The common school period was between 1830 and 1872 and during this period, almost every state experienced great changes in its public schooling system (Sass Para. 5).
Through the common school movement the masses were able to access an education. Education innovators and reformers worked very hard to ensure that education became public, as opposed to free, state maintained, and private.
According to Church (64), the objectives of the common school movement were to ensure that white children had access to free education, to educate and train teachers, and also to ensure that the state had control over public schools.
Many proponents were in favor of the common schools. During this period, the northern states experienced a tremendous growth in immigrant population and for this reason the common schools acted as a tool for Americanizing the foreigners.
Horace Mann played a very crucial role in popularizing the common schools and as such, he was for the common school movement. He was convinced that by enabling everybody to have access to common education, this would result in a more prosperous and productive society (Church 66).
The deep commitment by Mann to the common school movement was greatly informed by his strong belief that social harmony and political stability relied heavily on universal education.
He advocated for the establishment of common schools that all children could have access to. In addition, he argued that it was a civic and religious duty to support nonsectarian common schools.
He preached to the working class that education is the great equalizer of the conditions of men (Cremin 65). He preached to individuals who owned property that their prosperity and security relied heavily on having law-abiding and literate neighbors who are knowledgeable about the sanctity of private property having attended the common schools.
Moreover, common schools would also ensure that such neighbors remained competent. Mann was also convinced that education was the absolute right of every human being that comes into the world (Cremin 87).
On the other hand, there were those who were opposed to the common school movement. For example, Carl Kaestle, a renowned historian, argued that in order for the common school systems to be accepted by the Americans, this would depend on the development of capitalism, the dominance of the native Protestant culture, as well as how committed the American were to the republican government (Church 67).
Most of the Protestant sects (save for the Pan-Protestants) and the Roman Catholics were strongly opposed to the establishment of the common school movement on grounds that they were nonsectarian schools.
Bishop John Hughes of New York City opined that the public schools were anti-Catholic and as such, they would not be accepted by his flocks. Many Catholics were in agreement with him.
Besides religious divisions to the creation of public schools, there was also a growing desire to ensure that schools were controlled locally and for this reason, majority of the advocates of statewide organizations were opposed to the common school movement (Sass para. 7).
When the issues of race, class and ethnic tensions were factored in, the demand for controlling schools locally grew immensely. There was also the argument that the establishment of public schools would come at the expense of the taxpayer.
In addition, the involvement of the government in education was seen as a repudiation of parental rights and liberalism. Proponent of this position also argued on the need to ensure that individuals remained solely responsible for their lives, and hence it was important to leave them alone (Church 67).
There was also growing fear among conservative members of the society that the creation of public schools would negatively affect relations between labor and capital, and result in enhanced clamoring for rights among the working class.
It is important to note that the government, the church, and scholars were all behind the formation of the movement for Common School.
I believe the reason why the common school movement was such a controversial issue in the nineteenth century America is because of religious and racial differences.
To start with, some of the churches were seen as being liberal, and these are the ones who were in support of the establishment of public schools.
On the other hand, the conservative churches such as the Protestants and the Roman Catholic Church were opposed to the establishment of public schools on grounds that they did not support their teachings.
At the same time, because the main objective of the common school movement was to ensure equity to all though education, the white were opposed to it because it meant that both the Whites and the Blacks would also have access to the same education system.
Works Cited
Church, Robert. Education in the United States, an interpretive history, New York: The Free Press, 1976. Print.
Cremin, Lawrence. The Republic and the School: Horace Mann on the Education of Free Men, New York: Teachers College Press, 1953. Print.
You have been hired to reorganize the school system in Indianapolis. You are highly regarded as innovative and also able to get grant funds to improve school systems. What is your diagnosis of the IPS school system? What are your recommendations for improving the system?
Indianapolis public school system (IPS) has been in existence since 1847. The system is situated in the state of Indiana and it manages 64 schools, which include high schools, elementary schools, and grade schools among others. In addition, it offers optional programs to students at no costs.
Moreover, according to the IBJ news (Para. 4), the system encourages performance metrics on each student by a teacher, and hence, this move is geared towards evaluating the performance of students.
In addition, a teacher in arsenal technical high school, which is part of the Indianapolis system, admits that IPS is committed to making more data available to teachers to enable effective learning of students.
There seems to be a shortage of teachers in the IPS systems; indeed, when teachers are scarce, performance of students drops due to lack of attention for each student from the teacher. IPS mission is to prepare and empower all students for life (Indiana public schools (IPS) website Para. 1), thereby, an evident initiative that the system has adopted is offering magnet and optional programs that meet the needs of the students.
In addition, the system offers vocational training and provides programs that enable the challenged students to prosper academically. Some of the tools the current IPS system uses include cuttingedge technology, which involves internet access to all classrooms.
The presence of full-day kindergarten classes whose purpose is to prepare the kid for higher academics in the future and the capability of the IPS Corporation to fight against discrimination and racism has created a conducive environment for students to study.
Nevertheless, the IPS Corporation needs to be more effective and remain at a competitive advantage compared to other corporations, and be able to compete with chartered schools, which have high academic standards.
Despite IPS system having to manage many schools, it is still remaining effective, and its success can be attributed to its objectives that put students interest first and recruiting professional staff.
The students potential is discovered and then developed, with more magnet programs as opposed to other systems; the students can choose from a variety, varying from arts to finance among others.
In order to improve the Indianapolis school system, funds are required in order to reorganize this system. To avoid the cases of school bus delays that have been experienced in the past, an appropriate bus contractor needs to be hired and maintained to ensure efficiency in the transport department.
An effective bus contractor has to prove that there will be no more complains of children been picked up late at any time. Therefore, to be able to win the heart of IPS, it is important that a test period of one month is exercised and when he proves to be effective, he should be given the contract fully.
When children are picked on time, parents schedule is not interfered with by having to drive their children to school; in addition, the kids are able to start their day according to the schools timetable without any delays. Generally, morning lateness affects the whole days schedule thus interfering with the students learning.
It is however evident that most of Indianapolis public school system are from low-income families, for instance, Clarence Farringdon elementary school whose students are entitled to free lunch and breakfast; however, they rag behind academically.
Children are usually affected by their family situation at home, hence some may be unable to concentrate in school, and therefore, other than offering free food to the children, the IPS management should implement guidance and counseling department, which will provide a listening ear and a shoulder to lean on for the affected children. With such a strategy in place, these students will stop raging behind academically, but succeed in their studies.
