Category: Schizophrenia

Description of the Disorder

Schizophrenia is a severe condition of mind that has symptoms such as poor contact with reality, peculiar behavior, unsystematic speech and thinking, low expression of emotions, and social withdrawal. Although victims of the disorder may not manifest all these symptoms, they have an indication of some of them. Schizophrenia means a ‘split mind’.

It is worth noting that schizophrenia doe not result in split personality. Rather, it greatly alters the functioning of the mind. Victims of this personality disorder do not depict double personality. In fact, they may depict some characteristics that are close to those of a mad person (Lemma, 1996). Sometimes, people mistake schizophrenia to insanity.

The disease debilitates the lives of victims. Richard and Brahm (2012, p. 758) assert that people who suffer from schizophrenia have difficulties in distinguishing what is real and what is unreal in life, what is logical and illogical, and what is appropriate and inappropriate. Out of these effects, victims are not able to work well.

They cannot be in good relationships with others, go to school, and/or take good care of others. The victims are prone to committing suicide. They are also likely to be hospitalized due to personal inflicted injuries and suicidal thoughts. According to Van Dyke (2013, p. 51), there is no cure for the schizophrenia.

Therefore, victims experience the disorder for the rest of their life. Treatment is done after a doctor’s interview with the victim. However, treatment only suppresses the symptoms in an effort to enable victims’ to live better lives. This paper seeks to discuss schizophrenia as a personality disorder.

How the Disorder Develops

According to Van Dyke (2013, p. 51), schizophrenia begins to develop in the early adulthood years of the victim from the age of 15 to 30 years. It is only in very few instances that the disease develops later in life. The initial development of the condition is slow. However, as the victim grows older, the condition develops faster. Victims normally experience a variation of the symptoms over time.

Researches indicate that the symptoms may become lesser in later years of the victim. It has also been found that 25% of the victims of schizophrenia become symptom-free later in their lives. Such symptoms of schizophrenia include delusion, hallucinations, uncanny conduct, disorganized communication and thinking, and social withdrawal.

Out of these symptoms, the victim develops uncontrolled movement. However, Richard and Brahm (2012, p. 757) observe that the victims do not appreciate that their minds are disrupted. When they depict hallucination symptoms, they have false beliefs in their minds. For example, a victim may believe that he or she is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces in his or her country thus beginning to behave like a person with such a position.

In other instances, victims may believe that other people are spying on them, or that other people within their surrounding can ‘hear’ what they are thinking about in any given time. Therefore, the victim may feel insecure or begin to hide or sometimes turn violent to his or her neighbors. Such individuals may also believe that the police are looking for them, or an aircraft that flies around them is looking for them.

In some cases, getting them to the doctors proves difficult since they may believe that doctors want to treat them of a disease that they are not suffering from. Hallucination is normally characterized by false sensory perceptions. Victims experience various symptoms. For example, Van Dyke (2013, p. 51) asserts that victims smell, see, and touch unrealistic things.

When they experience auditory hallucinations, they hear sounds that do not exist in reality. Researches indicate that such voices may include the voice of a known or unknown person ordering the victim to behave in a certain way or to do something (Lilienfeld et al. 2010). The voice may also be of certain people who talk about the victim, hence annoying him or her.

According to Van Dyke (2013, p. 51), bizarre behaviors as symptoms of schizophrenia include characteristics such as victims talking to themselves, laughing suddenly for no apparent reason, walking backwards instantly, masturbating in public, or even making funny faces in public. They may maintain a particular bizarre act for long hours without an end. In some cases, the victim may just keep on moving without a sense of direction, or keep on jumping for no reason.

When schizophrenic patients experience disorganized thinking and speech, it is easy to identify them. These affected people talk in nonsensical ways, utter confused words, and have confused thoughts. For example, when talking or discussing with others, they mix various ideas and topics. In other instances, the speech may go low since the mind also works slowly.

For example, they use very few words and talk very slowly. Others decide to keep quiet even when they are expected to say something. In some instances, they may keep quiet at the middle of a conversation thus leaving the other people perplexed. Another symptom of schizophrenia is social withdrawal. The victims may act in ways that suggest that other people do not exist at all.

In some cases, the victim ignores the decision or the wellbeing of other people completely. In fact, he or she may act as if he or she is just alone in the world. Richard and Brahm (2012, p. 759) argue that, in extreme cases, schizophrenic people may completely avoid others. Sometimes, the victims may have blank facial expressions hence making it difficult to know what they are thinking.

They do not send any signals both verbally and nonverbally. Others will just avoid eye contact with other people. For example, the victim may immediately look down or sideways whenever one looks at them straight through their eyes.

Studies on the Disorder

Researches indicate that approximately 1% of the people who exist in the world experience schizophrenia at certain points of their lives. In addition, researches also indicate that roughly 1.8 million people who live in the United States suffer from schizophrenia. The presence of schizophrenia cuts across cultures, age, and sex. Women have less severe experiences of symptoms, hence recording lesser hospitalization cases and better social life in relation to men.

Cases of schizophrenia are not very specific. In fact, researches indicate that the disorder is caused by various factors. Scientists believe that schizophrenia is caused by genetic factors, structural brain abnormalities, chemical imbalance in the brain, and prenatal development abnormality resulting from the environment (Lemma, 1996).

In addition to people who are predisposed to schizophrenia, experience of stressful life may result in the development of the psychological disorder (Lilienfeld et al. 2010). Researches on genetic factors indicate that genes that are inherited from parents may predispose someone to the condition. For example, studies reveal that, the more closely that an individual is related to a person with the condition, the more likely he or she is to have the condition.

According to Van Dyke (2013, 51) studies show that children of a schizophrenia victim have up to 13% likelihood of contracting the disease. Children from parents suffering from schizophrenia have approximately 46% chances of developing the condition. However, those in the ordinary society have 1% likelihood of developing schizophrenia.

Other researches point out that chemical imbalance in the brain neurotransmitters may also result in the condition. The neurotransmitters enable brain cells to communicate. When there are excess activities of dopamine in certain areas of the brain, the condition develops. Amphetamines increases dopamine activity thus making psychotic symptoms in victims of schizophrenia.

Serotonin, which is a neurotransmitter, also exacerbates the schizophrenic condition in the victim. Richard and Brahm (2012, p. 757) affirm that the use of brain imaging, for example magnetic resonance and positron-emission tomography, indicates structural abnormalities in the brains of victims, for instance, having larger brain ventricles, small volumes of the brain tissue, low activities of the brain lobe that controls judgment, planning, and thought.

In prenatal environmental causes, pregnant women who are exposed to the influenza virus are likely to have a baby who will develop schizophrenia. Delivery of children with forceps increases the chances of children getting schizophrenia.

Review of Treatment Options

Although no cure for schizophrenia has been realized, treatment of the condition through medication, treatment of the symptoms and problems that victims go through, and rehabilitation enables them to live a better life. Medical treatment of schizophrenia use antipsychotic drugs.

According to Van Dyke (2013, p. 51), antipsychotic drugs that have been adapted include resperidone, olanzapine, clozapine, quetiaphine, haloperidol, thioridazine, fluphenazine, trifuoperazine, and chlorpromazine. The medication is taken for the rest of the victim’s life to control the symptoms. However, Richard and Brahm (2012, p. 757) argue that medication may not treat other symptoms of the condition such as withdrawal from social life and apathy.

Sometimes, it can cause muscle spasms, terdive dyskinesia, and cramps. Fatal conditions such as agranulocytosis may also result. Psychological and social rehabilitation has also worked in checking schizophrenia. This strategy also teaches them self-care skills such as personal hygiene, nutrition, and financial management.

Cognitive behavioral therapy, which is a type of psychotherapy, enables that victim to reduce hallucinations, social withdrawal, and delusion. Family members also come in to understand and monitor that victims take medication by monitoring their symptoms. Associated problems such as substance abuse, for instance drug abuse, are also treatable. Diseases such as hepatitis B and C, and HIV among others can be managed through medication.

