Category: Samurai

Saigō was well known as ‘The Last Samurai’. He succeeded in the difficult task of overthrowing Tokugawa who led the Shogun’s and took control from the Emperor. Saigō returned all power to the Emperor and helped to establish the Meiji Restoration. However, being a new leader soon collided with his own values and beliefs as a firm follower of the code of conduct.

Saigō Takamori is considered one of the many great heroes of Japanese history. He had led the Meiji reforms and the creation of a type of army that ended the rule of daimyo. However, other displeased samurai in Satsuma viewed him as a symbolism of the country’s traditional righteousness and requested his guidance when in opposition to the Meiji state. He accepted the request and betrayed his domain lord. “In 1873, the government began to conscript commoners as soldiers, replacing the samurai”.

Saigō Takamori is known as one of Japan’s most distinctive samurai. He is still remembered today for his outstanding efforts which resulted in him successfully overthrowing the Tokugawa Shogunate. He was significant not only because he retrieved all power back to the emperor when he defeated Tokugawa and rendered him powerless but also drastically changed Japanese history by defining modern Japanese society and following the code of conduct. Wander Wisdom explains that with this quote, “Saigō Takamori is remembered both for his leading role in the Meiji Restoration that overthrew the shogunate in 1868 and for his unsuccessful rebellion against the new government less than a decade later”. This quote talks about the long-term effects of what Saigō did, how what he did is still important in this modern age, it is also highlights specific events such as the code of conduct which demonstrates broad knowledge of the Samurai and the Japanese culture and its importance. “Saigō from earliest manhood agitated for ‘restoration’. He felt the need to change the way history was playing out”. This quote alludes that Saigō was trying to evolve the Japanese society and create something more modern, even in this age Japan is well known for many interesting events in history such as the friction between Saigō Takamori and Tokugawa leyasu, however, the emperor’s power would not have been returned if it wasn’t for Saigō playing such a pivotal role.

According to National Geographic, “The samurai felt their status and prestige shrinking, as though they were becoming common citizens on a par with peasants if they did not correctly honour their country”. This confirms that Saigō understood that Japan was inevitably going to adapt/change, but he could not betray those who fought with him. The Meiji government called for an invasion of Korea, However, Saigō opposed to this and argued that Japan should use diplomacy, rather than turning to violence, and he offered to head a delegation himself. He suspected that Korea would attempt to assassinate him but believed that his death would be worthwhile if it had provided Japan with a true reason to condemn their neighbours. Unfortunately, the prime minister announced that it would be too dangerous for Saigō to travel to Korea as an emissary and forbade him from doing so. In complete disgust he resigned as army general, imperial councillor and commander the very next day.

The most likely effect of the significant changes that occurred during this period could be how Saigō dishonoured his name by leading The Meji Restoration before beginning and leading a rebellion after his defeat in the political limelight of the Meiji government. Saigō failed to follow the basic Bushido Code which resulted in him being known at this period of time in history as a failure and tragic figure. However, the traditional process of seppuku revived his reputation. Still one hundred and fifty years since the Meji Restoration the spotlight is once again on the the last samurai. “From obscure origins in southwestern Japan, Saigō rose to the centre of the Japanese establishment before turning against it”. This quote brings to light the main fact that Saigō Takamori neglected to follow the four main principles of the Bushido Code, which forced him to commit seppuku in order to bring honour back to his name. This was a punishment for all samurai who had committed serious offenses, brought shame to themselves and their master or failed in war.

Saigō Takamori is known as a role model to the people in Japan and what he did still continues to inspire. Even though he died as a rebellion to his country, he still lives on as an honourable hero and has allowed people to view what happened from his perspective, he stood for what he believed in. According to Artelino. “Saigō Takamori was revered by the ordinary Japanese people as a hero. His consistent beliefs and attitudes have not lost any of its momentum”. The evidence enables an understanding of the event and has clearly portrayed how his heroism still lives on in Japanese history and worldwide teachings. What he did had a large effect on the way his people felt about him, but after he followed through with seppuku it made him even more respected by them than he was beforehand.

The factors that contributed to this tragic situation include important stages in Saigō’s life that shaped his strong beliefs and character, as mentioned in this quote. “Possessing all the samurai virtues—bravery, generosity, and excellent swordsmanship—he attracted friends and followers in great numbers. He was impatient with details, making decisions quickly and preferring action over argument; his natural disposition was probably reinforced by his education”. This means that Saigō Takamori was born an outgoing character, a confident type of person who wants their way and is willing to stand for what they believe in. However, this got him into a bit of trouble when he brought disgrace upon himself, his family, his country and the Bushido Code, which resulted in the only way for his honour to be returned which was through the process of seppuku. He died at the age of 49.

According to ThoughtCo, on September 24, 1877, at 3:45 am, the Emperor’s army launched its final assault in what is known as the Battle of Shiroyama. Saigō was shot through the femur in the last suicide charge and one of his companions decapitated him and hid it from the troops to preserve his honour. This confirms that Saigō did wrong and not only dishonoured his and family’s name by failing to follow the Bushido Code, but also dishonoured his people. However, the imperial troops managed to locate Saigō’s head, but later woodcut prints defined the rebel leader kneeling down in the seppuku process, but this was practically impossible due to his shattered leg. Although he made many mistakes throughout his life if it was not for what he strongly believed in and did history may have played out very differently. He affected Japanese history both positively and negatively.

The word ‘samurai’ is most often associated with skilful warriors dressed in heavy armour and fighting their battles with the famous Katana or possibly the ultimate battle of skill between the samurai and his brother-in-arms the ninja or simply the warrior one meets in mass-media. The above-mentioned associations may be true, but one rarely thinks of how this honoured expert of warfare originated and how their legacy has impacted not only Japan but continue to intrigue the West do to his code of conduct called Bushido. These are the points of issue this piece of writing sets out to investigate.