Another profound point is in the area of hiring teachers for IPS system. For the system to achieve satisfactory results for all of its schools, it needs to hire qualified teaching staff, and at first on contract basis.
When teachers are hired and not employed permanently, they will work hard to gain recognition and perhaps secure a permanent employment; therefore, management should only be able to renew teachers contract depending on performance of the student.
This strategy will create a sense of accountability for teachers and they will put all their effort to benefit the students academically.
According to research conducted on Indianapolis public schools in 2009, it indicated that about 85% of principals in these schools have employed some teachers without taking them through an interview process, hence negatively affecting the students academically later on.
The results also indicate that IPS Corporation delays hiring of teachers, thus quality teachers are hired by other corporations. Therefore, the management should implement rules that cease delays in terms of hiring (The new teacher project, pp 2). Findings showed that there exists poor customer care of the IPS human resource that hinders consistency among staff and principals of IPSS schools.
This is evident in term of hiring, lay offs and displacements, such that, when teachers are searching for placement, the human resources do not assist appropriately. Only 51% felt supported as they tried to fill for vacancies in their schools and they seek qualified candidates for positions.
This is a clear indication of lack of effectiveness of the human resource of the IPS school system; therefore, for this system to sustain its competitive advantage, ways to implement a resourceful and effective human resource should be implemented (The new teacher project, pp2). Human resource is normally considered the pillar of an organization, since it is mainly concerned with the issues that relate to employees.
For an organization to operate fully there must be existence of employees who usually contribute to the growth of any corporation. Therefore, when the needs of employees are met, they feel motivated and in return, they attain a job satisfaction that enables them to work towards attaining the organizations goals and objectives.
This is because good experiences at the place of work lead to satisfaction (Argyle, pp 2). Moreover, to improve the human resource department of IPS, rules governing layoffs, placement and evaluation of teachers must be revised and developed. First, the corporation should consider the teachers layoffs, such that, a teachers effectiveness and quality should be a determining factor on who is retained and who is laid off.
Forced placement should be eliminated and the recruitment process that involves interviews and selection to be adopted. Hiring of teachers should not be delayed, hence enabling IPS to attain the best candidates for the job.
In addition, an effective evaluation system should be adopted to enhance feedback and support for the teachers, and basing evaluation on their ability to promote students academically.
Communication should be enhanced by creation of an online data management system that allows the human resources department to provide timely information to the school administration and staff concerning the staffing process.
Both the suburbs and the Sunbelt have had major impacts on cities. What are these impacts are they good for the cities? Why is this so?
Sunbelt grew rapidly during the 20th century and the rise of the Sunbelt was evident with the oil availability, the low cost of building industries, and the recreation facilities present in the area with a favorable climate (Urban Politics 9). Some of the major impacts that the Sunbelt have had of the cities include the separation of needs and resources of a nation and the competition for these resources.
However, most people are attracted into moving to the Sunbelt due to the friendly climate, existence of natural resources like oil, which contributes to making life easier. Tourism is another factor that attracts people to the Sunbelt, since the existence of places such as Disneyland gives one an unforgettable experience.
The high technology industries exist in this area, hence easier to find employment, and employers are able to attain cheap labor. The presence of highways provide effective transportation for goods, hence many businessmen prefer doing business in such areas air transportation enables easy accessibility to imports and exports and also creates room for international business.
According to Bolin et al (pp 318), over 7 billion pound of toxic waste chemicals were released to the atmosphere, which were generated from the industries in the Sunbelt. Such wastes are hazardous to the population of United States and could cause harmful effects if not monitored and regulated.
Some of the Sunbelt cities like phoenix produce large amounts of pollution to the environment. In addition, this city is replacing farmland with its industries that deal with electronics and semiconductor manufacturers, thus leading to the growth of this city. However, these companies are operated on a capitalism culture of downsizing, cheap labor, and outsourcing among others.
According to Hollander (pp 47), regarding a research he conducted on 140 Sunbelt cities, as of 2006, Sunbelt cities continued to grow despite the housing crash, and their population increased dramatically between 2006 and 2008. However, when housing prices began to sink, some of the Sunbelt cities like Florida, Georgia and Alabama lost their population.
It was evident that the Sunbelt cities had low rates of school dropouts as compared to other cities. Suburbs emerged around the 1850s, and in the early years, they were described as those areas with less urban characteristics related to poverty, mostly where more immigrants live, due to the need of space for larger families.
However, today, suburbs are described as the communities that surround the cities and mostly include single and multi-family homes, away from the noise and pollution of the cities; indeed, most of the citizens in the United States live in the suburbs.
With the emergence of the suburb in the early years, there resulted ownership of homes among the middle class citizens; however, the suburbs provided support to the United States economy after war.
Due to the presence of more homeowners, home products were on demand and this led to cottage industries, which have today been converted to home depot and direct buy among other corporations. Due to the emergence of industries such as automobiles, the need for infrastructure increased, thus leading to the construction of effective highways to enhance easy accessibility in transportation.
The railway was the first and fast mode of transportation used everyday since it was cheap. Mostly, each suburb consists of people of the same race, age and status and the houses built in such locations are similar in size, design, and appearance.
Today, most job opportunities exist in the suburbs due to the shift of commercial parks from within the city to the suburbs; nevertheless, the rising growth in population in the suburbs is leading to a reckless construction of houses.
The emergence of suburbs have led to segregation of people regarding how they settle, since each neighborhood mostly contain people of the same race, but most especially status matters most when it comes to the affordability of a home.
It is evident that the contributing factor of movement from the cities to the suburbs is due to the high level of pollution and the congestion in the cities. In the suburbs, the house prices are cheaper and tax is low as compared to that of the cities.
The easy accessibility of infrastructure enables people to get to work fast. In addition, the presence of broadband, video conferencing and internet allows most people in the suburbs to work from home.
Due to the cheap way of life, factories are also moving to suburbs, since the cost of buying land or renting operating space is cheap.
With such impacts on the cities, both the Sunbelt and the suburbs have played a major role in the development of the United States as a nation. The capability of moving to a house that one can afford is a boost to the citizens as they vary in term of finances and wealth.
