Category: Safety

Introduction

The Construction industry creates a very important part in the development of the economy of a country. For this to be effectively successful and beneficial to the serving population, various regulations and good codes of practice should be strictly followed. Normally, this will include good construction practices during the design, construction, and occupation phases of buildings, where professionalism is highly confidential.

Safety in buildings, therefore, is expected to be carried out in two categories which include safety during the design and construction of buildings, and during the occupation period. According to the Review of the Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004: Section 2 Fire (Domestic Buildings), the construction of buildings should be done in such a way that the possible risks are substantially reduced to manageable levels. For effective assessment of the current safety regulations, and practical situations, detailed comparisons between the existing and intended codes of practice should be done to come up with the perfect safety rules and regulations for the future.

Fire Safety arrangements during the Design and Construction Phase

Fire safety is an objective requirement to the provision of safety to the lives of the people who might be, for any reason, involved closely with the building. The target people may include the workers on-site during construction to the future occupants of the buildings in question. Currently, there are various measures that have been put in place to ensure the safety of people during the design and construction phase of buildings. According to the Review of the Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004: Section 2 Fire (Domestic Buildings), fire safety main aims are to ensure the protection of life, achievement of sustainable development, and assist the fire and rescue services. The current arrangements put in place to ensure fire safety, therefore, are as outlined below:

Fire safety standards during the design phase

During the design phase of buildings, fire safety design measures are most important in providing a safe structure and thus, proper design values should be taken into account. This has been taken care of by various codes of practice including the Fire (Scotland) Act of 2005. For structures to be safe in fire emergencies, the design should be done to ensure the structure can withstand the effect of fire for a substantial amount of time to ensure safe escape and effective fire rescue services.

In the current situation, fire has been a major drawback in the development of the Scotland government. According to Section 2 Fire (Domestic Buildings) technical handbook, there are approximately 7000 reported cases of Scottish fire, in which are approximately 60 deaths and 1700 injuries each year. With the proper and professional use of provided codes of practice, these figures can be reduced significantly.

Professional engineers, therefore, have been employed to take care of the situation through the use of provided codes of practice such as the Fire (Scotland) Act of 2005. Using design experience and building standards, engineers provide safety factors for fire in their designs which also includes the architecture of safe design. According to the Five steps to risk assessment handbook, the process involves identification of hazards, the possible victims, risk evaluation, implementation, and review of the risk.

For easy movement and escape in cases of a fire tragedy, easily accessible fire escape staircases are designed for and strategically located. This will ensure perfect movement by both the rescue team and the victims of the fire. Sometimes, a separate fire escape lift is provided specifically for the rescue group. This can then be used by this team to easily access any floor they wish to conduct their rescue services from.

Fire safety standards during the construction phase

During the construction phase, the risks of fire may be caused by the processes and services done during the construction. These risks may be due to the temporary power connections, power machinery on-site, and many other sources. In the Construction industry, these risks are prevented by the adherence of contractors to safety management. In the current situation, it is the responsibility of the contractor to take care of the risks and minimize them to a safe level. This involves the process of risk identification and solution as described in the risk handbook, where the contractor has to follow the safety precautions to fire risk management (Health and Safety Executive, pg 1-8).

In Scotland, construction fire risk assessment guides are provided in the Section 2 Fire (Domestic Buildings). These guides ensure that safe construction activity are undertaken to prevent and minimize accidental fires during the process of construction of buildings (Scottish Statutory Instruments, pg 2).

Conclusion

The fire risk prevention practices are enforced by the Government Acts to ensure that the construction parties perform as to the stipulated rules and regulations. Lack of adherence to these rules and regulations exposes a party to penalties, which, however, are not tough at the moment. The introduction of tougher rules can effectively increase the adherence to codes of practice, as the parties of construction may not want to be liable to certain charges due to their inefficiency in quality risk prevention.

Fire Safety Maintenance arrangements during the Occupation Phase

The fire safety of a completed building should be perfect at completion. This is to ensure that the safety of the occupants in the immediate and later future is guaranteed. The safety of a building at the occupation phase, however, is mostly determined at the design and construction phase. At this phase very little can be done apart from maintenance of good practices that will ensure maximum safety in the building. The current practices in Scotland that ensure safety at occupancy are as described below:

Fire safety standards during the occupation phase

During this stage, the main safety activity with regards to fire safety involves the maintenance of the fire safety standards that have already been established. These safety measures now mainly depend on the current occupants of the building. The occupants should be able to observe safety and be ready to react positively to fires.