Success of Treatment

Treatment of schizophrenic victims has been successful especial with antipsychotic drugs. However, up to date, there is no cure for schizophrenia. Patients of the condition have to take medication for the rest of their lives. According to Van Dyke (2013, p. 56), combination of medication and therapy helps patients to live better and comfortable lives. However, medication has side effects. Management of such side effect has enabled victims to have a healthy life.

Conclusion

Schizophrenia is a mental condition that has no cure. It affects a big percentage of people. A victim that I have witnessed depicted various symptoms such as hallucination and delusion. The victim has been treated by the use of antipsychotic drugs and therapy. However, he has depicted side effects, for instance constipation due to medication and weight gain. The use of antipsychotic drugs reduced the symptoms by 80-90% on the patient.

Reference List

Lemma, A. (1996). Introduction to Pscychopathology. London, Sage Publications.

Lilienfeld, S. et al. (2010). Psychology: A Framework for Everyday Thinking. London: Pearson Publishers.

Richard, D., & Brahm, C. (2012). Schizophrenia and the immune system: Pathophysiology, prevention, and treatment. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 69(9), 757-766.

Van Dyke, C. (2013). Research Policies for Schizophrenia in the Global Health Context. International Journal of Mental Health, 42(1), 51-76.

Introduction

Many different psychological disorders that have been discovered in the medical world tend to afflict human beings thus affecting their day-to-day activities. Psychological disorders come in different ways. At the same time, they are tackled in different ways that can be described as the best in the present-day world of medicine.

Some psychological disorders can be described as acquired while some can be described as genetic depending on their manifestation in the human beings. The treatment and management of these disorders also vary, with some of the disorders being treatable and eliminated completely while some can only be controlled but not eliminated. Different approaches are employed when dealing with psychological disorders.

In fact, although different people can be diagnosed with the same disorder, they will show different signs individually and hence the conclusion that psychological disorders show different indicators that make up a certain disorder when put together. As the study reveals, one such disorder that can be described as complex is schizophrenia because of the different ways it manifests in human being as well as the different forms it afflicts its victims.

What is Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia as a disease or mental disorder has been in existence for a very long time, as long as humans have existed. Previously, the classification of mental illnesses was so poor that almost all mental illnesses were lumped together without trying to sort them out (Sullivan, 2003, p. 1187).

Way back in the year 1911, a Swiss doctor called Eugene Blair coined the name schizophrenia from two Greek words, ‘schizo’, meaning split, and the word ‘phrene’, meaning mind, and hence the term schizophrenia that means a disconnected mind. The disease comes in different forms by exhibiting different characteristics specific to an individual case.

In most cases, an individual would exhibit one or more of the following characteristics, which are pointers to the disease. They include delusions, which are strange and unrealistic beliefs that go on in an individual’s mind in that they tend to see things that other people are not seeing (Lilienfeld et al. 2010). The signs also include hearing of sounds other people cannot hear, and some strange beliefs that something is going to happen to the victims.

The mind of the individual makes them have abnormal a feeling about their surrounding environment. They also have hallucinations, which will make them have a reaction of the presence of things that are actually not there. In this case, people will hear voices that are just in their minds, smell things that are not there, and/or have different tastes from what is expected (Sullivan, 2003, p. 1189).

The individuals will also exhibit strange behavior when viewed by normal people. The behavior that can be described as uncanny. In some cases, the individuals will have a very unsystematic dialogue in that a mature individual will not be able to make a sensible statement due to his or her mixing of different words. The speech of a mature person in this case can be described as that of a small child who is learning to talk.

Some forms of schizophrenia come with disjointed and severely diminished cognitive abilities in that victims lose most of their mental faculties (Lilienfeld et al. 2010). In fact, they cannot therefore do any constructive thing. In some cases, the individual will not be in a position to do anything without being instructed on what do and how to do it.

In case the victims have taken the initiative to do something, they will omit some steps, which make whatever they are doing appear odd (McGlashan, 1988, p. 516). Signs vary from one individual to the other as well as severity of the condition. Some persons can be described as being in a permanent state of the condition while others will oscillate between being fully normal and suffering from bouts of the disease.

Schizophrenia strikes its victims in their late adolescence or in their early stages of adulthood although it is also known to strike anytime of an individual’s lifetime. The real cause of schizophrenia has never been pinpointed to date. However, experts are working on a theory that points it to be a result between biological predispositions, which are genetic in nature and the environment in which one grows up (Daly, 2013, p. 716).

This claim is the line of research that researchers are slowly developing with the belief that it will give answers to the question of its origin. Another cause for schizophrenia can be drug abuse. Effects of drug abuse can lead to the impairment of the cognitive functions of the brain in that the victim will start behaving abnormally due to hallucinations and delusions.

Pregnancy has also been listed as another cause of schizophrenia, with different elements during a woman’s pregnancy acting as a trigger for the same. Schizophrenia comes in different levels such that some types of schizophrenia can be described as acute while others can be described as mild (Sullivan, 2003, p. 1189).

People with schizophrenia can have lucid moments in that sometimes they are fully normal with their mental functions being performed in order. However, in some other times, they are very schizophrenic.

Studies on the Disorder

Scientists have conducted different major studies across the world as they try to find the main causes of schizophrenia as well as solutions to the problem. The biggest challenge that many studies have faced has been the inability to pin point exactly what causes the problem because finding the cause would lead to better solutions to the problem.

The manifestation of the disease is what makes it a big challenge to researchers who are trying to find its exact cause. One of the challenges is that schizophrenia has so many different symptoms. In this case, only when they are put together that the person can be rightly diagnosed as suffering from the disease (Meltzer, 2002, p. 280). Therefore, research in the field of schizophrenia is wide due to the width with which the schizophrenia problem comes.

Each research has been narrowed down to a specific problem that the researchers think is the cause or they think might lead them to a solution. Broad Institute of Harvard, the MIT, and the Massachusetts General Hospital have conducted one of the major studies on schizophrenia under the leadership of Mark Daly.

The aim of the study was to find the genetic difference between people suffering from schizophrenia, bipolar disease, and other unaffected people. The study involved over 10000 people suffering from schizophrenia, 7000 people suffering from bipolar, and a large number of unaffected people. The study was meant to narrow down genetic differences between the three groups as a way of pin pointing the genetic traits associated with schizophrenia.

The study discovered 10 genetic risk factors that are highly associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Besides, it also discovered three specific genes that are suspected to be the cause of the two diseases (Daly, 2013, p.730). The study was meant to find a common link between schizophrenia and genes, which are usually transferable from one offspring to the other.

Another study on schizophrenia, which is one of the many studies on the same disease, was to find out the relationship between the disease, genetic traits, and the environment. The study found that the heritability liability of schizophrenia was 81%, which means that schizophrenia is a highly heritable disease arising due to genetic traits that can be inherited. 11% of the problem in victims was attributed to common and shared environment.

The study came out with a conclusion that schizophrenia is highly influenced by genes and the environment although it does not show the cause of the disease. The study simply reinforces previous theories that point the origins of schizophrenia to both genes and the environment (Daly, 2013, p. 735). Another study by McGlashan (1988) found that schizophrenia, as a mental disease can be chronic to the extent that its effects become worse in relation to those of other known major mental illnesses.

In these findings, schizophrenia can lead to increased risks of suicide in its victims, instances of physical health, and cases of mortality. According to McGlashan (1988), the disease comes out in the open after a period of between 5-10 years after its manifestation meaning that it can remain unnoticed in an individual for some time, as it develops before it comes out evidently (p. 520).

The study finds that long-term studies on the disease so far have not come up with any conclusion on the history of treatment of the disease, meaning that the treatment of the disease has not been concluded as effective. Studies on the disorder can be described as continuous because no authoritatively conclusive study has been made so far.