Nevertheless, the Sunbelt cities have played a major role in boosting of tourism due to their favorable weather, while the existence of industries has contributed to the growth of these cities.
However, the presence of industries in these cities has highly contributed to the emission of harmful gases to the atmosphere that would contribute to global warming. This is the main reason why some of the citizens move from the polluted cities to the cool atmosphere in the suburbs.
Bolin, Bob et al. The ecology of technological risk in a Sunbelt city. Environment and Planning, Vol. 34, pp. 317-339. 2002. Web.
Hollander, Justin. Sunburnt Cities: The Great Recession, Depopulation and Urban Planning in the American Sunbelt. NY: Taylor & Francis Publisher. 2011.
Drug and alcohol abuse is a social problem that causes a person to use substance in a pattern that is dangerous to health and that which causes distress. Usually, drug abuse can lead to drug addiction a problem associated with a disparaging pattern of substance abuse.
Addicted persons find it to be difficult to stop using drugs hence subjecting themselves to immense torture. Drug abuse is both common in higher learning institutions both in third and the first world countries. The aim of drug users is to attain pleasure. Many use drugs in order to avoid their problems, for example, poverty and family issues (Wilson & Kolander, 2011).
Demographics of the problem
Most students in higher institutions abusing drugs commenced usage of drugs at high school level. Alcohol and use of drugs such as marijuana is a common problem in with youths at high school level and tertiary level (Wilson & Kolander, 2011). Unemployment can lead to drug and alcohol abuse especially for college plus university graduates.
Coping with unemployment may lead to substance and alcohol abuse in an attempt to escape problems by gaining pleasure. Research indicates that 40 percent of high school students in USA have used marijuana (Hanson, Venturelli & Fleckenstein, 2009).
In the year 2000, about 30-35 percent of college students consumed marijuana. In 2006, the annual use rate among college and university students was 30.2 a slight plunge from the preceding years. According to a survey conducted to determine the association of substance abuse and alcohol use, marijuana users consumed alcohol at a higher rate than those who did not use marijuana (Hanson et al., 2009). It was clear that 99 percent of marijuana consumers abused alcohol compared to 75percent of students with no history of using the substance.
Effects and Impacts
Abuse of drugs and alcohol in higher institutions has devastating effects both to the society and the person using them. Developed countries have appropriate measures in place to curb cases of drug abuse in institutions (Wilson & Kolander, 2011). In Zimbabwe, the addiction cases are high due to inappropriate measures and lack of cash to fund projects aimed at countering the problem.
In USA, the problem of drug use is unresolved considering that the youths drop out of school and venture in the drug trade in an attempt to sustain them. Most youths may succumb to addictions due to the environments that they live (Grinnell & Unrau, 2005).
Learning is never easy to drug abusers; the damage is deleterious because students end up being antisocial and unable to cope with life issues. Most people abusing drugs end up in prostitution or reckless sexual acts leading to health risks (Hanson et al., 2009).
The systems for higher leaning cannot operate effectively if institutions consist of drug damaged individuals. Drug addicts can indulge in crime and violence making the society an unsafe place. The economy of a country is at risk if the society continues to produce unproductive individuals.
Curing/reducing the problem
Employing measures of eradicating poverty especially in third world countries will help reduce drug abuse. Students who venture in the drug trade do so for the purpose of sustaining themselves with basic needs (Grinnell & Unrau, 2005). Governments should come up with legislation for dealing with drug use.
The legislation I could be fundamental in deterring abuse and sale of drugs. Creating awareness to the public and in institutions on the dangers of drug consumption could deter many persons from using drugs. Rehabilitation centers should exist to enhance recovery of addicted persons (Hanson et al., 2009).
References
Grinnell, R. M., & Unrau, Y. A. (2005). Social work research and evaluation: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hanson, G., Venturelli, P. J., & Fleckenstein, A. E. (2009). Drugs and society. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Wilson, R. W., & Kolander, C. A. (2011). Drug abuse prevention: A school and community partnership. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Cases of cyberbullying are on the rise, especially among high school children. Cyberbullying involves sending images or text messages through the internet or mobile phones that are intended to hurt other people. To curb the practice, it is necessary to implement policies that have strict guidelines on the use of mobile phones and the internet. Schools should monitor students and create anti-cyberbullying committees to deal with students who engage in the practice. Committees should monitor the use of the internet by students and control content that students access. Teachers should educate students on the causes of cyberbullying, prevention measures, and ways to report it to relevant authorities. It is also necessary to restrict the use of mobile phones and the internet on school premises. For example, students should use the internet for academic research only.
Schools should also contact internet service providers for advice on ways to curb cyberbullying. An effective policy should stop students from participating in the practice by establishing stringent punishment guidelines. Schools should establish harsh punishments for students who participate in cyberbullying. For example, the punishment could include suspension from school or dismissal. Dismissal is a good enough reason to stop students from participating in illegal activity. The most important aspect of an anti-cyberbullying policy is regulation. Schools and parents should make sure that they are aware of what children are doing on the internet at all times. Besides, they should monitor how much time children spend online and regulate the content they access. Monitoring children and reducing time spent online will encourage them to use time constructively. Victims of cyberbullying should be punished severely to demonstrate to other students the schools commitment to eradicate the vice.
Education is integral to the advancement of human civilization and for this reason, policy makers are keen to ensure that students receive the best education. High quality education is characterized by increasing the self-confidence and self-concept of students, and producing optimal academic ability. Current debates surround the schooling experience of students surrounds the perceived benefits of co-ed and single-sex education.
Proponents of co-educational schooling argue that the students accrue more benefits from learning in a mixed environment. On the other hand, advocates of single-sex schooling declare that this model has significant merits and it helps students to overcome some of the challenges inherent in the co-ed environment. Single-sex education is beginning to gain prominence in many States all over the US. The single-sex model appeals to educators and policy makers for a variety of perceived merits derived from this system. This paper will highlight the educational benefits of single-sex schooling in order to show that this model is superior to co-ed schooling.
Support for Single-Sex Schooling
Single-sex schooling increases the educational outcomes and participation rates of students. Girls are especially likely to benefit from single-sex schooling since it enhances their educational experience and increases their academic ability. Due to the increase in the number of single-sex schools in Australia, the number of girls entering into higher education is higher (Tsolidis & Dobson, 2006). On overall, students from single-sex schools exhibit superior academic performance compared to those in co-ed schools. Malacova (2007) reveals that in the UK, single-sex schools perform better than co-ed schools, suggesting that the single sex model improves the academic ability of the students. Quantitative studies have suggested that boys might avoid academic achievements since it will compromise their masculine image in front of the girls (Younger & Warrington, 2006).