The occupants of a building normally do not perceive themselves as being at risk of fire and moreover, are not aware of the rate at which a fire can spread (Section 2 Fire (Domestic Buildings), pg 12). In residential buildings, therefore, awareness of the risk of fire is created to ensure fire safety. For instance, fire alarms are provided at strategic positions to ensure easy access in case of accidental fires. In addition to this, it is a requirement to provide safe escape mechanisms from a building. This is efficiently done through the provision of standard fire escape staircases and or fire fighting staircases, lifts, and lobbies.

For non-domestic buildings, the causes of fires and fire deaths are minimal as compared to domestic buildings (Section 2 Fire (Non-Domestic Buildings), pg 50). The design stage is when risk assessment is done and at this time various design factors are considered. Evacuation methods, which can either be simultaneous, phased, or progressive horizontal evacuation, are currently in existence and will affect the type of fire alarm systems to be installed in buildings.

Fire safety measures at the occupation stage in both the domestic and non-domestic buildings are to be efficiently taken into account. Proper fire alarm systems should be employed depending on the type of evacuation methods in a building. The right type of alarm system will guarantee the safety of the building to a certain accepted level (Section 2 Fire (Non-Domestic Buildings), pg 12).

Effect of adoption of BS 9999 to Building Parties Liabilities

The adoption of the BS 9999 code of practice for fire safety in the design, management, and use of buildings will be a major pull forward to the government of Scotland. This is due to the well-defined codes that will provide maximum guidance to the construction parties as a team to produce good fire safety results. This is because the government will have a good check on the individual parties where they, individually, will have to face liability for their actions, whether positive or negative.

The BS 9999 critically analyses and touches on every part of the risk assessment and management starting from the implementation and design stages of the building. This, therefore, gives a perfect and clear way of undertaking the process of fire risk prevention. According to the BS 9999 codes of practice, the design of buildings for fire relies upon the sources of fire, materials and systems likely to be involved in a fire, and the likely spread of fire. Knowing this basic information leads one to an understanding of the methods in which to curb the fire risk possibilities. It gives a person the ability to read the risks and find the most appropriate way to counteract them.

BS 9999 gives a perfect solution to this as the processes to fire safety are well illustrated. A keen observation at the design stage will make one solve most of the assessed risk in a bright manner. This is so because most risks are associated and may originate from the design stage of a building. A good example occurs where the building evacuation system is put into consideration. An excellent design can be read from the initial design stage, with perfect positioning of exit and or entry mechanisms in cases of fires. The provision of firefighting staircases, lifts, and lobbies, may just be a solution to easy movement from one level to another by the firefighting team.

For many reasons, therefore, BS 9999 will act as the most satisfying code of practice for fire safety in the design, management, and use of buildings in the Scotland government.

Regulatory Effectiveness Analysis applied to current systems

The current systems of fire safety may be considered to be functionally average and the need to improve the system is paramount. The Fire Safety (Scotland) Act 2005 was provided to ensure that domestic and non-domestic buildings are designed to be fully functional and secure in terms of fire safety. The Act has been in use for a number of years of which the importance had increased dearly.

However, the system has not defined most of the practices for fire safety from the tender design stage of a building in concern. This makes it most important to introduce the BS 9999 codes of practice that are well stated. The use and implementation of the BS 9999 codes of practice in the current system in Scotland will ensure a perfect way for deciding the right practices by the construction parties. Due to the well defined codes of practice, the parties will have direct responsibilities which shall be mandatory and therefore an effective fire safety system can be obtained.