Different theories on the disease continue to be studied while new theories also come up at the same time to try to find a solution. Therefore, any information so far being used in the field cannot be described as conclusive, but as part of a continuous study.

Treatment Options

One factor that underlies schizophrenia treatment is that it is a disease whose cause is not yet known and that it comes in different manifestations. This case therefore complicates the treatment regime that any physician has to offer because it is a trial and error at the end of the day. Every single schizophrenic case has to be approached individually because different victims have different symptoms besides having different combinations of symptoms (Meltzer, 2002, p. 280).

This complication therefore restricts the physician to observe case by case in an effort to administer drugs according to their opinion on the individual case. The treatment methods commonly in the application are based on a clinical research that has been conducted on the disease as well as on the experience of the physician on the treatment of the disease.

Usually, the approach that the physician will employ will depend on the ability of the strategy to reduce the effects and symptoms of the disease as well as an approach that is believed will reduce the chances of the disease coming back. Treatment for the condition happens in two ways: medical treatment or psychosocial treatment (Sullivan, 2003, p. 1188). Medical treatment of the disease usually involves the use of antipsychotic medicine, which has been available since 1950s.

These drugs are not known to cure the problem. Rather, they are known to reduce psychotic symptoms to allow the individual to behave like a normal person. So far, this treatment has been identified as the most effective. An experienced physician who specializes in mental cases can administer it. The choices of drugs and dosage are the prerogative of the physician because treatment is done on a case-by-case basis.

Many schizophrenic cases as explained above differ in symptoms and intensity. Although psychotic medication has been known to work well for schizophrenic cases, it sometimes does not work in others in that patients may fail completely to respond to the drug thus making it useless to administer the said drug on them (Sullivan, 2003, p. 1189). Some patients will mildly respond to the drugs being administered.

This case would require higher doses of the drug for them to be effective. Although it is effective in treating and managing schizophrenia, almost all anti psychotic drugs have negative side effects that might not be pleasant at all to the patient. Some of the commonly used drugs include Clozapine, which is registered as Clozaril. It has been touted as the best antipsychotic drug ever to be used.

However, its use comes with severe side effects to the user of the drug with the development of agronulocytocis, which is a condition that diminishes white blood cells thus reducing the individual’s immunity. Risperidone is another drug that can be used to treat psychosis, which in this case is schizophrenia. The drug has fewer side effects compared to Clozapine. However, it is not as effective as Clozapine.

Olazapine is another antipsychotic drug that works like Risperidone but not as effective as Clozapine (Meltzer, 2002, p. 280). Many other drugs are still being developed. Thus, they are not yet in the market. On the other hand, other drugs that can be used in treating schizophrenia have been found to treat specific symptoms. Hence, they cannot be counted upon to treat other symptoms. This makes them less effective.

Psychotherapy can also be used as treatment for schizophrenia in some cases through rehabilitation of the individual, family education, individual psychotherapy, and self-help groups. The use of psychotherapy can only be applicable in cases where the individuals respond to the treatment. The physician can only determine this treatment. Psychosocial therapy is mostly applied when the individual seems to have developed schizophrenia due to environmental influences.

The Success of Treatment Options

The success of treatment options for schizophrenia can only be stated in relative terms due to the manner in which the disease manifests itself and the stage the treatment for the disease has reached. So far, there is no cure for schizophrenia. The only available solution has been to tame the situation as the patient continues to use drugs.

Many patients who have been diagnosed as suffering from schizophrenia have had to live with the condition for the rest of their lives because it is not curable (Sullivan, 2003, p. 1191). The only solution that most of them have had with this condition is that some cases have been able to have the condition suppressed for a longtime without them relapsing.

This far is the closest to cure to which patients with schizophrenia can come close. The biggest challenge that remains is that the disease comes in many different forms with either individual symptoms or a combination of symptoms. This case is a challenge because the psychiatrist has to deal with individual symptoms as they try to sort them because each symptom has its own drug.

A mixture of some of the drugs used can be dangerous to the patient. Therefore, in most cases, the patient is treated for one condition at a time. The use of more effective drugs such as Clozapine has other devastating effects on the patient. The drug is overly effective in its application. However, its side effects are dangerous as well.

For instance, patients under Clozapine need to have their blood tested very often to check the white blood cells count because the drug tends to diminish the white cells (Meltzer, 2002, p. 280). Inadequate white cells mean that the body’s immune system will be lowered because they are responsible for the immune system of the body. Success in treatment options can be described as successful in individual cases where the patient has responded positively to the treatment.

This varies with individual cases because there are those patients who will respond positively to the therapy while there are those who will not respond at all. Treatment of schizophrenia starts with a trial-and-error mode as the physician tries out different treatment plans for the individual. It takes some time before the physician figures out the exact plan for an individual patient.

At the end of the day, the plan might work or fail (Daly, 2013, p. 750). Treatment options offered so far can be deemed successful as far as offering the best they can because that is the best that the industry can offer. They have been known to control the disease in an individual successfully. The only point that should be noted is that the disease never goes away and that the patient has to be on the lookout in case they relapse.

This will force them to go back to treatment. On the other hand, some patients might have to be fully dependent on the drugs for them to behave normally because they might not look properly wired without the drugs. Whereas treatment has worked in some cases, it has failed completely to work for some patients in some other cases (Meltzer, 2002, p. 280).

In these instances, patients have had to be confined in facilities that will allow them to be taken care of, or they have to be heavily sedated as a way of keeping them calm. These two methods can be punitive to the patient. However, at the same time, they can be the only available solutions to them.

Conclusion

Schizophrenia as a mental disorder continues to pose challenges to the medical world on the best solutions that can be found to take care of it. The challenge of finding its main cause remains large because there is still no solution ahead with the present-day technology.

The complexity of the problem has made it worse by complicating its description in that it cannot be described by one or two words. So far, the only hope of finding the main cause of the problem lies with finding the exact genetic connection as well as the environmental connection to the problem.

Reference List

Daly, M. (2013). Genetics connection In Schizophrenia. Nature Genetics, 45(7), 715-841.

Lilienfeld, S. et al. (2010). Psychology: A Framework for Everyday Thinking. London: Pearson Publishers.

McGlashan, T. (1988). A Selective Review of North American Follow Up Studies of Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bullettin, 14(4), 515-542.

Meltzer, H. (2002). Suicidality in Schizophrenia: A Review of the Evidence for Risk Factors & Treatment Options. Current Psychiatry Reports, 4(4), 279-283.

Sullivan, P. (2003). Schizophrenia as a Complex Trait Evidence from a Meta-Analysis of Twin. Jama Psychiatry, 60(12), 1187-1192.

The empirical research study has employed a pragmatic paradigm in the survey. For example, a mixed-methods study has been used throughout the qualitative survey. A number of methodologies have been used to collect and analyze data. Various assumptions and worldviews have been used to compile the research study. A quantitative research design has been used. Structured research instruments were used to gather the required data. In addition, a large sample size was used alongside numbers and statistics. The total number of participants who took part in the survey was 122. The research design distributed the participants according to the following categories. There were four daughters, four brothers, nine husbands, 11 wives, 27 fathers, and 67 mothers (Angermeyer, Schulze & Dietrich, 2003).

The quota sampling method was used in the research survey. A representative number of participants were selected to take part in the quantitative research. In other words, representative individuals formed the focus groups. The sampling method used also ensured that 67 percent of the respondents were female participants. The Federal Association of Relatives of People with Mental Illness assisted in the process of recruiting people with mental illnesses. Phone calls were used during important communications that could not be done verbally. Invitation letters were also prepared by the research team. The focus group discussions were supposed to be attended only by the relatives of the patients. Tape and video recorders were used to compile all the data obtained from the focus groups. In regards to the analytic strategy, the inductive formation of categories was used to analyze the transcripts. WinMax was also utilized to carry out the coding process. Various units were employed to divide the texts that were later analyzed using code mapping.

