stereotypes, we avoid laying blame on individuals based on our observation. This is because people justify actions differently. Therefore, this study advices us to reach a viable conclusion before judging others and imposing penalties.

References

Beddow, M., Hymes, R. & McAuslan, P. (2011). Hair color stereotypes and their associated perceptions in relationships and the workplace. PSI CHI Journal of Undergraduate Research, 16(1), 1089-4136.

Clayson, D. E. & Klassen, M. L. (1989). Perception of attractiveness by obesity and hair color. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 68(1), 199-202.

Feinman, S. & Gill, G. W. (1978). Sex differences in physical attractiveness preferences. The Journal of Social Psychology, 105(1), 43-52.

Heckert, D. M. & Best, A. (1997). Ugly duckling to swan: labeling theory and the stigmatization of red hair. Symbolic Interaction, 20(4), 365-384.

Kyle, D. J. & Mahler, H. I. (1996). The effects of hair color and cosmetic use on perceptions of female’s ability. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20(3), 447-455.

Lawson, E. D. (1971). Hair color, personality and the observer. Psychological Reports, 28(1), 311-312.

Rich, M. K. & Cash, T. F. (1993). The American image of beauty: media representations of hair color for four decades. Sex Roles, 29(1-2), 113-124.

Takeda, M. B, Helms, M. M. & Romanova, N. (2006). Hair color stereotyping and CEO selection in the United Kingdom. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 13(3), 85-99.

Thelen, T. H. (1983). Minority type human mate preference. Social Biology, 30(2), 162-180.

Weir, S. & Fine-Davis, M. (1989). ‘Dumb blonde’ and ‘temperamental redhead’: the effect of hair colour on some attributed personality characteristic of women. The Irish Journal of Psychology, 10(1), 11-19.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is a Staphylococcal bacterium that is impervious to a collection of antibiotics referred to as beta-lactams. Beta-lactams include antibiotics such as methicillin, amoxillin, penicillin, and oxacillin (“CDC – Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infections”).

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are also unaffected by cephalosporins (Chang 4). Several factors contribute to antibiotic resistance in bacteria. These factors include mutations, overuse, and misuse of antibiotics (Chang 9). A good number of MRSA diseases are skin illnesses. Relentless or potentially grave MRSA illnesses happen more often to immunocompromised patients in healthcare surroundings.

However, recent occurrences indicate more people who live away from hospitals get MRSA. This strain is the “community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) or superbug strain” (Todar 2). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) cite that of the 25% to 30% of people colonized by staphylococcus bacteria, only 2% has MRSA. Colonization occurs when an individual has the bacteria, but reveals no indicators of the disease.

Chang attributes colonization to the existing equilibrium between the presence of bacteria and the body’s capability to battle the infection (2). Besides, Staphylococcus coexists with other types of bacteria on the skin, which do not allow it to dominate fully. An individual’s strong immunity also forestalls Staph infections in colonized people.

Staphylococci are sphere-shaped bacteria that come about in tiny groups similar to grapes. They are Gram-positive bacteria commonly found on noses of healthy humans (as normal flora). Other body areas such as the mouth, skin, and the digestive system also harbor Staphylococcus aureus (Todar 1).

The genus Staphylococcus belongs to family Staphylococcaceae. Staphylococcus aureus grows into a big yellow colony on enriched culture medium and is hemolytic on blood agar (1). According to Todar, the Staph bacteria display optimum growth in a variety of conditions such as sodium chloride strengths of 15% and warmth of 15^oC to 45^oC (1).

Staphylococci form flawlessly round cells with a thickness of one micrometer. They grow in bunches because the cells split in succession, in three perpendicular levels with the progeny staying connected to each other after every division (Todar 1).

This forms an overall appearance of an uneven assembly of cells. Staphylococcus aureus are non motile and do not develop spores (1). These bacteria produce numerous potentially hostile factors that help them during colonization of the host. Examples of these factors are surface proteins, invasions, surface factors, and exotoxins. In addition, MRSA have biochemical qualities such as immunological covers that help them continue to exist in phagocytes.