Samurais (or bushi) were brutal experts of warfare in ancient Japan. These prehistoric warriors were a far cry from the honourable ones we encounter in entertainment today. The ‘true’ tale of these men of honour begins with forced enlistment in the army. The forced enlistment was a part of the Chinese military model the Japanese has adapted at the time. When these servicemen had completed their deployment, they often did not return home but rather settled in an area between the battlefield and their homes since such areas could offer them more substance. Then the Heian period (794-1185) rolls around, a time where the Emperor wished to expand his power which created a great problem since the loyalty and skill of his servicemen were dwindling. But the Emperor had the perfect solution and that was enlisting the help of reginal clans. In turn, this solution backfired as these clan’s gained more influence themselves. The clan’s influence was gathered by offering the ‘homeless’ farmers cheaper land to cultivate and no forced enlistment in the army. Such a shift in power did not appease the magistrate in Kyoto and it also resulted in the clan chiefs needing body guards and individuals to protect their land. Many scholars argue that it is at this point we see the samurai being formed. But before, the samurai can be fully formed as a character, they needed to perfect the martial art skills. In outset of Heian period, we see these chiefs being ruled by a shugo, who were often distant relatives of the Emperor. When the term of these shugo were over they were meant to return but instead they choose to stay and pass on their knowledge to their sons. The system of the shugo would later morph into the daimyo. Slowly, the samurais began brushing shoulders with the gentry though arranged marriage and brutal intimidation tactics. From the rise of the Kamakura period (1185-1333) to the closure of the Takugawa period (1600-1867), the samurai has evolved from hired outlaws who protected the daimyo to skilled puppeteers who controlled the Emperor and thus Japan through a military dictatorship. The dictatorship of the Minamoto started in 1185 when they established a new government (or bakafu). For about 8 years the new government did not have a head but in 1892 Mr Minamoto Yoritomo was to become shôgun. With the introduction to firearms by the Portuguese, during the Ashikaga period (1336-1467), some academics propose that the skills, tactics and even the core values of the samurai suffered significantly. On top of this, the samurai was challenged by the warrior of the shadows and his fellow serviceman the ninja. During the Edo period, one sees a significant increase in ronims and samurais without han in general. At the end of the Edo period, one sees the indecisiveness and unlike samurai behaviour of the shôgun and the bakufu lead to a huge backing of the slogan sonno joi and the overall recognition of the Emperor being the true ruler of Japan and a desire for him to be reinstated. Next up is the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568-1600), where the samurai would be honoured by being allowed to carry a sword exclusively and thus gaining the affectionate name ‘two sword man’. From the Meiji period (1868-1912) onwards, the samurai was significant no more which meant that he was reduced to a mere tourist attraction, a reminder of a better time, and simply a revenue source for the Japanese.

When Japan started her journey to discover herself was at a time where Western colonial powers were at their absolute height. Due to the state the world was in Japanese leaders faced many a difficult decision when establishing ‘the Land of the rising son’ as the ‘great nation’, which Westerners are fascinated with to this day. In her search for a muse, both globally and domestically, it quickly became clear that she needed to modernise, industrialise, militarise and most importantly colonise in order to survive in an arena where she may need to clash with imperial giants such as Britain. In order to support this plan of modernisation they needed a population which was ‘loyal, obedient and willing to make many sacrifices for the good of the nation’. And, the elite created the samurai in order ‘to promote and empower the people’.

On another note, when discussing his importance for the creation of Japan’s self-image context is key. In order to demonstrate the significance of the samurai symbol, it is necessary to place the creation and promotion of the samurai symbol into the wider context of modern Japan. During this period, nationalism was articulated as a state-led ideology, requiring the population to conform exclusively to ‘official’ ideas regarding national identity. Such ideas emphasised national uniqueness and strength, incorporating notions such as the ‘family nation’ and a mission in Asia into the overall official vision. Through promoting such ideas as part of its ideology, the Japanese state aimed to unify, indoctrinate and to mobilise the national population.

When it comes to the creation of this honourable warrior, the state elite wanted a figure steeped in history and had a code of conduct resembling that of the ancient night of Europe, thus bushidô was born. Bushido, or the code of chivalry, should be observed not only by the soldier in the battlefield, but by every citizen in the struggle for existence. If a person be a person and not a beast, then he must be a samurai-brave, generous, upright, faithful and mainly full of self-respect and self-confidence, at the same time full of the spirit of self-sacrifice.

In the quote above one can see the samurai being promoted as the ideal of how individuals should interact with one another and the core values on which they should create a meaningful existence. At the time, this ideal was part of everyday national discourse. In the period between the Meiji Restoration (1867-1912) and the Second World War (1939-45), Japanese politicians made a conscious choice to use several nationalistic symbols, including the Emperor, to push there ideology, In Japan this may well be the case but in the West ‘Bushido seemed to fill the void of Western ideology and recover the tainted morality of white violence’. The use of Bushido to promote or at least justify violence towards minorities is especially prevalent in Edward Zwick’s ‘The Last Samurai’ (2003) and some may even goes as far as to claim that the reality he creates on screen around the samurai is fabricated in order to present an pro-American story and basically white washing history. So, in short, Zwick’s depiction of the samurai is simply a way of voicing white America’s wish to return to a time where her hands were not bathed in blood, aka the mass murder if the native americans, and industrialism has not happened. Given this narrative, the movie pushes an agenda which tells viewers that they should return to a ‘the good old days’. In the same fashion, it celebrates white heroism by making the viewer aware of this other culture and its superiority but still shows it from the view of the white man. In continuation of this, it may be interesting to take a look at the white man’s gaze and how this may have influenced the way westerners see the samurai. According to Fanon, “ontology is made unattainable in a colonized and civilized world”. When Mr Fanon argues that “ontology is made unattainable”, he is simply of the opinion that whites chose what you are no matter if you are African or Asian. And, this argument seems to ring true when it comes to the way Mr Zwick present the samurai to his audience. It seems the be the same case for every figure presented to a western audience no matter the media.

Ancient Japan lasted for over 16,000 years and during that time a number of events have changed history and affected the people of today. Over that period of time, some people called the samurai had contributed in changing history. The samurai began in 1185 by the Japanese government in the Heian period. The very first samurai was known as Yasuke, the man was a warrior who reached the rank of the samurai under the rule of Oda Nounaga, who was the powerful 16th century Japanese Feudal lord who was the first of the three unifiers of japan. The samurai were the warriors of pre-modern japan. They later made up the ruling military class that eventually became the highest-ranking social castle of Edo period (1603-1867).