The single-sex model creates a climate where male students feel comfortable enough to pursue academic excellence through hard work. Fergusson (2008) documents that in single-sex schooling, boys are able to work hard without the fear of appearing feminine to the girls.
Single-sex schooling makes it possible for educators to implement the most effective learning style for the different genders. Spielhagen (2011) observes that there is an inherent brain-based learning difference between boys and girls. This means that boys and girls learn in different ways. Tsolidis and Dobson (2006) assert that while boys are more comfortable with individualized and competitive styles of learning, girls thrive from teaching and learning strategies that emphasize communication and cooperation. In co-ed classes, the teacher is forced to adapt teaching styles that might disadvantage one gender. This limitation is absent in the single-gender class since the teacher can utilize the learning style best suited for the particular gender. Stotsky (2012) states that teachers are able to better capitalize on the different reading interests between the genders to provide the best outcomes.
Through single-sex schooling, educators are able to cater to the needs of boys without disadvantaging girls and vice versa (Fergusson, 2008). However, opponents argue that single-sex schooling might lead to the implementation of biased learning models. Spielhagen (2011) warns that when the single-schooling model is implemented, teachers are tempted to modify both content and pedagogy according to their own, often stereotypical, constructs of the differences in the ways boys and girls learn (p.4). Adjustments based on stereotypical views of the differences in learning styles will be detrimental to the learning outcomes of the students. While this is true, the risk of biased learning models being used can be reduced through effective teacher training.
Preparation of teachers to handle the single-sex classes can help mitigate or eliminate the likelihood of teachers modifying content and pedagogy based on their misconceptions. Teachers can be trained in order to increase their understanding of the learning styles preferred by both genders. With this increased awareness, teachers will be able to execute effective single-gender classes.
Another merit of single-sex schooling is that it leads to the increase in self-confidence for boys and girls. Malacova (2007) documents that in the co-ed setting, students are likely to conform to stereotype expectations in order to avoid rejection. Boys will therefore act more competitively and boisterous while girls are likely to be inhibited and modest. Such behavior prevents both genders from reaching their true potential. In the single-sex environment, the students are freed of the anxiety that would occur in classes with students of the opposite sex. Stotsky (2012) reveals that single-sex classes provide the best learning environment for shy or quiet children who would otherwise be intimidated in a mixed gender class environment.
The class is tailored to foster the development of self-confidence and leadership skills for each sex. Boys and girls are given the freedom to be themselves in the environment that is free from the opposite gender. Sullivan (2009) asserts that the self esteem of girls is better reinforced in the single-sex environment since boys typically tend to dominate in a mixed environment often to the disadvantage of girls.
Single-sex schooling encourages each sex to venture into subjects that might traditionally be dominated by the opposite gender. Since boys and girls do not have to conform to any stereotype views, they can pursue their true interests without fear. Tsolidis and Dobson (2006) report that due to the increase in the number of single-sex schools in Australia, the number of girls entering into higher education and participating in many traditionally male-dominated areas of study has risen. In spite of this, proponents of co-ed schooling argue that single-sex schooling might lead to the provision of unequal education. Spielhagen (2011) argues that single-sex classes might be damaging, especially for girls since the separate arrangement of the genders can result in the adoption of separate and unequal curricula. The types of subjects offered might be influenced by a sexual stereotype about what subjects are better suited or desirable for boys or girls (Younger & Warrington, 2006).
While this might be true, is should be noted that sex-stereotyped subject choices occur frequently in mixed schools. Tsolidis and Dobson (2006) document that in Australia, the link between female disadvantage and university entry was linked to sex-segregated subject selection in the co-ed schools. The authors argue that single-sex schools are likely to reduce these stereotyped subject choices for the girls do not have to conform to any biased view on their abilities in certain subjects.
The level of enjoyment in school is increased for both sexes when they school separately. When boys and girls are in the same schooling environment, issues such as sex-based harassment are likely to occur. There is also the issue of unequal use of resources due to the competitive nature of boys and the more-cooperative nature of girls. Tsolidis and Dobson (2006) declare, Boys behavior in the classroom and in schools more generally, has been understood to have a deleterious effect on girls (p.216). Single-sex schooling overcomes these challenges by placing both sexes in different environments.
Opponents of single sex education argue that it has a negative impact on the way in which males and females interact with one another in future study and work environments. This argument is based on the understanding that in a co-ed environment, boys and girls learn about and from each other. Research indicates that girls have a civilizing effect on boys (Malacova, 2007). In the absence of girls in the school setting, boys are likely to act in uncultured ways. Tsolidis and Dobson (2006) argue that single-sex classes may not provide students with the experience of each other, which promotes successful social immersion. While it is true that single-sex classes separate boys from girls, this does not prevent the sexes from learning from each other. Both genders are able to learn from each other outside the school environment. In addition to this, teachers of the opposite sex in the single-sex class can have a civilizing effect on the students.
Conclusion
The main stakeholders in the education of students have varying attitudes towards single-sex and co-ed schooling. This paper set out to demonstrate that the single-sex model is the most appropriate due to its significant benefits to the students. It has shown that the single-sex model has relative merit on the education of boys and girls. Historically, policymakers in the country executed single-sex models in education institutes based on anecdotal reasoning instead of relying on research to support the model.
However, this has changed as intensive research into the different models of schooling has been engaged in. This paper has shown that single-sex schooling enhances the educational experience of boys and girls and does not have a negative effect on social cohesion. For this reason, more schools should adopt the single-sex model in order to improve the educational outcomes of more students in the country.
References
Fergusson, D. (2008). Effects of single-sex and coeducational schooling on the gender gap in educational achievement. Australian Journal of Education, 52(3), 301317. Web.
Malacova, E. (2007). Effect of single-sex education on progress in GCSE. Oxford Review of Education, 33(2), 233259. Web.
Spielhagen, F. (2011). It all depends: Middle School Teachers Evaluate Single-Sex Classes. Research in Middle Level Education Online, 34(7), 1-12. Web.
Stotsky, S. (2012). The Promise of Single-Sex Classes. School Administrator, 69(5), 32-35. Web.