Early detection of symptoms is essential for cure and proper management of any infection. Therefore, it is crucial to identify the symptoms associated with Staphylococcal infections. Common MRSA illnesses in the community are skin diseases whose main symptoms are abscesses. These abscesses are often red, sore, enlarged and contain secretions such as pus.

The blisters often mimic the appearance of spider bites and commonly ensue at locations of noticeable skin damage (for example grazes and scratches), and sections of the body concealed by body hair such as the armpits, groin, nape, and the chin in men. MRSA in hospital situations frequently triggers dangerous infections, for example, bloodstream diseases, pneumonia, and surgical spot illnesses.

In such situations, the symptoms often differ by the kind and phase of the infection (“CDC – Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infections”). Acute MRSA may also cause conditions such as Toxic Shock Syndrome, bacteremia, and necrotizing fasciitis (Chang 2).

Most people naturally have Staphylococcus bacteria on their bodies. Therefore, body contact (skin to skin) is the main mode of spreading Staph. Athletic gear, razor blades, tattoo tools, bed sheets, and towels also pass on Staphylococcal infections. Sports activities involving close body contact (for example boxing, wrestling, and soccer) play a significant role in communicating these illnesses (Chang 9). Latest studies indicate that domestic pets for instance dogs and cats spread MRSA infections, as well.

Cure for MRSA involves wound therapy and elimination of the bacteria. Treating skin wounds requires nipping, draining, and application of antiseptics to the wounds. Elimination of the bacteria is a challenging task considering MRSA resistance to most antibiotics. However, several other antibiotics still have effects on MRSA. These include drugs such as “vancomycin, linezolid, daptomycin, tigecyclin, and quinupristin-dalphopristin” (Chang 4).

Patients must always take the antibiotics according to the prescription, and go back to the doctor if the illness refuses to go away a few days after the initiation of treatment. CDC advises healthcare givers to culture the microorganisms and do susceptibility testing. This procedure guides treatment especially in serious infections that may be unsuccessful in responding to early medication.

MRSA preclusion efforts differ according to an individual’s surroundings. However, the most effective preventive measures entail high levels of personal hygiene. People ought to keep their hands methodically clean by washing them with soap and clean water, or using alcohol-containing hand wash liquids. Chang cites that hand washing with soap must involve energetic rubbing for about 20 seconds, rinsing, and thorough drying using a disposable wipe (8).

When using alcohol-based sanitizers, sufficient amount of the solution should be rubbed meticulously on the hands paying consideration to the fingers and thumbs. The product is left to dry naturally on the hands. Chang insists that allowing the sanitizer to dry naturally gives it time to destroy germs on the hands (8). Infected people ought to ensure that they observe this routine each time they handle their wounds, which must be covered appropriately until they heal. Healthy people are supposed to avoid touching infected wounds and used dressings.

Maintaining a healthy environment by ensuring that all surfaces are clean also helps in preventing MRSA. Patients ought to continue taking the prescribed doses of antibiotics to ensure complete elimination of pathogens in the body. In healthcare settings, the CDC gives charts with relevant information on precautions to prevent infection.

These measures are similar to those in personal prevention. However, they include extra safety measures such as ensuring that infected patients are occupying their own rooms and restricting them from visiting common regions of the hospital. The CDC encourages healthcare givers to wear gloves and gowns on top of their regular clothes while attending to patients with MRSA.

Doctors and nurses are at liberty of carrying out random MRSA tests on patients by wiping a cotton swab on the patients’ nose or skin. MRSA prevention in hospitals also requires that the entire hospital undergoes disinfection once in a while. However, hospital paraphernalia can be sanitized regularly (“CDC – Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infections”).

The traits of MRSA as revealed by this paper indicate that MRSA is here to stay since Staphylococcus bacteria are part of the body’s normal flora. It is, therefore, up to humans to learn to coexist with Staphylococci by maintaining high standards of hygiene to prevent illnesses attributable to MRSA.

Works Cited

CDC – Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infections. n.d. Web.

Chang, R. Hernan. MRSA and Staphylococcal Infections. United States of America: Lulu.com, 2006. Print.

Todar, Kenneth. “Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcal Disease.” Todar’s Online Textbook of Bacteriology. 2012. Web.