The samurai day would begin something like this. Wake up at 7 am, their hair tied into a topknot, gets dressed and then rolls his bed up and puts it away neatly. At 7:30 am, he will have breakfast with his family, where he would usually eat pickled vegetables. At 8 am he makes his way through the city to the castle. At 9 am, he goes on patrol with other low class samurai to guard the walls of the castle. At 1 pm, after lunch the samurais have fitness training, where they practice with swords with expert teachers. At 3 pm, he will leave the castle to go and visit the local craftsmen. The craftsmen would usually mend the armour and weapons for the samurai. At 4 pm, he would take a bath in a hot spring. At 5 pm now, he will visit the Buddhist temple to pray. At 8 pm, he has dinner with the other samurai, where they usually have rice, soup and fish. At 10 pm, guarding is over, they usually have some rice and wine with his samurai friends. At 11 pm, it is time to go home and he greets his wife and tells her what happened during the day. At 12 pm (midnight), it is bedtime and he meditates before he sleeps.

The stages to become a samurai were to be born into a samurai family. Secondly, they had to fence with a wooden sword and be able to protect themselves from danger. After that, they could train to become a samurai, which would take years to complete. The training they would undertake would be to meditate because the samurai culture was strongly influenced by Zen Buddhist and Confucian philosophies. They would set aside time in the morning to calm down and forget about things. They would have a high set of values, since the samurai followed Bushido ‘The Way of The Warrior’ the code of conduct that dictated how they lived their lives. They live by honesty, respect, loyalty, compassion and courage, which were some of the most important values. They had to train their bodies, the reason being that the samurai were such a strong force was because of the intense physical training they undertook. They practiced from a young age, learning skills like swordsmanship, but also archery, hand-to-hand combat and grappling. The samurai were also trained in most martial arts. They have to eat a healthy diet, which mainly consists of vegetables and rice with a small amount of fresh seafood. They also have to practice art like calligraphy, poetry, music and painting. They class it as an active form of meditation.

Some of the tactics the samurai used against the enemy were to use their weapons to attack at close, short and long range. The samurai were organised people and had elaborate battle tactics to ensure their success. Before samurai went into battle, they would go through a ritual where they paid tribute to the Japanese Gods. During the battles, the samurai were ruthless as they were well known for both close quarters combat with a katana and long-range fighters with bow and arrows. As armies became larger and tightly organised, they gained the ability to create tactical formations with the pikemen to the fore protecting the main body of the troops. The central region of the formation was served to protect the main commander. The elite troops were always the men on horseback. The samurai were divided up into groups of spearmen, archers and arquebusiers. The other members carried around flags and banners and some were given jobs of carrying the army’s baggage. On the battlefield, they would use fans and symbols to tell all the troops what kind of formation or tactic they were using against the enemy. Sound signals would also be used to send information to the troops, such as blowing on a conch shell and beating on drums or gongs. The samurai army would mostly consists of 100,000 men.

The samurai used a katana, which was a curved, slender, single-bladed longsword, with a circular or squared guard and long grip to accommodate two hands. The samurai wore the katana on their left hip, with the edge facing down. The katana was strong enough to slice through limbs. The samurai could draw the sword and strike the enemy in one single motion. They also used the wakizashi, which is shorter than the katana. The only people that could use this were the daishō, which symbolised their social power and personal honour. It was between 12 and 24 inches long and the wakizashi had a slightly curved blade. It was used as a backup sword or sometimes to commit the ritual suicide (seppuku). The tantō was a single or double-edged knife designed as a stabbing or slashing weapon and most samurai would carry one of these short, sharp daggers. The samurai also used the yumi, which was a Japanese longbow and an important weapon to the samurai during the feudal period of Japan. Traditionally made of laminated bamboo, wood and leather. The yumi was exceptionally tall at over two meters and exceeding the height of the archer. Samurai warrior suits included armour plating, to deflect swords and arrows. A fully armoured samurai would including a helmet, sleeve shields, and lower armour (below the waist). The body armour was made of thick leather with armour plates placed on top and beautifully made with patterns of colours woven into it.

Knights and Samurai By Oliver Dudley-smith

• What were the roles of the knights and the samurai in their respective societies

The knights started serving the king in the 9th century playing a massive role in society the main role being fighting and defending their king at war and betraying the chivalry. But during the times of piece, they participated in the feudal system living in an estate and had peasants working on the land. They were honored highly in the social hierarchy.

Samurai were introduced to the Japanese culture in the 12th century. Samurai were high up on the social hierarchy and people respected and honored them. They were Japan’s elite warriors and consisted of 10% of the population of Japan. They were hired and worked for their daimyo by fighting during the war but during the Tokugawa shogunate period, there was peace for two hundred years so the samurai, so they did more admissive things such as help public gatherings and inspect taxes of the peasants.

• What did their training involve? How did this training compare?

Born into this role knights went through regimented training. To be a knight you had two stages. Firstly, they became a Page. A Page usually starting at age 6-8 was sent away from his parents to a lord who taught them the basics of sword fighting and riding as well as giving them jobs such as polishing his 36kg armour in a barrel of sand and caring for his horses. Then at 15 years, they became a Squire who was trained by one of the knights he went in battle with their master helping him back on his horse if he fell off and if they survived they became a knight and had a ceremony called the dubbing ceremony at age 20. Preparing for it by praying and fasting the whole night. kneeling and promising protection to the church and his lord while being taped on the shoulder (seen in source C).

Samurai were employed by their Daimyo (lords of japan), they were sole warriors, but during the Tokugawa shogunate, it was very peaceful unlike the crusades in medieval Europe. So, their administrative role became more important training in reading, writing, archery, horse riding, and sword fighting. checking peasant’s rice taxes and helping in ceremonial conduct and public service although they were banned from farming or trade and during practice,

During times of peace, samurai used wooden sticks for practice against each other and using dummies made of wood or straw. Whereas Knights would participate in tournaments to train for war the most popular being jousting which is seen in source D.

• Outline the weaponry and military strategies of each; how did these compare?

War being the place where samurai and knight train their whole life for creating different types of castles armour and weapons as well as strategies to attack have developed over time both having similar and different tactics and strategies.

The Knights with their lords fought each other for land and power their armies consisting of knights on horseback infantry (foot soldiers) which include archers using longbows or crossbows and the elite horseback riders known as the Cavalry. Their armour in the 1400s seen in source A is a metal plated whole suite of armour weighing 25kg having joints to move their elbows and knees and a small spot in the helmet for their eyes as well as just needing a sword for battle no need for a shield when the armour acts as one. As well as their armour they had castles such as the structurally advanced Concentric castles having small arrow holes known as Murder Holes two walls a tall inner wall and a short outer wall allowing archers to fire arrows over other archers. Furthermore, when preparing a siege the lords usually bring items such as battering rams for knocking down walls, siege towers for a quick way to get their men over the walls, and the catapult launching flaming rock or just rock into the sides of towers.