One of the strengths of the empirical survey is that the sampling method used was thorough enough since it incorporated patients from all categories. For instance, mothers, daughters, sons, wives, and husbands took part in the survey. Such a shrewd sampling strategy ensures that the final results are as accurate as much as possible. In addition, the sampling method involved a good number of participants for the empirical study. The 122 individuals who took part in the group discussions were sufficiently reasonable for the survey.

Second, the method used to analyze the field data was relevant and quite reliable. Code mapping is one of the most effective methods used for analyzing large quantities of data. The use of transcripts to record vital information was one of the research methods that strengthened the entire empirical study.

In regards to the weaknesses of the survey, it is prudent to mention that lack of interpersonal interaction may be manifested, especially during telephone interviews. The latter method cannot be effective compared to face-to-face communication. Telephone interviews can also be messy in some cases since the communicating parties may fail to clarify certain issues such as facial expressions, gestures, and feelings.

The research study has not clarified how the issues of confidentiality and privacy will be addressed when handling the data received from the field. It is necessary to mention that confidentiality of data obtained from the participants is a crucial factor that a research study of this magnitude should not ignore. One way of remedying the aspect of confidentiality is through the careful handling of data by the assigned individuals. All the data collected from the participants should be stored in a safe place and away from public access. Moreover, the collected data should not be shared with persons who have not been authorized to manage the database. Interviews through phone calls can be limited as much as possible in order to avoid invalid data from the field. Alternatively, the survey can be conducted with participants who can be accessed physically. Although this approach may demand an additional expense such as traveling cost, the results can be used to offer the most important guide for the study.

Reference

Angermeyer, M.C., Schulze, B. & Dietrich, S. (2003). Courtesy stigma: A focus group study of relatives of schizophrenia patients. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 38: 593–602.

Justification for the qualitative method

Schizophrenia has been a thorn in the flesh due to the stigma associated with the ailment. Large segments of society perceive the disease negatively. Several studies, which gave prominence to the sentiments of relatives and healthy citizens, have been a testament towards the accuracy of these facts. It is noteworthy, that a vast majority of studies, which were based on the same topic, often relied on quantitative data. The use of qualitative analysis is thus justified, since the amount of detail and quality of information required would only be provided using this method (Gonzalez-Torres, Oraa, Arıstegui, Fernandez-Rivas & Guimon, 2007).

In addition, exploring the actual situations experienced by patients and their relatives would be impracticable incase the study was reliant on statistics. Quantitative data lack the emotional aspect, which forms an essential part of the study. This is because statistics are often an embodiment of generalized opinions (Gonzalez-Torres, et al., 2007).

Lastly, stigma is often a consequence of several factors, including social, cultural, and educational distinctiveness, espoused by the societies where the respondents belong. As a result, a general summary of the findings does not represent the actual situation on the ground. This is also emphasized by the fact that actual responses vary in the different societies (Gonzalez-Torres, et al., 2007).

Data collection method used, appropriateness and justifications for the answer

For this study, the researchers used the focus groups method. It is a form of quality analysis. It is notable that the method was used extensively since the 1980s. The method is suitable for this study, since respondents form groups of six to twelve persons with common characteristics. After this, sessions running for several hours (mostly one or two) take place; in which people discuss issues that they relate to. Participants are then asked to voice their opinions on the highlighted arguments. It should be noted that added opinions are often of higher quality than those initially raised. This is because they raise new perspectives, in addition, to the supplementary information found therein (Gonzalez-Torres, et al., 2007).

Health Strategy proposal

My health policy will emphasize on acceptance and coexistence in all segments of society. Consequently, a proactive nature will be required from medical practitioners, more so mental health specialists. This will be extended to patients and their families hence eliminate tendencies of concealment and isolation that patients often resort to for protection.

Perpetrators of prejudice in different spheres of the patient’s life will be prosecuted accordingly. This will go a long way in eliminating segregation in social circles and healthcare establishments which patients encounter on several occasions. The best example of this instance is represented by a schizophrenic patient who was only taken seriously after diagnosis of kidney stones (Gonzalez-Torres, et al., 2007). Most importantly, discrimination in the workplace, which haunts friends and relatives of patients, will also reduce considerably.

The final strategy entails prioritizing awareness creation. Information on the signs and symptoms of the infection will be disseminated to the public. This will reduce cases of misunderstandings between patients and colleagues at the work place. Psychiatrists and other company health officials will establish better ways of dealing with these patients and handling the demands arising from their medical status.

Reference

Gonzalez-Torres, A., Oraa, R., Arıstegui, M., Fernandez-Rivas, A., Guimon, J., 2007.

Stigma and discrimination towards people with Schizophrenia and their family members. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, (42) 14–23.

Introduction

Suicide linked to Schizophrenia is a leading cause of premature deaths. The schizophrenic patients are at risk of attempting suicide, as manifested by records from the 1960s. It is reported that out of all schizophrenic patients’ deaths, suicide accounts for at least 13%. Leading causes of suicide among these patients include social isolation, hospitalization, awareness of the condition, and sense of helplessness, health deterioration, limited or lack of support due to family instability. Efforts to reduce the cases of suicide among these patients do not seem to have yielded much success to date. Therefore, it is critical to adopt approaches aimed at reducing this phenomenon or preventing it all together (1). This paper will outline possible strategies for the prevention of suicide in people with Schizophrenia.

Improved recognition of vulnerability

There is a need to tackle the challenge associated with suicide among schizophrenic patients in a comprehensive manner. One major approach to achieving this goal is through improving the recognition of schizophrenia patients who are vulnerable to committing suicide. Widespread evidence indicates that a highly vulnerable group constitutes the young. Both young schizophrenic males and females have been identified as likely to commit suicide as compared to their older counterparts. Among the whites, the unmarried patients who have had post-psychotic depression or previously abused drugs have a higher likelihood of attempting suicide.

Patients who have also earlier attempted suicide or communicated about it may end up committing suicide. As such, when a patient mentions an intention to commit suicide, he/she should be placed under close supervision because such patients could end up committing the act. Another way to identify a schizophrenic patient who is likely to commit suicide involves observing characteristics such as hopelessness and a tendency to isolate oneself. Patients who may have undergone a long hospitalization period and have become aware of their condition also tend to attempt suicide, and such patients should thus be monitored closely (2).

It is postulated that such patients fear that they could deteriorate further, or due to increased dependence on medication, they may lose faith in the possibility of ever recovering. Therefore, they opt for induced death in order to alleviate their suffering. Suicide in individuals with Schizophrenia is also influenced by the active phase of the condition. Also, this can be influenced by notable psychotic symptoms that trigger paranoid delusions and thought insertion.

Evidently, patients diagnosed with the paranoid subtype of this condition are at risk of committing suicide. Medication, though meant to mollify Schizophrenia, may increase the likelihood of suicide in the patient. This is associated with the increased awareness of the illness and insight about the condition. Therefore, patients under medication should be observed more closely as the immediate effect of the drug may trigger suicidal thoughts.

Having identified all these possibilities among the schizophrenic patients, efforts should be made to ensure the patient who displays the characteristics is accorded the necessary support either socially or therapeutically. This is to avoid the patient resorting to suicide. Awareness should also be created for families and other stakeholders involved in caring for this class of patients. With the relevant information and skills, they will be able to detect the traits early enough and possibly take the most appropriate step towards rehabilitating the patient or preventing suicide attempts (2).