Recommendations to the Minister

In the current system of fire safety in Scotland, there are various improvements that can greatly increase the productivity in terms of designing for fire safety and maintenance of fire safety measures in the occupation phase of buildings. The safety of the possible users of new and existing buildings should be guaranteed to a specific constant. From my effectiveness regulatory analysis applied to the current systems, I therefore have recommendations to put across that will aid in decision processes weather to site the BS 9999, 2008 as a necessary document in codes of practice:

• The current systems provided for as the codes of practice are not sufficiently designed to provide for safety in buildings at all phases of building production. This therefore requires an improvement in the codes of practice or an introduction to new codes of practice to ensure future safety of occupants.
• The BS 9999, 2008 on the other hand appears to be the perfect solution to the current shortfall in the fire safety management systems since it is well designed to achieve reasonable standards of fire safety (Technical Committee FSH/14: Fire precautions in buildings, pg 4).
• The implementation of the BS 9999, 2008 into the current system shall provide the perfect move that will ensure the responsible construction parties to be liable for their decisions and activities. This will ensure all parties maintain high standards of performance just to ensure all the good practices are done right.

Therefore, it is my recommendation to the minister concerned with building regulation matters to employ and implement BS 9999, 2008 into the current system of fire safety regulations for a better fire free environment in the future.

References

Health and Safety Executive. Five steps to risk assessment INDG163(rev2) (2006): 1-8. PDF file.

Review of the Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004. Section 2 Fire (Domestic Buildings) (2010): 1-55. PDF file.

Review of the Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004. Section 2 Fire (Non-Domestic Buildings) (2010): 1-76. PDF file.

Scottish Statutory Instruments. The Fire (Scotland) Act 2005 2006 No. 475:1-17. PDF file.

Technical Committee FSH/14, Fire precautions in buildings. BSI British Standards. New York: Random, 2008. Print.

Abstract

Air transportation has become a significant mode of transportation since the last century. It enabled quick and efficient transportation of people and cargo to worldwide destinations. The growth of air transportation led to the growth of the aviation industry. A host of companies provided hardware and other requirements for practically every aspect of aviation. Navigation instruments manufacturers provided navigation instruments whose primary goal was to ensure successful arrival and departure from a location. Owing to the catastrophic nature of air accidents, air safety became, and still is, a paramount concern to aviators and their customers. This research paper discusses the development of modern navigational equipment and related systems and their contribution to aviation safety. In this paper it is argued that tremendous technological advancements, both in computing and aviation engineering have immensely contributed to greater accuracy, efficiency, cost effectiveness and safety in air transportation.

Introduction

Air Navigation involves ensuring successful movement from one place to another over a long distance by an aircraft. It involves selecting the appropriate air route and maintaining movement along it. This directional movement can be affected by factors such as wind, magnetic property of the earth or poor weather. Since time immemorial man has moved from place to place to carry out trade, launch warfare, or discover distant lands. Ancient navigator relied on stars in addition to simple instruments such as sextant and compass to navigate land and large water masses. These instruments were prone to many errors and missing the exact destination or perishing under poor weather were a common mishaps. The turn of the 20^th century witnessed the emergence of air transportation on a scale never seen before. The Wright brothers ushered an era of air transportation that was faster compared to any other known means. Both people and cargo could be transported over very long distance in a relatively short period of time using an array of aircrafts.

Air navigation has seen notable changes over the year. This has been due to technological improvements on existing equipment and the need to improve air safety. Improved safety has been achieved through use of navigation aids that ensure better accuracy in estimation of direction, speed, location and distance of the aircraft from its destinations in addition to landing safety, increased pilot awareness and minimization of mid- air collision. In early day of aircraft pilots would rely on landmarks to stay on course. These include railways, rivers, bridges and highways. These landmarks were used together with a pre-drawn navigation maps. Piloting would later be supplemented with dead reckoning, a method based solely on time, distance and direction that required good experience for successful navigation and relied on the magnetic compass to keep the flying course. Later, radio communication was adopted. This involved using ground-based facilities to transmit signal at varying frequencies. The aircrafts were fitted with receiver antenna that were used to identify the frequency or Morse code and hence the position of the transmitter relative to the aircraft (Groves 2008). This equipment was called navigation aid (NAVAID(S)). Successful navigation during this period was a highly regarded feat taking for instance May 1927 Charles Lindberghs 3610 miles flight from New York to Paris in just 33 hours. Lindberghs successfully solo-navigated the Atlantic with only a compass and no other tool to account for wind or landmarks (Brain).This feat earned him worldwide acclamation. His counterpart, Emelia Earhart was not so successful. On July 2, 1937, Earhart, already with many aviation feats to her name, took off with her co-pilot for the Howland Island but their whereabouts and that of her plane to date remain shrouded in mystery. Modern analyst claim poor knowledge of radio navigation and wrong radio frequencies (she left behind important lower-frequency reception and transmission equipment) contributed to her unsuccessful journey (Naval History & Heritage Command, 2002).