Whereas the Samurai had a different approach taking strategic approaches surrounding their enemies using bowmen on horses and samurai (foot soldiers) to attack with swords known as a Nagata seen in source E designed to have a hard sharp outside but a mailable soft inside to absorb the impact. Their armour seen in source B consisted of material mostly for the purpose of stopping arrows having a mix of metal plates and leather their armour weighed 15-25kg roughly the same as samurai.

• Explain the codes they had to follow and what were the similarities and differences between them.

Chivalry or Bushido were samurai to show their loyalty and allegiance to their lord/daimyo and King/Shogun. They go as follows:

• Knights Chivalry

1. obey his lord.
2. show bravery.
3. respect women of noble birth.
4. to honor the church.
5. help people.
6. honest and to fight fairly.

• The Samurai Bushido

1. .Justice
2. .Courage
3. .Mercy
4. .Politeness
5. .Honesty
6. .Honour
7. .Self-Control

The difference between the two is that Bushido dominated the samurai’s world and if he disobeyed the code he would have to commit seppuku(suicide) seen in source F they did this by stabbing themselves in the bow with a wakizashi the sword used to commit seppuku. whereas the knight’s chivalry showed the perfect knight, if you did not follow the code your shield will be broken, and your sword snapped over your head, but you were not killed. But they were both particularly important to the two cultures and was a big part in their lives.

Bushido, a code of moral principles that dictate the samurai way of life, first came to the fore during the Edo period. Its origins were largely influenced by Shinto and Zen Buddhism, with many of its tenets being drawn from Neo-Confucian texts. Bushido was originally an informal code of conduct for samurai, encompassing a wide range of virtues and guides to behavior that were meant to temper the harsh lifestyle of the samurai. It acted as a training of the mind that complemented the training of the body that all warriors experienced.

Some of the moral values that Bushido encompassed include sincerity, frugality, honor, physical prowess, and loyalty until death. These virtues were intended to instill patience, serenity, and wisdom within the often volatile samurai.

Bushido was developed during a period of relative peace and more widely adopted following the compilation of the Heiki Monogatari, a three-century epic in which a battle between two powerful family clans clearly champions the image of the virtuous, educated, sophisticated warrior. Following the completion of the epic, generations of samurai held the warriors of Heiki Monogatari to be ideals, and the popularity and influence of Bushido spread.

Throughout the 17th and 19th centuries, Japan experienced a period of relative peace and prosperity. During this period of time, the shogunate was increasingly controlled by members of the warrior class. In order to exert their influence over the administration and policy of the governmental era, those warriors in control began to formalize concepts of Bushido by writing them into Japanese feudal law.

One notable example of a warrior who embodied the values of Bushido was Oishi Yoshio. Oishi was a member of the Forty-seven Ronin, a group of masterless samurai who planned and executed a revenge assassination of their master’s adversary, Kira Yoshinaka. The plan was created over the course of two years, with each member of the Forty-seven Ronin committing seppuku following the success of their assassination plot. Seppuku was seen as an honorable death as opposed to mere execution. Because of Oishi’s willingness to prove his loyalty to his master even beyond death, he was revered as a warrior who made the ultimate sacrifice and one who was highly honorable. Oishi’s example was used as a role model for behaving in the way of the Bushido for generations of warriors to come.

• Benesch, Oleg. “Bushido: The Creation of a Martial Ethic in Late Meiji Japan.” The University of British Columbia, 2011

Bushido: The Creation of a Martial Ethic in Late Meiji Japan is an extensive research paper written by Dr. Oleg Benesch, a Senior Lecturer at the University of York who specializes in the global histories of both China and Japan. The paper goes into great detail about the historical usage of Bushido as a term, its origins from a warrior culture, and the code’s development and impact from medieval Japan through the end of the Meiji restoration, but focuses on the period from the mid-nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries. The paper caters to a scholarly audience and gives plenty of evidence to support the author’s claims and cites a variety of other scholarly sources. The paper is thorough, extremely well organized chronologically, and detailed throughout. Dr. Benesch’s analysis of bushido in modern Japan does not seem to be affected by any clear biases.

• Benesch, Oleg. “Inventing the Way of the Samurai.” Oxford University Press, 2014.

Inventing the Way of the Samurai is a book written by Dr. Oleg Benesch, a Senior Lecturer at the University of York who specializes in the global histories of both China and Japan. Inventing the Way of the Samurai covers much of the same topics as his research paper, Bushido: The Creation of a Martial Ethic in Late Meiji Japan, but in a much more concise manner making it seem less imposing. The book is an academic study of the bushido code and takes a historical approach towards its growth and impact on Japanese tradition and nationalism. Inventing the Way of the Samurai is a great source of the specific topic of bushido due to its great detail and historical accuracy. As with Bushido: The Creation of a Martial Ethic in Late Meiji Japan, there is no evident bias and the works cited leave opportunity for further reader research into the topics of samurai and the bushido code.

• Hannon, Sean. Inner Bushido: Strength without Conflict. Parker, CO: Bookcrafters, 2014.
• History.com Editors, ed. “Samurai and Bushido.” History.com. A&E Television Networks, October 28, 2009. https://www.history.com/topics/japan/samurai-and-bushido.

This web article by History.com follows the link between samurai and bushido from the Heian period to modern Japan and is directed at a general audience. The article also goes into some detail of the development of the term ‘bushido meaning, from a pure warrior code to a looser moral code, influenced by Buddhist and Confucian thought. Although none of the information provided in the article seems problematic per-se, it is somewhat concerning that the names of the specific editors involved in writing the article and/or their academic qualifications are lacking.?corporate agenda

• HistoryNet Staff. “Satsuma Rebellion: Satsuma Clan Samurai Against the Imperial Japanese Army.” HistoryNet. HistoryNet, August 9, 2016. https://www.historynet.com/satsuma-rebellion-satsuma-clan-samurai-against-the-imperial-japanese-army.htm.
• Imai, John Toshimichi. Bushido in the Past and Present. Tokyo, Japan: Kanazashi, Kanda, 1906.
• Nitobé Inazō. Code of the Samurai: Bushido: The Soul of Japan. New York, NY: Chartwell Books, Inc., 2013.
• Pletcher, Kenneth. “Bushidō.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., September 9, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bushido.