Psychological and social interventions

Psychological and social treatment methods have been found to reduce cases of suicide among schizophrenic patients when used alongside pharmacological methods. Cognitive-behaviour therapy is one method that would greatly help in reducing and/or preventing suicide among patients. Through this therapy, patients are trained so as to learn the behaviors exhibited by other people in normal society. The training may entail the simple chores that people undertake in their daily routine, such as shopping, washing, making friends, or being able to initiate a conversation. The training can be focused on activities that help patients gain self-care skills in order to help them have self-value.

The activities to be emphasized include proper nutrition, personal hygiene, and the ability for patients to sustain themselves economically. Such efforts greatly help to overcome challenges associated with the condition, such as withdrawal and hallucinations. The interventions should also target family members to enable them to live and assist patients in an appropriate manner. This can be achieved by clearly understanding how to treat and monitor the patient while helping them in the rehabilitation process. To avoid relapses and hospitalizations, which increase the likelihood of suicide, the patients should be encouraged to take their medication (3).

Pharmacological interventions

Although there is no definite cure for Schizophrenia, the condition can be maintained over along time through the use of medication alongside other therapies. The most commonly used medication involves the use of antipsychotic drugs. As a strategy to prevent suicide in schizophrenic patients, the drugs are aimed at controlling the symptoms associated with the condition. These drugs target the psychotic symptoms displayed by the patients, such as hallucinations, withdrawals, and delusions. The drugs can reduce, eliminate, and prevent relapses. Drugs such as Risperdal, Zyprexa, chlorpromazine, trifluoperazine, quetiapine, and haloperidol have been found to be effective in putting Schizophrenia under control.

These medications are taken throughout a patient’s life. Unpleasant side effects may make patients unwilling to continue taking the medication, but to avoid relapses, they must continue taking them. The use of the medication must be undertaken under close observation. This is because the impromptu improvement of a patient’s consciousness and insight may arouse an awareness in them that may propel them towards committing suicide. The patients must also be ready to undergo regular medical tests since some of the medications, such as clozapine, may result in life-threatening effects (1).

Optimizing Clinical Practice to Prevent Suicide among People with Schizophrenia

The clinical practice should aim at ensuring that patients with Schizophrenia are under control from any deterioration that may trigger suicidal thoughts. The scope of intervention should thus encompass all factors that influence the performance of the patient. Antipsychotic medication should be administered in a friendly approach, especially in combination with other interventions. This will ensure that the patient is willing to cooperate with the rehabilitation regimen.

It is important to study the response of different patients to medication. This forms the basis for the most appropriate approach to treat the patient since the variations in patients’ responses may create a negative impression on other would-be patients. Similarly, the response to medication by the patient may negatively affect him or her, leading the patient to contemplate suicide. This can be such as demonstrated by sudden increased awareness and insight. The pharmacological based tests should cover areas of neurocognitive ability, body mass index, motor disorders, lipid profiles, and illegal substances in the blood (4).

For successful rehabilitation, psychosocial interventions play a significant role. The approach taken should also be dependent on the given patient. This ensures that the patient owns the rehabilitation process for improved outcomes to be realized. A professional with skills in handling such patients would be recommended. This is because such professionals would have the ability to determine the most effective interventions that would be fruitful for the individual patient. Among the most effective interventions that could facilitate the recovery of the patient to normalcy include cognitive-behavioral therapy.

This method is beneficial in treating hallucinations, increase adherence to treatment, reduce symptomatology, and accelerate recovery. The use of supportive psychotherapy helps create harmony and emotionally support an individual. This should also incorporate the patient’s input to succeed. The clinical practice should also involve psychodynamic psychotherapy. This method involves a broad analysis of the patient’s experiences to help the professional develop a personalized treatment approach. It is also important to incorporate the patient and family members in the rehabilitation plan.

This is achievable through the sharing of information between the health professional and the family members. Through psycho-education, the family will learn to adopt family intervention programs as advised to help in the social improvement of the patient, and in effect, minimize the chances of suicide (5).

Conclusion

Prevention of suicide in people with Schizophrenia requires a multifaceted approach. The first step towards achieving this is the ability to identify or detect the signs that most probably indicate suicidal motives in schizophrenic patients. The factors that increase the vulnerability of patients to suicide should be understood properly to ensure that the patient is kept under control. Such factors include demographic, effects of medication, and psychosocial factors. The medical practitioners should also maim to work hand in hand with other stakeholders such as the family and patients to ensure that the regimen employed in treatment is effective.

Reference List

1. Li, H, Melissa P & Shane RJ. Identifying, Assessing, and Treating Early Onset Schizophrenia at School. New York: Springer, 2010.
2. Tatarelli R, Maurizio P & Paolo G. Suicide in Schizophrenia. Hauppauge, N.Y: Nova Science, 2006.
3. Wayne S. Depression, Suicide and Suicide Prevention in Schizophrenia. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour. 2000; 30(1): 34–49.
4. Cohen D & Carl E. Integrated Textbook of Geriatric Mental Health. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011.
5. Stroup TS & Jeffrey A. Lieberman. Antipsychotic Trials in Schizophrenia: The Catie Project. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Schizophrenia is one of the most serious mental illness affecting approximately 2.4 million American adults in any given year. This figure represents 1.1% of all American Adults. (National Institute of Mental Health, 2008). It generally strikes its victims during late adolescence to early adulthood and its symptoms vary from individual and can be classified as either paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated or residual type (DSM-IV-TR, 2000, 303).

The symptoms of schizophrenia are generally classified into three broad classifications—negative, positive and cognitive. Negative symptoms are those symptoms which occur early in the disorder and may or may cause the afflicted individual to think he/she is ill. Those symptoms are so called because they represent a loss of a particular behavior or a diminution of a personality trait. Negative symptoms are generally accompanied by a gradual decrease in the ability to function.

These symptoms include lack of expression, inappropriate emotions and altered speech to the point where it becomes monotonous (The Mayo Clinic, 2007). The positive symptoms of schizophrenia are operationally defined as those symptoms which involve heightened sensitivity or excess in normal functioning and essentially are those things that are added to the personality of a schizophrenic. The most common of those symptoms are hallucinations, delusions and disorganized speech and behavior. The hallucinations associated with schizophrenia can be auditory or visual hallucinations wherein all of the senses may be affected and they may either see, hear, smell, taste or touch objects that are not there.

Delusions, on the other hand, represent a belief in something that is logically impossible. Disorganized speech and behavior can be seen when an individual’s speech is incoherent and illogical. The behavioral aspect of seen in the exhibition of socially unacceptable behavior and odd dress (Yahoo Health, 2006). Finally, cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia are those which affect the schizophrenic’s ability to function within society as well as to earn a living. These symptoms include impairment in working memory, the ability to process information and the ability to focus on the tasks at hand (Web MD, 2006).

The etiology of schizophrenia was somewhat undetermined for a sometime, however research on the disease has been conclusive in that schizophrenia can be a result of interplay between a biological predisposition and environmental factors. Essentially, there is a genetic component to schizophrenia as well as an environmental component. Researchers have been able to arrive at the conclusion that there is a genetic component to schizophrenia by conducting twin studies of both identical and fraternal twins.

In fraternal twins where one twin is afflicted by schizophrenia, the likelihood of the other having schizophrenia is only 50%. This indicates that the genetic link is not as clear cut as previously thought (Schizophrenia.com, n.d.). Additionally, some of the body of research conducted on schizophrenics indicates that there may be a chemical imbalance of neurotransmitters in the brain which may be responsible for the manifestation of the symptoms schizophrenics experience (Schizophrenia Forum, n.d.).

The treatment as well as the prognosis for recovery is highly dependent on the stage in which schizophrenia is diagnosed and the age of first onset. If schizophrenia is diagnosed early [when the negative symptoms begin to manifest], treatment may involve a short hospital stay wherein the patient is stabilized and prevented from self-injury. The hospitalization will undoubtedly be followed by a medicinal regimen aimed at reducing the symptoms of schizophrenia. This proves to be effective for approximately 65% of all schizophrenics. Other treatment may involve psychotherapy or family therapy (Schizophrenia Forum, n.d.).