Traditional navigational Systems

There has been massive improvement in navigation system since the 1920s that have been accompanied by decreased cost, size, mass and power consumption (Groves 2008). The late 1920s saw the introduction of radio transmission that greatly simplified air navigation. Radio navigation involved the use of ground based station and onboard equipment to determine the current location and distance during flight. This method of navigation lasted for better part of last century and is still in use today. Today, navigation has been greatly enhanced by inclusion of satellite communication that offers even much better precision in terms of location, distance, timing and safety. Computer and microprocessor technology has resulted in most operations of navigation being fully automated to the extent that the navigator has been relegated to a mere spectator.

Traditional aircraft navigation equipment include the Automatic Direction Finder (ADF), Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Radio Range (VOR) and Distance Measuring Equipment (DME). These systems either worked alone or were combined to a suite that served various purposes. VOR is common to most aircraft and is still in use today. It was introduced in the mid 1950s. It operates at VHF of 108.0  119.95 MHz. This system is made up of a ground based station and a receiver on the aircraft. The ground station transmits two signals, one omni directional and another rotational about the station. These two are interpreted by the airborne receiver and used in determining the magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the ground station (Wood 2008). Because of the relatively high frequency range, VOR offers high quality reception and suffers little interference from atmospheric noise (Aeronautical Learning Laboratory for Science, Technology & Research, 2008). Although VOR gives high accuracy, its reception can be affected by terrain surrounding the ground station, the height of the VOR beacon, the altitude of the aircraft and the distance from the ground station (Aeronautical Learning Laboratory for Science, Technology & Research 2008). In addition, reception is only possible at the line of sight of the ground stations (Aeronautical Learning Laboratory for Science, Technology & Research, 2008).

Navigation aid with widespread for the better part of early last century is the Automatic Direction finder (ADF). This is used together with the Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) that transmits signal in all directions. The ADF, found in the aircraft is made up of two aerial which are used for reception and in determining the position of the aircraft in relation to the magnetic north, selected ground beacons and the course. For long distance tracking such as over oceanic waters, NDB with stronger and longer range are required. Short-ranged NDBs, are however sufficient for short routes. NDB/ADF, although capable of high accuracy, suffer from a number of effects which can reduce its accuracy. This includes thunderstorms and interference from similar frequencies. Mountain and coastal areas also affect the NDB signal by reflection and refraction mechanisms respectively (Aeronautical Learning Laboratory for Science, Technology & Research, 2008). The rise of GPS has rendered many NDB/ADF navigation obsolete although some have been retained as data links to Differential GNSS (Groves 2008, p.11)

Developed in 1948, Distance measuring equipment (DME) is a navigation aid that works in conjunction with VOR at UHF to determine the distance between the aircraft and the VOR station. It is also capable of determining the ground speed and the time in relation to ground station when in line of sight of transmission. Together with ADF and VOR they enhance a safe approach to airfields (Tooley & Wyatt, 2008).

Modern navigation systems

Instrument Landing System (ILS) is radio navigation aid that uses both UHF and VHF and installed in airfields to enhance safe landing. It is highly accurate and can be relied upon in landing under IFR conditions (Aeronautical Learning Laboratory for Science, Technology & Research, 2008). ILS is made up of the localizer transmitter, the glide path transmitter, outer markers and approach lighting system. It provides both lateral and vertical precision approach to the airfields greatly enhancing safe landing. The localizer is a VHF transmitter with antenna that provides lateral guidance to the approaching aircraft. The glide slope equipment transmitter provides vertical guidance while the marker provides the distance of the aircraft from the runway. The lighting system forms a crucial component of ILS in providing visual aid to the pilot during landing. The lighting system include: Approach lighting system (ALS), Sequenced Flashing Light (SFL), Touch down zone light (TDZ) and Centerline light (ALLSTAR, 2008).