This online article was written by a former senior editor of Encyclopædia Britannica, Kenneth Pletcher, who holds both an M.A. in Japanese studies and a minor in Asian studies, both from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The article gives details of the Bushido code itself such as seppuku/harakiri and religious influence, along with its development beginning in the Kamakura period, and its residual impact following the Edo period. The article is intended for a general audience and has little to no evident bias due to the fact that the article is made up almost entirely of factual information rather than Pletcher’s personal views on the topic. Although the information in the article is high in quality and validity, due to the nature of the article being part of a greater encyclopedia, the length and volume of information obtainable from the article are both relatively low.

• Tsunetomo, Yamamoto. Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai. Tustin, CA: Xist Publishing, 2015.

The Hagakure Kikigaki is a practical and spiritual manual for the samurai class written by the samurai Yamamoto Tsunetomo in Edo Japan (1716), a period when the importance of the samurai warrior class was beginning to diminish. The Hagakure is composed of a series of short stories which give insight into the samurai’s Bushido code and reflect Tsunetomo’s views on the warrior code. The Hagakure gives us important insight into an Edo samurai’s view on Bushido, their very own way of life. Although the Hagakure was first published over 300 years ago, it still gives us an authentic view on Bushido during the Edo period.

It should be noted that Tsunetomo did not commit seppuku following the death of his lord, Nabeshima, sixteen years before writing the Hagakure, as disagreement with samurai tradition may have influenced the work.

• Turnbull, Stephen R. Samurai: The World of the Warrior. New York, NY: Osprey, 2006.

While it is an attractive view of these legendary warriors, it is nevertheless quite a misleading one. In this video, we shall do our best to correct this, and cover the even more fascinating roles and perceptions of the samurai in Japanese society from the earliest days all the way to the modern day.

The geographical situation that spawned the Samurai where they did is a unique one in the world. The Japanese home islands are an archipelago just off the Korean peninsula and the Asian mainland, leading German advisor Jakob Meckel in the Meiji restoration period to remark that Korea “was a dagger pointed at the heart of Japan.”. Despite this divide, the superpower of the region, China, has influenced Japan more than any other nation, and the relationship between the two has had a massive impact on history. The position of the Japanese ‘Emperor’ itself may have even been adopted from China.

The proto-Japanese state of the early-Heian period thrust north with an army based mainly on the Chinese heavy infantry model of the Tang dynasty. Eventually, however, they came upon the Emishi, or ‘Hairy people’ of northeastern Honshu. This distinct group had developed horse archery tactics similar to those of the Huns and Mongols. The immobile early Japanese could not deal with these irregular guerilla tactics, so eventually, their tactics were adopted by the Heian and the Emishi were gradually assimilated.

This resilient group had a profound impact on the formation of the first Samurai, and it has been said that the very core of the Japanese spirit is the ‘ghost of the Amish.

As the Heian Japanese began to subjugate the Emishi at the end of the eighth century, many families of this group created a network of semi-autonomous feudal domains, who would become the first Samurai – literally translated as ‘servant’ or ‘henchman’. They were given this name by warriors in the Heian capital who sought to distinguish themselves from the ‘unsophisticated louts’ in the provinces. This is one of the first misconceptions of the Samurai that must be corrected; they were not just katana-wielding swordsmen with fancy armour. It is likely that the very first proto-Samurai were in fact these same rural Emishi horse archers that the emperors came to favour in suppressing internal unrest.

As the Heian period continued, the central government in modern Kyoto became less and less interested in actually running the country. This allowed the Samurai to become more independent and entrenched and allowed them to gain more power. Eventually, a series of revolts occurred and members of the Samurai class took control of the country, establishing the Kamakura Shogunate, the first shogunate in Japanese history.

A Shogun was technically a high-ranking samurai ruling in the emperor’s name, but in reality, they were the military dictator, while the emperor was just a figurehead. Sometimes in Japanese history, however, even the Shogun was a puppet ruler, and the actual holders of influence were the powerful feudal landholders or the Daimyo.

During the Kamakura era, the Japanese state came under severe threat. The Yuan Empire under Kublai Khan launched two invasions of Japan, and the Samurai were itching for a fight. In both circumstances, the Samurai used unconventional tactics to hinder their enemy. They drove boats full of the burning pitch into the Mongol ships and launched constant suicide attacks. Eventually, two hurricanes destroyed the Mongol fleets, and Japan was saved.

The Samurai have often been seen as the Eastern mirror image of the knights in medieval Europe, due to their code of conduct and seemingly elite nature. But unlike knights, Samurai usually comprised a dominant number of troops in feudal Japanese armies, compared to the relatively small number of knights in European armies, which were often filled with enlisted men-at-arms or peasants. This was the case in the Mongol invasions, as almost the entire Japanese army consisted of Samurai. Nevertheless, these wars with the Mongols had weakened the Kamakura, and the first shogunate fell not long after. After more political maneuvering and an attempted Imperial restoration, the Ashikaga shogunate eventually came to power in 1338. Never as powerful as their Kamakura predecessors, the Ashikaga slowly began to lose their hold on local Daimyos and, when a Samurai feud for Kyoto began between the Hosokawa and Yamana in 1467, the Shogunate effectively lost all control over the provinces.

One of the most famous eras in Samurai history, the Sengoku Jidai, was about to begin. By the end of the Onin War, Japan was essentially split into hundreds of separate feudal domains ruled by their Daimyos, literally: ‘great names’. Many of the common myths and legends about the samurai took root during this era, and likely did happen, but only in certain places and at certain times. This was the ‘golden age of samurai warfare and one of the periods that later samurai would look back on, romanticize, and attempt to emulate.

Honour was common, as was deceit. A contest between two famous warlords is an example of the former: Uesugi Kenshin and Takeda Shingen had a rivalry that, unlike many of the more cutthroat conflicts during this time, was more like an annual competition between sophisticated gentlemen. They would meet at the same place every year to battle one another and then go back home. On one occasion when another clan disrupted the Takeda’s salt supplies, Kenshin sent his own as a replacement. He stated courteously that he chose to fight his adversaries with swords, and not salt. As the sixteenth century progressed, this kind of gentlemanly conduct became less and less common. European traders in the south of Japan had introduced early firearms such as the Arquebus. While the Japanese were not unfamiliar with gunpowder, this new technology changed the battlefield dramatically. Another common misconception, popularized by films such as The Last Samurai, is that Samurai did not adopt firearms because they were viewed as dishonorable. Some Japanese were indeed shocked by the new weapons, viewing them as impractical and ineffective, rather than dishonorable.