The optimal treatment of schizophrenia involves a combination of medications and psycho therapy. This form of treatment called psychopharmacotherapy. In the case of treating schizophrenics, antipsychotic medications are prescribed to eliminate the hallucinations and delusions associated with schizophrenia and psychotherapy is conducted to minimized or eliminate the behavioral symptoms. The prognosis of recovery from schizophrenia is excellent when the treatment involves psychopharmacotherapy. In such cases, the individual must commit to life long pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy as needed (Cohen, 2002).

In conclusion, schizophrenia is one of the most serious forms of mental illness. It affects approximately 1% of the American adult population. It can be treated by using psycho therapy, pharmacotherapy or a combination of both. Its causes are a combination of a genetic predisposition and the environment in which the schizophrenic is reared. The prognosis is highly dependent on the age of onset, the stage at which treatment begins and the ability of the patient to remain medically compliant. Essentially, patients who develop schizophrenia later in life fear better in terms of treatment.

The individuals who are diagnosed during the early stages of the disease also have a better prognosis for recovery. It is important to know that currently, there is no cure for schizophrenia. It can only be treated and it helps if the schizophrenic as well as his/her family are educated about the disorder.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSMIV-TR (4^th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Cohen, D. (2002). Research on the Drug Treatment of Schizophrenia: A Critical Appraisal and Implications for Social Work Education. Web.

The Mayo Clinic. (2007). Schizophrenia and chronic mental illness: Signs and symptoms. Web.

National Institute of Mental Health. (2008). The numbers count: Mental disorders in America. Web.

Schizophrenia.com. (n.d.) Schizophrenia: Causes and prevention. Web.

Web MD. (2006). Cognitive Symptoms of Schizophrenia. Web.

Yahoo! Health. (2006). Positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Web.

The development of psychology as a separate branch of medicine is largely due to the contributions made by well-known psychoanalysts and theorists who have developed various concepts and approaches. One of such outstanding figures as Sigmund Freud, who is the author of many concepts and hypotheses concerning human psychology. In particular, his theory of psychoanalysis regarding patients with schizophrenia syndrome has become one of the most fundamental. In this paper, the author’s approaches to this ailment are considered, and the ways of applying the specific observations of human behavior are discussed.

The Main Idea of Freud’s Schizoaffective Psychoanalysis

The work of Sigmund Freud is based on attracting the inner motives of people to assess their psychological state. According to Aiello and Ahmad (2014), the renowned psychoanalyst could not help all patients without exception since he believed that some challenges were severe obstacles complicating the treatment process. In particular, Freud found it difficult to care for those who suffered from severe forms of psychosis “because of their lack of transference and narcissistic withdrawal” (Aiello & Ahmad, 2014, p. 328). However, regarding such a mental illness as schizophrenia, the psychoanalyst achieved significant success and used his own approaches to interacting with patients.

Various theorists consider schizophrenia one of the mental disorders that strongly influence behavioral factors and imply changes in consciousness, and Freud “struggled to find recognition for his new concepts in academic psychiatry” (Maatz, Hoff, & Angst, 2015, p. 44). His work was aimed at finding techniques that could return an unhealthy person to normal life through a search for motives rather than eliminating symptoms. As Maatz et al. (2015) argue, this psychoanalytic theory was first met with skepticism.

However, in the future, Freud’s approaches arouse interest among the medical community, and today, many of the scientist’s developments are taken into account when diagnosing schizophrenia. One of the psychoanalyst’s main ideas is that this ailment is not a brain disorder but a disease in the unconscious state caused by unresolved homosexual feelings. However, he acknowledged that psychoanalysis was not recommended for work with patients who had this diagnosis because they ignored psychotherapists’ insights and resisted treatment. These principles are the basis of Freud’s schizoaffective psychoanalysis and his approaches to working on this disease.

Freud’s Theory Application to the Observations of Human Behavior

The considered theory may be used as a method of observing human behavior both in the conditions of healthcare facilities and at home. If a person shows too harsh and even aggressive attempts to prove his or her opinions, it is a serious reason to seek help from a medical specialist. Despite Freud’s opinion that patients with schizophrenia are not very susceptible to treatment because of ignoring medical prescriptions, positive results can be achieved in the period of remission when the disease recedes temporarily. In general, the theory of psychoanalysis in the context of this mental disorder may be used for identifying dissociative behavioral factors and damages to consciousness.

Conclusion

The theory of schizoaffective psychoanalysis developed by Sigmund Freud may help to identify the disorder at an early stage and apply specific treatment procedures both in clinics and at home. This concept can be used as a way of monitoring the behavioral factors of people and any possible deviations. Freud’s contribution to the development of psychoanalysis is significant, and his approaches are still relevant in the medical community.

References

Aiello, G., & Ahmad, S. (2014). Community-based psychodynamic group psychotherapy for treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 20(5), 323-329.

Maatz, A., Hoff, P., & Angst, J. (2015). Eugen Bleuler’s schizophrenia – A modern perspective. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 17(1), 43-49.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a mental disorder of the brain which causes impairments to the perception of reality as well as its depiction in the patient. It is a disease which can emotionally devastate the [patient as well as the relatives and the loved ones of the patient causes the patients to have hallucinations as well as delusions and even in some cases disorientated speech and cognitive patterns. A Schizophrenic patient usually starts getting symptoms of the disease at an early stage in his life, usually in his/ her childhood; however the disease gets more pronounced as the person grows older. The main effect that schizophrenia has on the patient is that it causes patients difficulty to differentiate between their hallucinations and delusions and the existing reality. (Comer, 2006)

The causes of the schizophrenia are till yet unidentified and unknown. Scientists however have been able to establish the relationship pf the disease to the genetics of the patients, the biological and the environmental factors that are at play on them as well as the psychological characteristics that the patients might have. It is possible for schizophrenia to travel in the same family and be transferable through the genes of the parents. As a result it is possible for twins to have schizophrenia with the risk rate of 40 to 50 percent. A child of a parent having schizophrenia has a 10 percent chance of having the same disease. Generally in the population, a person having the disease of schizophrenia has a total 1 percent risk of suffering form the mental disease.

Some factors that are suspected to have an effect on the risk rate of a patient suffering from schizophrenia pertain to prenatal, perinatal as well as other non specific stressors. These factors can cause vulnerability in a person to develop schizophrenia. Moreover Neurotransmitters which are chemicals in the brain which enables the nerve cells to communicate with each other are also attributed to causing schizophrenia when dopamine, serotonin and glutamate are involved.

Extensive research has been undertaken on the topic of schizophrenia and its causes. This research has provided that the structure of the brain as well as the changes that take place in the brain as a person grows can also cause schizophrenia in people.

The symptoms that are attributed to the disease of schizophrenia include social withdrawal of the patient, depersonalization on part of the patient as well as the patient feeling anxiety, or having the feeling of things being unreal. Aside form this other symptoms of the disease include loss of appetite for the patient, loss of hygiene, the patient suffering form extensive delusions as well as hallucination like the patient hearing and seeing things which are not even there. Moreover it is also possible for the patient to have the feeling of being controlled by outside forces.

There are no physical elements of schizophrenia, as the person suffering from the disease does not have any physical deformities or symptoms; however it is possible for the patient to suffer form social withdrawal, not being comfortable around other people as well as becoming an introvert. The emotional elements of the disease pertain to the patient having difficulty in expressing his or her emotions while suffering from impairment in which they are unable to feel pleasure as well. (Comer, 2006) The patient also suffers from mood swings, most particularly of them going into deep bouts of depression. The cognitive element of the disease is that the person suffers from the inability to perform cognitive function like processing information, understanding what is happening around them and even performing simple tasks which may require cognitive activity.