Sullivan, A. (2009). Academic self-concept, gender and single-sex schooling. British Educational Research Journal, 35(2), 259288. Web.
Tsolidis. G., & Dobson, I.R. (2006). Single-sex schooling: is it simply a class act? Gender and Education, 18(2), 213228. Web.
Younger, M., & Warrington, M. (2006). Would Harry and Hermione have done better in single-sex classes: a review of single-sex teaching in co-educational schools in the United Kingdom. American Educational Research Journal, 43(4), 579620. Web.
In mid last year, as a member of researching group studying the effective management of schools, I visited a U.S. public school. I wanted to learn more about the techniques of school management in the day to day operations of the school. Most students were non immigrants and Spanish speakers. On arrival, I was ushered to the principals office where I met the administrators and received an overview of the school. I would then proceed on a campus tour interviewing teachers, staff and few students. I had questionnaires about the techniques of school management, challenges faced by all parties involved in the effective running of the school. The principal of the school explained to me that the day to day operations of a school requires a range of policies and procedures to be followed. In addition he pointed out that, the school vision stipulated in the statement of the school philosophy is the driving force in managing the school that shape day to day activities. Moreover, a model should be set for effective management and must go hand in hand with what is known about successful approaches to the management of change. The administration committee explained that the model integrates the process of goal setting for the school and needs to be identified, policy making, planning, budgeting, implemented and evaluated in a continuous cycle. Since the administration is decision makers, leadership was elicited as the key technique to manage a school. It is very important for leaders to give attention to two key factors; accomplishment of the task at hand and establishing good relationships with and among members of staff (Beare et al., 1989). In this docket, emphasis were given to transforming change attitudes that brought about commitment to better state embodied in the vision of excellence for the school. School leaders should be outstanding and succeed in communicating the vision in such a way that they secure the commitment of others in the school and its community. The leadership encompasses technical, human, educational, symbolic and cultural and all should be present and be widely dispersed in school for excellence to be attained. I then interviewed a veteran teacher who has been in the school for 7 years. His comments zero grazed on the vision of the school. He suggested that the vision of the school must be institutionalized so that it shapes the everyday activities in the school. The vision should also embody a view of excellence and a view of preferred future for education and society in general, reflect different assumption and attitudes which are basic to life and education. In addition, he suggested that the administration should include in the decision making since they interact more with the students during class hours and understand their needs more. The new teacher who was at the school for her first semester was very impressed with how the school operated. She urged the leaders of the school to give teachers considerable amount of responsibility and authority in determining and addressing the problem of academics performance. This includes giving teachers authority over curriculum, institutional decision making and in distribution of resources. The leaders should also work with the new teachers to promote and ensure academic success of all students and promote their relationship with the veteran teachers for a favorable learning environment (Beare et al., 1989).
In summary, the school leader should use a wide range of symbolic leadership acts, broadly classified as words, actions and rewards since they are the pillars of the school. The educational needs of children and instructional programs for the school is determined by effective management processes wherein policies are formulated, priorities set, resources allocated and teaching and learning proceeds with regular systematic appraisal of the program (Beare et al., 1989).
References
Beare, H., Millikan, R., & Caldwell, B. J. (1989). Creating an Excellent School: Some New Management Techniques. Routledge, London
The study dwells on the elaboration of the school consultancy guidance, which targets the improvement of the study correlations and the relations between the subjects of academic processes. The work relies on the outcomes of the experiment, which involved one school personnel a teacher, a parent of one student, and one specialist in educational service. The experimentation followed the interview design and included three sets of questions. The first section related to the childrens support, the second one embraced the experiences of consultation effects, and the final section managed the issues of cooperation interrelations. According to the subjects responses, the improved consultation guidance was shaped, which focused on the optimal model of providing study feedback on both levels of the academic support that concerns parent-child and school-student cooperation.
According to the results of the interview, three weak points of school consultancies were outlined. Primarily, the complaint, which was differentiated, concerned the problem of standard study treatment. Thus, the parent, who took part in the study, suggested that school administration sustains consultancies, according to the stable model, and the discussed issues are equal for all parents. Indeed, the prevalent academic experiences reveal that school consultancies are held in large groups and relate to the previously-prepared points for discussion such as academic performance, behavior characteristics, and social skills of a learner (Brigman, Mullis, & Webb, 2005). Consequently, the first skill, which has to be embraced by school consultancy specialists, refers to switching to an individualized approach that allows improving the quality of discussion outcomes for every student.
Secondly, it was decided that study progress is hindered through the lack of cooperation between parents and school personnel. The regular experiences of learners at school are rarely matched with their home development and outer-school experience (School improvement partners, 2013). This tendency creates additional school performance problems. For instance, one of the subjects of the experimentation related that his child kept complaining about the teacher, who criticized his pronunciation. The learner had some health problems, which prevented him from pronouncing specific sounds correctly. However, the educator did not take an interest in this fact and stimulated the creation of stressful conditions for the students educational improvement. Consequently, the second skill, which has to be adopted by school consultancy professionals, relates to the encouragement of extensive cross-academic cooperation throughout school departments. It may be suggested to embrace weekly reporting, which would extend from holding detailed records of all possible difficulties that hinder academic development at school (School consultation, 2014). Conclusively, the school personnel might transfer the data to the parents of the learners at the end of every week. If necessary, the additional parent discussions may be sustained to clarify the contradictory issues, which concern child development (Parent-teacher conferences, 2012).
Finally, the research study revealed that school consultancies, regularly, target the discussions of the negative sides of academic progress as well as the difficulties in school education (Why is assessment important, 2011). Instead, it should be offered to encourage school personnel to relate to the positive experiences of the students during parent meetings to show the beneficial models of academic developments and motivate the students for the further development of their careers (Brown, 2009). Conclusively, the improvement of the quality of school consultancies embraces overtaking three critical skills, which improve academic experiences: individualized treatment, expectancy delivering, and positive attitude.
References
Brigman, G., Mullis, F., & Webb, L. (2005). School counselor consultation: Skills for working effectively with parents, teachers, and other school personnel. Washington: CQ Press.
Brown, K. (2009). Monitoring learner progress. Web.