However, most Daimyo who could buy them did and experienced success because of it. The aforementioned Takeda Shingen bought 300 of them before his yearly battle against Uesugi Kenshin in 1571. Nor did Samurai restrain themselves from even the worst kinds of betrayal in situations where it could benefit them, in contrast to their popular portrayal as paragons of truthfulness and honesty. As Oda Nobunaga was on his way to conquering Japan and possibly unifying it, he was betrayed by a seemingly loyal general;

Akechi Mitsuhide, who claimed the title of shogun for himself. Many reasons have been speculated upon for this act, but many believe Mitsuhide had a grievance against his treatment by Nobunaga, who was trapped and committed suicide, while Mitsuhide was killed a few months later when Oda’s allies returned to deal with the traitor.

In 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu won the Battle of Sekigahara and unified Japan under the Tokugawa Shogunate. The sudden cessation of warfare in the country left the martial samurai class with little to occupy their time. They were solidified as a hereditary class and gradually began to find work as clerks in their lord’s storehouses, night watchmen, tax collectors, security guards, courtiers and administrators – all the while still dressed for the battlefields of old, a symbolic mark of prestige. They essentially began to occupy positions in what we would call the civil service of the shogunate. In stark contrast to their formerly austere nature, some Samurai during the peaceful Tokugawa era began having extravagant swords created that they could not possibly hope to wield in combat, and started to wear their hair in outlandish bouffants. While the warrior ethos of Bushido remained, the actual samurai began to lose their military training and became a symbol of Japan’s past, rather than the protectors of its future. To match their new civil roles, Bushido was gradually modified to include values such as etiquette and politeness, which would serve them well in their bureaucratic occupations. Their martial training generally continued throughout the era, but it was more of an art form rather than preparation for a real battle. Practical battle training and weaponry were sidelined in favour of styles such as Kendo, the way of the sword. It is from this development that the katana-wielding samurai was popularised in contrast to the actual, practical ways in which they fought earlier battles such as those at Sekigahara and against the Mongols.

In this period, agriculture became less of a crucial aspect of the Japanese economy. Because of this, the stipend that the Samurai were paid by the state began to stagnate and decrease. This caused animosity between Samurai and the rising merchant class, who began to get rich from the changes in the social system. This trend continued into the late Tokugawa period and only got worse, to the extent where many of the poorer samurai were on the level of peasants in terms of wealth. This led to unrest among the Samurai class and eventually, masterless Samurai, known as Ronin, increasingly became skilled bandits in order to make more money. Eventually, under pressure from outside powers, the Tokugawa shogunate was replaced by the Japanese Empire and the samurai were essentially sidelined. The fact that the samurai of old now no longer existed only fueled further misconceptions and romanticism – and this allowed the new Japanese nation-state to warp and twist Bushido into a philosophy that was used to signify a good citizen.

The intensity that these new values created in the new nation of Japan burned white hot until the Second World War, and the nuclear attacks at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. After the subsequent surrender, Bushido was reconsidered and became more of a historical monument. Notably, however, the Japanese are still seen as dedicated people when it came to business and industry. Even in the modern day, the legacy of the Samurai is clear and present in the Land of the Rising Sun.

The Evaluation

How did the Samurai’s lifestyle affect their personal lives?

The Summary

My research was about the Samurai lifestyle and how it affected their personal lives. Japanese history has always intrigued me, I have always loved learning about their civilization and culture, and I especially loved learning about the Samurai. The reason I chose this topic is that wanted to find out more about these noble warriors and their customs, they held an important part in Japan’s history. It intrigued me when I learned more about the Samurai training and how it intertwined with the young Samurai’s childhood and how it affected the people around them. The key findings were the Bushido (Code of the Warrior) and the daily tasks of a Samurai, these were important sections of my research. My outcome was written in a report form building on my research from my folio.

E1. Evaluation of the Research Processes used, Specific to the Research Question

Website Research

The website research was vital because it was my main source of information during my research. Especially my source on the Bushido (code of the warrior) it provided detail on the characteristics of a Samurai, it was deemed quite useful when finding other sources. The Bushido affected everything a Samurai did; the process of finding information on it was simple once I knew what I was looking for. (The Bushido Code: The Eight Virtues of a Samurai) However, other websites provided little to no importance regarding my research, like the website regarding Seppuku, which is a ritual Samurai would perform to take their life. Other than the fact it was interesting to read about Seppuku, it held little importance to any of my guiding questions and therefore held little importance towards my research (Seppuku). While researching the Samurai’s Personal lives, the website Britannica provided relevant information for many of my sources and guiding questions, it was a website that I used frequently it provided significant detail in its articles, and overall was a trustworthy source (Britannica).

Book Research

The book research was partially relevant; It was written by Stephen Turnbull, it provided detailed information about how and when Samurai started to train, which was at a very young age, it answered a part of my guiding question on What did the Samurai have to Sacrifice? Unfortunately, the useful information was very limited, which drastically affected the overall value of the source, there was more research conducted into similar books but came up as nothing (Real Samurai pg. 24-25).

E2. Evaluation of Decisions made in response to challenges and or Opportunities, Specific to Research Processes used.

The first challenge was in my qualitative research where I found it difficult during my research processes to be able to find a relevant source to interview. It was extremely difficult as I emailed many people about a possible interview in person or using email and did not receive a single reply. I tried rewording my emails but it was futile, over the ten weeks of research I sent many emails out and received no reply. In the end, I did not conduct an interview, I felt it drastically affected my primary research.

A decision was made to email my history teacher about any information he might have about the topic or if he knew anyone who did. The result of the decision was futile; my history teacher did not have any answers for my questions or have any contact of possible interviewees. It impacted by research in a negative way I did not receive any new relevant information for my folio.

Another challenge I faced was finding websites that were credible. There were many websites I visited that did not have an author listed or were not trustworthy. This made it difficult answering my guiding questions. Thus, I had to reword the questions a couple of times to fit my research. However, rewording the questions improved the quality of my research.

The important decision of rewording my questions was made. It drastically improved the effectiveness of my research by increasing the amount of relevant information. It impacted my research in a positive way increasing the effectiveness of my research and overall simplifying the process of finding relevant information.

A challenge I experienced was surveyed, because of my topic, it was difficult to create a survey that would benefit my research. I judged the way I was wording the questions and thus I had to change them a couple of times to make a survey worth conducting to try and collect relevant information to my topic but was sadly in vain.