‘A Beautiful Mind’

The movie titled ‘A Beautiful Mind’ depicts very explicitly the symptoms of schizophrenia and how it affected the life of Nash. The movie provides very real and lifelike hallucinations which support the symptoms of the diseases, however the extent to which the hallucinations are real and life like ring untrue.

In the movie the specific scenes which depict that the Nash was suffering from the disease of schizophrenia include the scenes where Nash is having conversations with his college roommate and interacting with him on numerous occasions. Later on in the movie it is depicted that these interactions as well as the roommate was a fiction of Nash’s mind the delusions and the hallucinations that he underwent because of the diseases. This specific scene depicts the symptoms of hallucination, delusion. Other scenes which depict schizophrenia include the scenes where Nash suspects that Russian secret agents are after him to force him to find the formula and the code for his equation which came to be known as the Nash theory. These scenes depict that he is being chased and followed by these discreet agents while being actively confronted in other scenes as well. These depict delusions and paranoia in Nash which is a symptom of the schizophrenia disease.

Moreover aside from these another scene depicts in the movie where Nash who is bathing his child stops in the middle of the chore and wanders off outside. His wife spots him in outside near the shed and runs into the house to save their child from drowning. This depicts both the elements of hallucination, as well as the cognitive disability that was being faced by Nash in terms of simply completing the chore of bathing his baby. In yet other scene where Nash is suffering from delusions and hallucination of both visual and auditory nature pertain to scenes where his friends, who are actually delusions, try to force him and aggravate him to murder his wife. As a result in the scene where his wife threatens to leave with his child he realizes that his friends and roommates are actually figments of his imagines and hallucinations caused by schizophrenia. In these scenes he controls his cognitive abilities and fights ‘his demons’ to stay coherent. Other scenes which specifically depict the cognitive disability of Nash to perform simple brain processing tasks include the scenes in which Nash depicts erratic behavior and the inability to perform simple tasks like moving about the house as well as the psychiatric facility.

Through the different scenes, some of which have been depicted above, the movie has been able to establish how it is possible for parents of schizophrenia to develop the disease and suffer from it without being aware of their ailment.

The film the beautiful mind has been criticized for inaccurately portraying the life of Nash and not bringing to light the extent of his illness as well as the effect it has on his life. Aside from this the movie also presents an oversimplified version of the Nash equilibrium which does not actually exist. In terms of depicting the illness of Nash, the film has perform a positive role as it does depict how he suffers form hallucination, hearing sounds which are not even there and seeing visuals which are not even present. Aside from this the social withdrawal of the character is also depicted aptly in the movie while the emotional stress and the confusion being felt by the person is also depicted. Most of all the difficulty faced by Nash in processing simple cognitive thoughts and functions is very specifically depicted, however the extents of the illness depicted in the movie is inaccurate.

The movie depicts the hallucinations of Nash to be very realistic, so much so that they form full bodied entities like detailed images, scenes as well as detailed sounds and music. In reality however it is very uncommon for a schizophrenic patient to have such distinct and clear hallucinations (Comer, 2006). In this regard the director of the movie has stated that he took liberties to enhance the extent of the hallucinations and Nash’s disease to dramatize the movie. This therefore proves inaccurate in real life. Moreover in the movie it is depicted that Nash is able to achieve high degree of achievement despite his extensive suffering of the diseases, this in real life is not possible, and in addition to this, given the circumstances depicted in the film, it is also not possible for the family of Nash to provide him with as much support as is depicted in the film.

One of the things however which was not present in the case of Nash suffering form schizophrenia in reality was that he only used to suffer from auditory delusions and hallucination, while in the movie it is depicted that he suffers form both visual and auditory hallucinations.

References

(2007), Neuropsychological Impairments in Schizophrenia: Integration of Performance-Based and Brain Imaging Findings, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 133, No. 5, 833-858

Comer, R.J., (2006), Abnormal Psychology, Ed: 6, Worth.

Introduction

In Slaughterhouse-Five, Vonnegut portrays hardship and life grievances faced by people after the bombing of Dresden and their psychological and emotional states. The Tralfamadorian episodes provide the reader with relief from the war scenes much as they do for the protagonist Billy Pilgrim himself. While humorous, the science fiction subplot is shorn of the painful elements so often present in the short stories. Billy’s life under the Tralfamadorians’ geodesic dome, safe from the acidic atmosphere outside and with every need provided for, is pure wish fulfillment. Vonnegut uses humor and the theme of schizophrenia to portray the theme of war and hardship face by people after the war.

Main body

The Tralfamadorian subplot includes a vision of the end of the world and the perpetuation of war, but these seem distant threats compared with the miseries of battlefield. Its humor the watching Tralfamadorians and their wishes to see the humans mate, the night cover, Billy’s startled awakenings from time-traveling seems mellow and reassuring in its contrast to the war scenes (Berryman 95). Vonnegut depicts that the Tralfamadorian philosophy of coping with life by thinking only of the good times seems less cynical than healing in this context (Hume 221). The incorporation of the science fiction subplot in such a way that it could all be read as Billy’s imagining underscores the sense that the human mind can only tolerate so much pain. Thus, science fiction fulfills a similar role within Billy’s personal drama that it often does in Vonnegut’s fiction. The effect of their presence enables Vonnegut to explore the inherent inadequacies of both deploying or resisting traditional narrative strategies. Vonnegut sets out to justify his own artistry against the ramblings of a Reverend Jones or even Kilgore Trout (Hume 221).

Slaughterhouse-Five follows the German-American Billy Pilgrim along his time-looped existence as an American scout captured during the Battle of the Bulge, imprisoned in an ancient cultural capital of his ancestor and shuttled underground by his Teutonic guardians while the forces of his American homeland incinerate the descendants of their common past (including Billy’s sixteen-year-old cousin Werner Gluck) (Hume 221). Billy’s existence is a metaphor for the schism of his many parts. In Slaughterhouse-Five, the trapped German inside the American foot soldier Billy Pilgrim is in some ways a straight translation of Vonnegut’s dilemma as he experienced it. Vonnegut depicts his self as the American-German Howard W. Campbell, Jr., in keeping with the convoluted thinking of the schizophrenic. Not only is Campbell incapable of distinguishing his core self in the face of his many parts, schizophrenia is presented as the predominant operational activity enabling all the characters to live in harmony with their many selves (Berryman 95). The introduction of each succeeding character reveals his or her dual identity not simply because it is written in the past tense, but because Campbell employs the same unity of vision across time afforded the Tralfamadorians in Slaughterhouse-Five. Schizophrenia is quite obviously the focus, but it is only by traveling along Vonnegut’s gauntlet that Campbell appreciates his moments variously and simultaneously as “beautiful and surprising and deep” as a Tralfamadorian novel (McGinnis 56).

Emotional and sociological disorder, schizophrenia, enables the Campbells to function for each other necessitated the denial of language as a communication tool. For Helga, detaching herself from the public persona is no more difficult than assuming another role. Howard’s indifference about these things is softened yet anxiously anticipated by the prospect of crossing over from author to actor (Berryman 95). Though Wirtanen expects Campbell to become a spy because of his naive vision of the world, Howard sees the opportunity to let out the actor within the dramatist: “The best reason was that I was a ham. As a spy of the sort he described, I would have an opportunity for some pretty grand acting. I would fool everyone with my brilliant interpretation of a Nazi, inside and out” (Vonnegut 136). As Wirtanen later points out, “Generally speaking, espionage offers each spy an opportunity to go crazy in a way he finds irresistible” (Vonnegut, 140). The second reason Campbell is capable of detaching himself from his public persona as a Nazi propagandist is that Wirtanen’s offer had already killed off any presentable identity to which Howard may have clung.

You’ll be volunteering right at the start of a war to be a dead man. Even if you live through the war without being caught, you’ll find your reputation gone and probably very little to live for. (Vonnegut 41).