Deciding on the best option after completing a high school education is always a tricky phenomenon. It should be noted that life gives everyone just one chance to live and make it right and therefore one can never follow what others do just because it is right. It is therefore important to make the right decision early enough, otherwise, the repercussions that will follow may be dire and unbearable. When students are in school, most of them perceive life to be smooth and full of fun, but the idea changes once they start getting responsibilities. The outer world as is described by many seems different from the protective environment of schools.
Many students are very eager to sit for their final paper in high school and get through with their high school education but they are not aware of the big question that awaits them after high school, which is What next? (Duralia 15). While some would prefer to start working due to a feeling of burdensome in education or lack of finances to continue with education, others would prefer to go on with their college education and start a career they have been dreaming about, yet others would prefer taking some time from all that and concentrate with traveling and relaxation for a year or so before joining a college. Whichever route one chooses, there is always a price to pay for each it.
Going to college vs. taking a break
Time waits for no man and hence spending time enjoying and celebrating will have a serious repercussion later on since one will have wasted precious time. Although both routes may be merited to some degree, it is always important to ensure there is the benefit derived wherefrom taking in mind that the main aim of life is to make positive changes and improve oneself (Clydesdale 15).
One who decides to go to college will have an added advantage over the rest because he starts building a career without wasting time. Time is the only asset that is equal to everyone everyone has 24 hours a day and 7 days a week, no one has more or less. Those who utilize this resource perfectly will always enjoy the benefits in life. Everyone, especially students who have the chance and enough financial resources should race against time at all times to improve their life (Clydesdale 18). They should not spend time idling and celebrating over small achievements; rather, they should aim at striking a difference in whatever they do. Going to college immediately is no burden in terms of books as many students describe it, it is a race against the little precious time one has to lay a good foundation of his/her life (Duralia 20).
For example, lets take one who starts celebrating and relaxing for a year, and one who goes to college immediately after high school. The first individual waste a year just relaxing while the latter starts his/her career path immediately after he/she joins college. These two individuals have now given each other a range which means that, for the one who wastes a year, he will start his career at the same time as those who were behind him/her in high school. This time is not recovered ever in life and therefore the students should avoid such circumstances at all costs (Clydesdale 21).
Another example is the one who relaxes and the one who starts working. The one who decides to work becomes financially independent early enough and thus will be independent, unlike the one who proceeds to college immediately. Life is all about dependency and people aim to stop depending on others and be self-dependent whenever an opportunity arises. Although the one who prefers to work will have benefited financially and also on work experience, the gap between him and the one who proceeds to college immediately or one who prefers to relax will have a greater bearing in the long run.
When comparing the one who starts working and the one who goes to college, one might tend to think that because the one working has an income then he is better of. However, once the one in college gets through with his college work, he will have built a stable career that will enable him to get employed in high profile jobs and get better terms of employment and income than the former. He will be better placed in society and be in a position to choose from a wide range of jobs. The one who was working will be overtaken within a short period (Broatch para.5).
Conclusion
The best thing in life is to utilize time efficiently and be successful. This will ensure that one never does things late and never regrets the decisions. Although many factors may hinder one from going to college like finances, there are always options to finance ones education and get to excel. No barriers should stand between ones vision and the present life. Life is about overcoming hardships and in the end, one enjoys the fruits of his/her labor especially he/she establishes an empire of great wealth, fame and raises a successful family. Whichever way the student chooses, then there is a need for serious reconsideration since life is not a rehearsal; the big question is, are you ready for it? It is never early to start planning; the future depends on the plans made today.
Works Cited
Broatch, Linda. Is there a life after high school? A premier for teens with learning disorders . Great Schools. 2009. Web.
Clydesdale, Timothy Thomas. The first year out: understanding American teens after high school. London, University of Chicago Press. 2007. Web.
Dalia, Mike. The Real Life 101 Handbook: A Beginners Guide to the World after High School. Bloomington, Author House. 2009. Web.
Education all over the world can be called a debatable question as almost every day there appears new tendencies and trends in methodology of teaching and pedagogy, brining new ideas and ways out of the modern problematic situation concerning imperfection of the whole system and, as a result, imperfection of educational level of graduates. This very problem concerning presence or absence of need to reform modern system of education is discussed in the article Big-city schools struggle with graduation rates by Greg Toppo, printed in USA TODAY.
To be more precise, it is entirely dedicated to two opposite opinions on current educational system and graduation rates of modern students. The author of the article, Greg Toppo, tries to understand why there appeared some substantial distinction between Christopher Swansons and Lawrence Mishels statistical data. These both researchers have analyzed graduation rates of American schools and there figures are distinguished more than on 10%.
The Swansons findings open a rather bleak picture of overall nations graduation rate in the USA that is less than 70% according to his study, while lawmakers and the others go on keeping USA students globally competitive. Among 50 largest big-city school districts, there three graduating less than 40%, these are New York City 38.9%, Baltimore 38.5% and Detroit 21.7% (Toppo 2006). Such situation is given in the Swansons study. And from the researchers point of view, the problem here is not in 30% of dropouts the problem is that, in fact, this figure is much higher and is be equal to about 50%.
But taking into account that this research was sponsored by the company Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation promoting its own high school reform, the question arises, whether the results of the study are correct. As such low indexes of modern methodical and pedagogical systems shown by the researchers work make it clear that the level of education the students leaves much to be desired. And the only thing can be done to improve graduation rate is to reform the whole educational system.
Especially controversial this question becomes, when most recent Mishels study puts the overall nations graduation rate of the USA at 82%. It is unknown, whose figures are truthful, but the fact is that there is no any reasons for Mishel to contest Swansons research, in case it would be correct. While Swanson could have some benefit making his work useful for his sponsors.
To conclude, it must me mentioned, that educational system used at modern school is not perfect, but it would thing over and change thousands of times, if graduation rates just in a few cities were equal to 50% or less.
The article by Greg Toppo arises before the readers two main questions:
Is the situation at school, really, as bad as Swanson has described?
If so, what must be done to correct it?
As our society has no answers on both these questions, let us ask the most outstanding educational specialist of all ages. There are three of them who could know the answers: Paulo Freire, Horace Mann and John Dewey.
At the fist question they three, surely could answer equally that, no matter whose study is taken into account, results in them both are rather poor. And these both results are to be improved by some changes.