A decision was made to not include a survey in my research. The impact on my research was neutral, it had no significant effect. I believe that if I had reworded my questions a couple more times I could have found relevant information to include in my folio.

My topic gave me many opportunities to learn about the Samurai and deepen my knowledge of their culture and history. Doing a question based on history it gave me an opportunity to get in touch with historians and broaden my understanding of the Samurai.

E3: Evaluation of the Quality of the Outcome

The outcome was not thoroughly researched, on reflection. The purpose of the outcome was partially achieved by the research conducted into the Bushido code of conduct. The outcome was somewhat reliable and credible since I had used several credible sources like Stephen Turnbull a historian, within my research. The findings were not original, most of the information was already known. The most significant key finding was the Bushido code of conduct because it was the virtues that defined the Samurai holding information about the characteristics a Samurai should have. However, the most insignificant key finding is the female version of the seppuku, holding very little relevance to my question. A question that is still lacking is the Samurais family, I have not found much credible information regarding family-related topics for the Samurai. A significant limitation I had was not having an interview to analyze because I had not previously conducted an interview. The outcome could be improved by having more primary data within my research. The research could be further improved with an interview with a historian. No expert sources other than Stephen Turnbull’s ‘Real Samurai’ book were used. The format of the outcome suits the targeted audience of teens/adults, being written in a formal format. Within my findings, there are not contradictory sources, most relevant information being gradually the same within different sources. The outcome somewhat provides confidence within the readers, having credible sources included within my outcome.

Introduction

The Edo period was crucial in the shaping of Japanese gender roles and expectations, creating norms that continue to influence modern-day views of femininity and masculinity. Japan was once a matriarchal society where women were head of social organizations, families, and clans, however, the influx of Chinese philosophy and Confucian ideas in the modern period led to a decrease in female power (xx). The Confucian ideology emphasized hierarchy and male dominance, and as a result, women became subservient (xx).

In historical sources, there seems to be a clear emphasis on male actors, often eliminating female actors altogether. This essay hopes to discuss the female position in Edo society, asking the question: xxx. Japan had a distinct class division during this period, each class having their own gender expectations, however, this essay will focus mainly on women in the higher social circles of Edo Japan, mainly the Samurai class. It will start with an overview of how the introduction of Confucianism affected the lives of Japanese women, continuing with an outline of how women’s education was shaped during the era, before diving into the expectations of women in the Samurai class. The final paragraph will explore the life of Shinanomiya Tsuneko, representing Court Women before the essay concludes.

Edo, Religion and Women’s Rights

The Edo period, often described as “the Great Peace,” was a period in Japanese history between 1603 and 1868 (xx). This period, under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate, desired order above all, creating a system where status was hereditary, and few could change residence or work (xx). The divisions along class lines became a distinct feature of the Edo period, separating the population into distinctive groups, which in turn were divided into several tiers (xx).

Under the Bakufu, the Confucian scholar Hayashi Razan introduced the Shushi philosophy, or Neo-Confucianism, which was made an official ideology, becoming an important instrument of population control (xx). Confucianism is a philosophical system that established social values and institutions in traditional Chinese society. It says little about women beyond the fact that they are considered “inferior men,” who are unable to understand or communicate (Walthall, 1984). Confucius’ followers developed the “feminine ethics,” the most famous of which are the Three Obediences, which require women to obey their father before marriage, their husband after marriage, and the first son after her husband’s death, and the Four Virtues, which are sexual morality, modest manner, diligent work, and proper speech (xx). Edo Japan was, socially, founded on male supremacy, and gynophobia was a part of the period’s social mores. Women were socially subordinate, described as property to men, and through arranged marriage women moved from being subordinate to their fathers to subordinate to their husbands (xx). Confucianism also brought with it “ie” or “house,” a system where men headed the house, making women dependent on their husbands. Under ie could only men inherit property and keep the family name, women were also not allowed to participate in matters outside of the home (Sugihara, 2000). Marriage and divorce were two aspects that truly illustrate women’s low status in Edo society, especially then the ease with which a woman could be divorced. For a husband to end his marriage, all that was necessary was for him to send a letter stating a wish for divorce. These letters were so brief they earned the name mikudarihan, meaning ‘three-and-a-half lines’. However, if a woman wished to leave her husband, she had no legal resources, not even in case of mis- or maltreatment (xx).

Misogyny in Tokugawa Japan can be exemplified by the publication of the Greater Learning for Women (Onna Daigaku), which identified and detailed women’s “five defects” namely anger, jealousy, disobedience, ignorance, and slander, defects which “infected seven to eight women of every ten,” and in turn accounted for their inferiority to men (xx).

Female Responsibilities and Education

Anne Walthall in ‘Women and Literacy from Edo to Meiji’ shows to board games produced in the Edo period to dramatize women’s lives, experiences, and, especially, expectations. Walthall shows to the example of a game designed in the 1840s, which depicts a pupil learning various performing arts such as stringed musical instruments, literary arts, etiquette, and tea ceremony. The goal itself was to attain a high-ranking position alongside the shogun. Embedded in this game is the notion that education and literacy is fundamental for women to secure a good life. (xx).

Across all social classes, children were expected to be educated enough to well in their station. However, studies of education in this period have shown that women had fewer opportunities to gain a formal education than men. Domain schools and private academies were often boys-only schools, which limited the places where young girls could get schooling. The content of women’s education consisted mainly of subjects that would emphasize the “ideal female comportment,” such as the Onna Daigaku, whereas subjects, such as Chinese and Confucian classics, were considered more masculine spheres of knowledge (xx). However, Walthall emphasizes that what kind of education one received, and whether or not one acquired any education at all, was largely a matter of chance (xx). Some women were able to gain a more rigorous education than their peers. Christina Ghanbarpour and Martha Tocco has highlighted that factors such as religion, affluence, and class all played a crucial part in the education a woman could achieve, however, there was a close to universal literacy rate among samurai women in urban areas (xx). Nevertheless, while Japanese scholar Hirata Atsutane was exiled, his wife Orise wrote her son-in-law asking for him to send books for her husband’s niece, saying; ‘She likes to learn and writes well, but here there are no instruction books for girls, only boys,’ showing how even the family of a samurai could not always find appropriate literature or teaching for their kin (xx).