Espionage relieved him of the necessity of operating with a conscience. When Helga disappears in the Crimea while entertaining the troops, Howard’s detachment becomes total, “I became what I am today and will always be, a stateless person” (Vonnegut 44). Campbell’s espionage destroyed language as the medium of his art, thus removing his core (Meyer 95). Beyond his art lay the death of his personal commune and confidence with his wife. Senseless and detached from associating his wavering stance in the swirl of forces that dictated his activities, Campbell asserts that Mrs. Epstein “understood my illness immediately, that it was my world rather than myself that was diseased” (Vonnegut 185). As his best friend and Nazi/Israeli double agent, Heinz Schildknecht told Howard that during the war, “All people are insane…. They will do anything at any time, and God help anybody who looks for reasons” (Vonnegut 90-91). To accept Campbell’s diagnosis as he projects it through Mrs. Epstein is to accept the supposition that his egotistical desire to “ham it up” as a Nazi is a sane response to cure the ills of a mad world. Howard had never been interested in the supposed ills of the world, devoting himself instead to caricaturing romance through the uncomplicated clashing of stereotyped extremes of good and evil (McGinnis 56). Spying was his chance to keep Helga, become a great actor in a grand morality play of apocalyptic proportions, and at all times remain a contributor to the dynamic tensions that authored his role. Accepting his role meant destroying his identity as artist. Howard’s narrative attempt to project in Mrs. Epstein a shared recognition of the world’s maladies is another manifestation of his schizophrenia (Berryman 95).

Conclusion

In sum, Slaughterhouse-Five portrays that a common person is influenced by emotional stress and hardship caused by war. Schizophrenia is the only possible way to escape emotional sufferings and reality. The author guards against a mindless adherence and against insanity, schizophrenia, and moral incertitude, without succumbing to those threats in the process of revealing them. Though Campbell’s confession illustrates schizophrenia in varying degrees and forms and considers a number of possible reasons for its prevalence, his theme is that we all suffer some form of schizophrenia due to the swirl of historic forces and that we are doomed to perpetuate such cycles.

Works Cited

Berryman, Ch. After the Fall: Kurt Vonnegut. Journal article by Charles; Critique, 26 (1985), 95.

Hume, H. Vonnegut’s Melancholy. Philological Quarterly, 77 (1998), 221.

Meyer, W. E. K. Kurt Vonnegut: the Man with Nothing to Say. Critique, 29 (1988), 95.

Vonnegut, K. Slaughterhouse-Five. Dell, 1991.

McGinnis, W. D. The Arbitrary Cycle of Slaughterhouse-Five: a Relation of Form to Theme. 17 (1975), 55-70.

Introduction

This essay focuses on undifferentiated schizophrenia with specific reference to the case of Sally. Sally exhibits a different pattern of undifferentiated schizophrenia, which includes catatonic, disorganized, and elements of paranoid symptoms. This undifferentiated schizophrenia is a part of the broad abnormal psychology and abnormal behavior.

Schizophrenia puts considerable amount of financial pressure on both the affected person and the society. Generally, the condition occurs almost equally across both sexes. However, women have shown mild cases with average variation of six years later. Usually, schizophrenia affects young adults and people in their mid-twenties, but in places where kids tend to live longer in the family, the condition could occur one or two years later, particularly in China or India (Meyer, Chapman & Weaver, 2009). In the US, out of 100 people one will suffer schizophrenia during his or her lifetime. The trend has been steady in different cultures and periods.

A Brief Overview of Sally’s Case

Generally, Sally displays disorganized, catatonic, or even paranoid patterns. Sally could have inherited some patterns of the disease from her maternal grandfather and her mother’s continued smoking patterns and flu during her pregnancy.

Sally had a slow growth, remained active and was not hyperactive but performed above average. Familial conflicts also affected Sally. While her parents remained devoted to her, Sally’s father traveled considerably, played with her, and was critical on behaviors. Sally’s mother developed “almost a symbiotic relationship with her” (Meyer, Chapman & Weaver, 2009).

Sally was above average intelligence but became “an average student in most subjects due to withdrawal from studying and fantasy behaviors despite thorough coaching” (Meyer, Chapman & Weaver, 2009). Sally’s teacher referred to her thought processes as “just a bit off center” (Meyer, Chapman & Weaver, 2009).

Socially, Sally did not develop deep friendship with her mates because of her mother’s constant interference, over protection, and Sally’s unusual behaviors. Hence, she did not have an active “social life and eventually developed abnormal interests and mannerism” (Meyer, Chapman & Weaver, 2009). These conditions extended to her college period.

Sally developed ‘waxy flexibility’ condition or withdrawn catatonic state. However, her condition improved after medication. She did not continue with classes. Sally’s condition deteriorated at home with her mother. She showed a pattern of unresponsive behavior with occasional giggling and rocking behavior (a hebephrenic pattern).

Sally returned to the hospital and improved, but her mother “took her home and failed to adhere to suggested outpatient care” (Meyer, Chapman & Weaver, 2009). Sally worked as a part-time clerk and spent her free time at home and alone.

The patient’s father endured severe heart attack and her mother turned on her for company. She started to wander home and murmur to herself. Sally’s behavior became even odd and she eventually ended up in a mental hospital.

Sally’s Biological, Emotional, Cognitive, And Behavioral Components Of The Disorder

Biologically, Sally’s case could have been genetic. Sally’s maternal grandfather had bizarre behaviors and people referred to him as ‘nuts’. During her pregnancy, Sally’s mother insisted on smoking. She also suffered “flu during her fifth month of pregnancy” (Meyer, Chapman & Weaver, 2009). These factors could have contributed to Sally’s condition.

Emotionally, Sally’s family disorder and conflicts could have affected her during her childhood periods. Intrafamilial expressed emotion and communication deviance are active in the case of Sally (Meyer, Chapman & Weaver, 2009). These could have contributed to Sally’s condition. Expressed emotion also influenced her situation because Sally’s father could be extremely serious with behaviors while her mother was over concerned and over defensive (Meyer, Chapman & Weaver, 2009).

Sally’s cognitive abilities were impaired. For instance, she displayed elements of communication deviance, possibly from a brain disorder. In addition, familial conflicts and disorders were also possible causes (Hansell & Damour, 2008).

Several factors could have contributed to Sally’s condition. Parenting style for Sally was inconsistent and extreme. Although Sally did not face any peer rejection, her mother prevented her from developing any meaningful relationships with her peers. Sally also showed odd, bizarre behaviors, thinking patterns, lack of emotional responses and failure to concentrate (Beck, 2004). One of the teachers referred to Sally’s condition as ‘just a bit off center’. Sally was unable to form any committed stable relationship while in college. In fact, her condition degenerated further.

Conclusion

This essay has explored undifferentiated schizophrenia with specific reference to the case of Sally. The condition is characterized by disorganized, catatonic, or even paranoid tendencies. Sally displayed all these symptoms of undifferentiated schizophrenia.

Biological, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components could have contributed to Sally’s case. Hence, several factors are responsible for undifferentiated schizophrenia. Sally showed inconsistent, odd, and bizarre behaviors. Such behaviors and her mother prevented her from developing any meaningful social relations.

Undifferentiated schizophrenia can be managed depending on the condition of the patient. However, Sally’s mother prevented any meaningful treatments. As a result, she suffered several relapses and deteriorated further, which led to frequent visits to the hospital. It is imperative for parents to understand their children’s condition and provide necessary support and adequate care for outpatient cases.

References

Beck, A. T. (2004). A Cognitive Model of Schizophrenia. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 18(3), 281–88. doi:10.1891/jcop.18.3.281.65649.

Hansell, J., & Damour, L. (2008). Abnormal psychology (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Meyer, R., Chapman, L. K., & Weaver, C. M. (2009). Case studies in abnormal behavior (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Person Education Inc.