Paulo Freire would surely say, that the problem is in banking education that annuls the creative power of a student. It means, that the problem is connected with lack of reciprocity between a teacher and a student. The only way to improve current graduation rates in the USA, in accordance with Freires pedagogy, is not to achieve enactment between teacher and student, but a deep reciprocity that must be inserted into that notion of student and teacher. Ever existing problems of the educational level will not disappear till there would not be understanding of teacher-student as well as student-teacher terms. That is, the problem of rates is not a problem of lack of knowledge or lack of attention it is a problem of relationship between teacher and student. To get rid of imperfection in educational system means to recognize that the basic parts of classroom participation are the fallowing: a teacher learns as well as a learner teaches.
He sais: Through dialogue, the teacher-of-the-students and the students-of-the-teacher cease to exist and a new term emerges: teacher-student with students-teachers. The teacher is no longer merely the-one-who-teaches, but one who is himself taught in dialogue with the students, who in turn while being taught also teach. They become jointly responsible for a process in which all grow. In this process, arguments based on authority are no longer valid; in order to function, authority must be on the side of freedom, not against it (Freire).
Freire would say, that modern interacting provided at school as the best way of teaching and learning was not enough for good results, that is why, more democratic relationship were to be established for better graduation rates.
Manns point of view could be the fallowing, to improve the level of education, it must be free with self-interest and morality as its main principles. Perhaps, in the article by Greg Toppo he could pay special attention to the fallowing points, to improve the rates of the present. The public should not be ignorant. Such education must be controlled as well as sustained by not only teachers but an interested public. To his point of view education must be best provided for children from any background and it should be non-sectarian. And what is the most important this education must be taught by the spirit, methods, and discipline of a free society; and that education should be provided by well-trained, professional teachers (Mann, 1849). He would surely agree with Swanson that modern school needs some changes and, may be, even reforms to male the overall nations graduate rates better. He would say, that American educators are to work schools to be better equipped houses, and a curriculum to be wider.
Deweys opinion concerning the perfection of graduate rates would be based on unity democracy and communication in education. He would say about an importance of high level communication between teacher and students. Because for him the most important factor of a high-leveled education is consisted in the fallowing: What nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social life. This education consists primarily in transmission through communication. Communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession (Dewey 17).
He, surely, would say that the teacher should not be a dictatorial ruler. For students development and, thanking to it, their better graduate rates the teacher should be recognized as a negligible factor , but a necessary one. A teachers role is a role of the intellectual leader. Being an educational reformer, Dewey would be able to emphasize that concern of teaching claiming about transferring teachers knowledge to student were to be changed into a much better concern based on the students active learning as well as their actual experience.
All, mentioned above, let us conclude that for the greatest educators of the past graduate rates as they are, cannot be considered like the most important factors for education. In the centre of any educational process is relation between teacher and student but not the grades the last get while studying. But, at the same time, in case of the right created communication and regular interaction between these two participants of the process of education graduate rates will, surely, become better, because of the high level of mutual understanding. Thanking to such outstanding pedagogues as Paulo Freire, Horace Mann and John Dewey, education is democratic and teachers aim is not to give knowledge but to help a student to get it in a process of cooperation. But the modern educational system is not perfect and the participants of educational process are to improve it together.
The article by Greg Toppo shows that even in big-city schools graduate rates are to be much better we could say that American students are competitive globally and these rates were not a problematic question. To achieve this aim a lot of things must be made among which reconsideration of relationship between teachers and students, and renewal of some methods of teaching.
References
Dewey, John. Democracy and Education: an introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: The Macmillan company, 1916.
Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Continuum Publishing Company, 1970
Mann, Horace. The Massachusetts system of common schools: being an enlarged and revised edition of the tenth annual report of the first secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. Boston: Dutton and Wentworth, State Printers, 1849.
Toppo, Greg. Big-city schools struggle with graduation rates. USA TODA. 2006. USA TODA Online. Web.
Indigenous education involves teachings about indigenous methods, models, and knowledge. In the recent past, the outcomes of indigenous education in Australia have greatly improved. The improvement is as a result of enhanced enrolment and participation of indigenous students in education. The enrolment of indigenous students in vocational education and training and tertiary sectors has increased considerably (Friesen & Krauth, 2010).
Indigenous Education and Bush School Practice
The culture of most aboriginal communities is closely aligned to their environment. The aboriginals perspective on land, language, and culture varies from the perspectives of other communities. It is important to identify the needs of students from these communities to provide them with an effective education (Guevremont & Kohen, 2012). Identifying a supportive education system for the aboriginal students becomes easy as a result. According to the video, Bush School is one of the educational systems used in indigenous education. It is a school environment that integrates aboriginal content and culture, such as teaching students how to ride horses, into regular curriculum (Bryan, 2009).
Indigenous students use learning styles similar to those used in their community. Examples of such styles include observation, imitation, collaboration, cooperation, and use of narratives and storytelling (Guevremont & Kohen, 2012). Such methods of learning require direct experience and learning through inclusion. The student is regarded as an important part of the community. The Bush School video highlights how aboriginal students use these styles to learn useful skills within an informal setting (Bryan, 2009).
Assessment and reporting are very essential in providing effective education. The video highlights the various aspects of assessing and reporting the achievements of aboriginal students. Other education systems, such as those adopted in western nations, emphasise on explicit instructions and testing. Such techniques may prove ineffective to indigenous students since they retain knowledge more easily when learning through methods that have succeeded in the past as opposed to other methods. The western education format is not consistent with the upbringing of the aboriginal students (Friesen & Krauth, 2010).
Indigenous students reflect the cultural, social, and economic diversity of the communities they come from (Higney, 2012). They are spread across schools in the rural, regional, and urban Australia. Majority of these students speak aboriginal English, Creole, other indigenous languages or a combination of these as their first language. As highlighted by the Bush School video, Bush Schools can integrate all these disparities, making it best practice for indigenous students to enrol (Bryan, 2009).
Bush Schools provide specific intervention programs to meet the specific learning needs of students. The programs include strategies and trials designed to increase the enrolment of indigenous students in schools. In addition, the programs are aimed at ensuring that indigenous students meet national benchmarks in literacy and numeracy tests (Harrison, 2011). The programs encourage indigenous students to remain in school and to attend regularly. Such interventions have increased the number of indigenous students completing year 12. Consequently, the number of indigenous students proceeding to tertiary education has also increased (Guevremont & Kohen, 2012).