Many chose to pay for the education of their daughters, especially for them to learn how to play the string-instrument shamisen, which was popular amongst the samurai class. If a girl had a talent in the arts, they could be put into service with high-ranking families such as domain lords or samurai. Becoming a samurai mistress brought both wealth and social status, and jobs as ladies-in-waiting or maids allowed them to learn the customs, styles, and tastes of samurai women – knowledge that helped them transcend class boundaries, allowing them to make a better their social status and businesses (xx). However, there were differences in the processes of the cultivation of arts among men and women. Kutsukake Nakako was a woman born into a mercantile family, who later married a merchant (xx). Already as a child, she knew she wanted to devote herself to literature and poetry, however, she was first expected to marry and raise her six children. When her husband died, she was expected to restore the family fortunes. She was first allowed to write freely at the end of her life (xx). Additionally, there was a difference in access to public spaces between men and women. Female writers of the Edo period had no access to commercial publishing, as publishers did not think their writing would sell. They were also unable to participate in new genres of writing and prose. Most importantly, there was a fear among women that female published writers would be branded as “unfeminine” (xx). Similarly, the Tokugawa period saw few female professional painters, as they were excluded from the guilds of professional painters. A noteworthy exception being Kiyohara Yukinobu, who, in the 17th century, worked as a professional painter. It is, however, important to note her relations to Kano Tanyu, the founder of the official painting school of the Tokugawa shogunate, which might have aided her in earning her position (xx).

Through the board games introduced in ‘Women and Literacy from Edo to Meiji,” one can see that games aimed at women often incorporate men, whilst games aimed at men often ignore women completely. Comparably, the Edo period saw men are seen as individuals, while women are expected to represent something more than themselves (xx).

The Expectations of the Samurai Class

The samurai class saw big changes during the Tokugawa period. The samurai had previously been a warrior class, where even women were expected to fight. However, the Edo period abolished war (Tanimura, 2011). Men and women share the ideals of bravery and loyalty. Samurai women were in charge of the household and were expected to protect the family honor, even if that required death (Tanimura, 2011).

Japanese samurai warriors have some of the best-recorded achievements among fighting men across the globe. Their bravery and contributions to military development are described in great detail in chronicles and gunkimono, so-called epic war stories. However, these stories seem to exclusively involve men, forcing the women behind the scenes; into palaces and living chambers. Women earned the role as pawns in marriage and negotiations, indirectly or directly exerting influence over the political process (xx). The samurai woman as a warrior, however, seems to be non-existent. Due to the massive influence, Neo-Confucianism had in the Edo period, the status of Japanese female samurai diminished significantly. These warriors, also known as “onna-bugeisha,” literally meaning “female martial artist,” were wives of samurai who trained to protect their homes while the samurai were away (xx). During Edo, women warriors saw a loss in status. Many saw women simply as child bearers, and the idea of women fighting faded away quickly. Women were no longer allowed to travel alone and had to have written administrative permission and the company of a man (xx). All work was split into men’s work and women’s work, and fighting wars was a man’s job. The only acceptable opportunity samurai women had to fight was through the act of revenge. A study into this reveals that fourteen out of 100 recorded acts of revenge were carried out by women (xx). Some example, a Yamabushi wife waited 53 years for the chance to avenge her husband’s death, later being rewarded by the daimyo for her loyalty. In 1973 a lady-in-waiting in the mansion of the Matsudaira daimyo killed the woman responsible for the suicide of her mistress (xx).

The ie-system allowed most women to control the business within the house, however, this did not apply to the samurai class, leaving men in charge of both business inside and outside the home. Nevertheless, samurai girls were taught what was needed to govern a household, which included reading and writing, as well as how to play the string-instrument koto. Unlike girls in lower classes, they were forbidden from playing the shamisen (xx).

Shinanomiya Tsuneko and Court Women

Whenever there is a discussion about gender regulations, limitations, and expectations, it is important to note that these are generalizations. Not all samurai women were secluded, in lock-ins, and not all lower-class women were uneducated. Anne Walthall states in The Human Tradition in Modern Japan that; “although it is important to generalize about the historical processes of centralization, industrialization, urbanization, and modernization, a focus on large scale concepts can easily obscure the impact these had on the people who lived through them” (xx). It isn’t easy to look towards the individual woman in Edo Japan, as women writers are almost entirely missing, backed up by Aston’s 1899 claim that ‘[in the Edo period] women disappear completely from the world of literature (xx).

Shinanomiya Tsuneko, born in 1642, was an Imperial princess and the sixteenth daughter born to retired Emperor Gomizunoo. Four of her siblings became Emperors, whilst others became abbots and abbesses. Her only daughter married the sixth Shogun, and her son and grandson became regents, eventually achieving an honorary rank next to emperor and empress, Jugo, but turning it down (xx). When Shinanomiya was 22, she married court noble Konoe Motohiro, who was only 16 years old at this time. She married unusually late compared to her peers, which could be attributed to her being her father’s favorite, him wanting to find her the right husband. They did not move in together until two years into their marriage, however, Shinanomiya remained closely involved with the Imperial family, spending the majority of her time with her father and other prominent court ladies (xx). Among the members of the Court, she was known to be extremely experienced, intelligent, and knowledgeable, as well as skilled in matters of theatre, dance, music, calligraphy, incense and perfumes, and the appraisal of artifacts. Her father trusted her with managing her brothers’ estates, and her half-brother chose Shinanomiya as the successor to his personal and secret perfume recipes. She was also known for her excellent judge of character, being in charge of interviewing and selecting not only her own servants but also those of her daughter and her husband (xx).

Although she had many important relatives, she herself is known from her diary, which covers a lengthy period, her first entry being on January 1st, 1666, and her last entry being on March 24th, 1700, two years before her death. This diary was never published but has survived through manuscript copies (xx). Her diary details the life of a court woman of the Edo period, in terms of education, lifestyle, and social position.

Conclusion

During the Tokugawa period, women were classified under men, having less power, lower status, and fewer rights than their male counterparts. With arranged marriages, women had little say in who they would marry and had equally little say in how long these marriages were to last. Most girls were not educated, and those who were received a restricted version of the education available to boys. Women were mainly taught to be loyal and obedient mothers and wives, completing household chores and raising children. Women all had different positions in Edo society, but they were never ranked above men. However, it is important to note that gender expectations and limitations are the results out of the times they reigned. The division of gender roles can be argued to have been a practical solution of the time. Women were expected to be subservient, however, they were not considered weak – they were in charge of the home, often managing business affairs, becoming a pillar for their husbands and children, whereas the husband was in charge of the family’s reputation and social status.