Engaging indigenous students in the teaching process is very essential to academic success. It provides the students with the knowledge, understanding, skills, and confidence needed to succeed in employment and higher education. Bush Schools engage indigenous students by using the community in their learning. The Bush School video shows how students are engaged in learning through horse riding and other applications. Engagement is critical for it encourages a sense of belonging and self-worth among the students (Friesen & Krauth, 2010).
For indigenous education to be successful, teaching professionals must be accountable when including aboriginal perspectives in their practice. In the Bush School video, the principal agrees to offer horse riding classes. By doing this, more aboriginal students are encouraged to continue with their education (Bryan, 2009). School leadership must ensure that aboriginal culture is made part of the school environment. Professionals must adjust their attitudes and perceptions about aboriginal communities. The school leadership must enhance the relationship between staff and the aboriginal community. Most employees working in Bush Schools have acquired knowledge on aboriginal communities. The acquisition of such knowledge has significant impacts on the way the employees interact with their colleagues, their students, and the community (Harrison, 2011).
For indigenous education to succeed, a carefully planned curriculum should be developed. The curriculum should contain a syllabus outlining what is to be taught and the teaching approaches and strategies to be adopted (Harrison, 2011). By understanding aboriginal cultures, perspectives, and disparities, Bush Schools produce a curriculum that values aboriginal history, language, and culture (Battiste, 2000).
Applications of Bush School Experience
Engaging Parents and the Larger Community
Improving the relationship between the school and the community is the launch pad to a successful and highly effective education system. The partnership should be built on the principle of cross-cultural respect between the school and the community. There are various national and state policies and programs that emphasise on this relationship (Harrison, 2011).
In addition to the process of developing partnerships between the school and the community, I have a duty of encouraging this relationship as a teacher and making it part of my professional and personal accountability. I will involve the community in the planning, delivery, and evaluation of the curriculum. I will also lobby the school administrators to enhance the inclusion of the communitys perspectives in the curriculum. The inclusion is an opportunity for cultural exchange between the teachers and the community. Such an exchange exposes the school employees to a wide range of perspectives on education (R.A. Malatest & Associates, 2002).
As a teacher, I will make efforts to attend community events and functions. My attendance will help strengthen the partnership and relationship between schools and communities, which is based on mutual trust. The experience derived from such interactions will eventually have an impact on my life as a teacher and on the curriculum. In turn, this will have an impact on the students and their overall performance (Friesen & Krauth, 2010).
There are various strategies used to strengthen the community-school partnership. One of the strategies involves keeping up with important events hosted by the local community and advertising such events using notices and newsletters. I will lobby the administration to include important community events on the school calendar (Harrison, 2011). In addition, I will create units of school work and programs that conform to the needs of the community (Ktunaxa, 2011).
Teaching Strategies
Overview
Indigenous education embeds the communitys perspectives, experiences, language, and culture in the schools curriculum. The inclusion of these aspects enhances the effectiveness and success of education by providing a learning environment that adheres to the students way of life. Such adherence makes it easy for the student to transition into adulthood. As a non-indigenous teacher, my exposure to Bush School will create awareness and increase my knowledge on the culture and traditions of indigenous communities (Harrison, 2011).
Indigenous knowledge is of great importance in the management of environment in contemporary world. The methods traditionally used in environment and land management are still very important to the society today (Ktunaxa, 2011). Indigenous communities have learnt to live sustainably in their regions and have passed the knowledge to their future generations (Downey & Pribesh, 2004). The sustainability is very important to the community. It helps them understand their surroundings better. However, I cannot say the same about indigenous communities that have been eroded through displacement (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003).
There is value in incorporating indigenous knowledge into mainstream education. Learners from diverse backgrounds benefit when they interact with such knowledge. As a teacher, I can improve the exposure by working with elders from indigenous communities in developing a curriculum that includes authentic indigenous experiences (Nechyba, McEwan, Patric & Older-Aguilar, 1999). I will make efforts to introduce controversial topics in classrooms. I will introduce the topics through various methods tailored for particular age groups (Ktunaxa, 2011).
Classroom structure
The Bush Schools classroom structure creates a link between the community and the classroom, making it easier for students to relate to material. The figure below illustrates the classroom structure adopted by the bush school:
Figure 1. Bush school classroom structure
I will adopt a similar structure in my classroom. In such a structure, the school emphasises on group or cooperative learning characterised by an inclusive environment. The students are encouraged to learn by watching each other and observing the environment. I will avoid assuming an authoritative role and encourage regulating the learning with my students.
Conclusion
In this paper, I discussed Bush School as an example of best-practice in indigenous education. I discussed the application of Bush School experience into future teaching practice. In addition, I analyzed the involvement of community members in developing school curriculum. Finally, I discussed teaching practices that can be embedded in mainstream education.
References
Battiste, M. (2000). Maintaining aboriginal identity, language, and culture in modern society. Vancouver: UBC Press.
Bryan, D. (Director). (2009). Bush school [DVD]. Australia: SBS Independent.
Desforges, C., & Abouchaar, A. (2003). The impact of parental involvement, parental support and family education on pupil achievements and adjustment: A literature review. London: Department for Education and Skills, Queens Printer.
Downey, D. B., & Pribesh, S. (2004). When race matters: Teachers evaluations of students classroom behaviour. Sociology of Education, 77(4), 267282.
Friesen, J., & Krauth, B. (2010). Sorting, peers and achievement of Aboriginal students in British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Economics, 43(4), 12731301.
Guevremont, A., & Kohen, D. E. (2012). Knowledge of an aboriginal language and school outcomes for children and adults. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 15(1), 127.
Harrison, N. (2011). Teaching and learning in aboriginal education (2nd ed.). Victoria: Oxford University Press.
Higney, J. (2012). Indigenous education. New York: Free Press.
Ktunaxa, S. A. (2011). An indigenous knowledges perspective on valid meaning making: A commentary on research with the EDI and Aboriginal communities. Social Indicators Research, 103, 315325.
Nechyba, T., McEwan, I., Patric, J., & Older-Aguilar, D. (1999). The impact of family and community resources on student outcomes: An assessment of the international literature with implications for New Zealand. Wellington: New Zealand Ministry of Education.
R.A. Malatest & Associates. (2002). Parent and education agreement partnership project: A discussion paper. Victoria, B.C.: R.A. Malatest & Associates.