Area navigation (RNAV) is a method of navigation made up of a number of equipment that may include VOR/DME, LORAN, GPS and INS (FAA, 2008, 7-19). RNAV is capable of providing the pilot with information related to aircraft position, track and ground speed (FAA, 2008, 7-19).It enables the pilot locate waypoints in the line of sight of ground navigation aids such as VOR and DME and to fly on a specific RNAV route.

LORAN belongs to a group of long-range radio navigation systems introduced in 1940s for navigating over larges water masses and uninhabited expanses on land. Other systems in the same group as LORAN are Decca and Omega, although these two have since been decommissioned. LORAN is capable of providing highly accurate bearing, distance, time to a waypoint and also the ground speed. It can also be used in locating nearest airports during emergencies in addition to vertical navigation (FAA 2008, pg. 7-26). Despite it high accuracy, errors may result from external interference and large separation distance from ground stations. It also may also suffer from accuracy discrepancies at different times of day and night. Nevertheless it gives better accuracy than VOR systems (FAA, 2008, pg. 7-16).

Inertial Navigation System (INS) is a modern technology that is made up of computerized motion and rotation sensors that can be used to determine the position, orientation, duration and speed of flight. The main components of INS are accelerometer to measure acceleration and gyroscope for measuring direction. Documented INS errors arise as a result of change of position due to time. INS determines position based on the initial position and further positional inputs from accelerometer and gyroscope inputs. When coupled with GPS these errors are considerably reduced.

Microwave Landing System (MLS) another modern technology was introduced in 1970s to replace ILS in precision approach operations. It offers many advantages over ILS such as low setting up and maintenance cost and little interference from weather. In addition it is also able to offer precision landing in space constrained situations such as rooftop heliports (Aeronautical Learning Laboratory for Science, Technology & Research, 2008). The spread of MLS was hindered by emergence of GNSS-based navigation.

Another modern navigational system of significant mention is radar navigation. This involves transmitting a signal that on hitting an obstacle produces an echo which is used to determine the distance and bearing of that target. Radar technology however, is only able to detect objects within it range. Air Traffic Controllers (ATC) may employ radars to view aircrafts, navigational aids, and dangerous terrain features in the surrounding of an airport (FAA 2008, p.7-50). When coupled with a video-mapping unit it is possible to generate high quality maps of airways and airports that give the ATC greater monitoring and control capabilities. Radar systems used by Air Traffic Controllers include: Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR), Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR), Precision Approach Radar (PAR) and Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE). The drawback of radar navigation is that it is not able to detect aircraft outside the coverage area of the radar or those blocked by relief such a mountains. In addition, reflective targets of small size can go undetected.

Since 1980 there has been a marked shift in navigation aid systems. Traditional ground based systems that relied on radio transmission are gradually being decommissioned in favor of satellite-based systems. These new systems offer a number of advantages over their traditional counterpart in that they are cheap to maintain, offer direct flight routes and have proved much better in navigating oceans and mountainous regions.

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) has been the forerunner in the satellite-based navigation examples of which include Global Positioning System (GPS), Russian GPS (GLONASS) and the European Galileo.

GPS was developed by United States department of defense in 1992 and currently utilizes a constellation of 30 satellites (FAA 2008 p.7-33). GPS is made up of three components: the receiver, space satellites and terrestrial monitoring and control stations.GPS is capable of providing extremely accurate position and timing details. It has a global coverage and although initially confined to the military, it has now been extended to civilian aviation especially in navigating oceans and remote areas. GPS is set to completely replace traditional navigation aid through Differential Global Positioning Systems such as Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) and Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS). WAAS is able to cover a much wider area compared to traditional ground-based navigation aids while LAAS incorporates GPS in airfield approach operations and is limited to airport surroundings.

The popularity and widespread adoption GPS is due to many of its advantages over traditional navigation aids. GPS has enabled shorter direct flight routes that greatly save on fuel costs. It has enabled continuous, reliable and accurate positioning and monitoring of critical aspects of flight at a much reduced cost compared to expensive legacy systems (National Coordination Office for Space-Based Positioning, navigation and Timing (NCOSPVT) 2011). The technology has improved safety in aviation due to increased situational awareness it offer to pilots (NCOSPVT 2011). GPS also forms a major component of safety systems such as Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) that are used to navigate terrains.

The high number of flight instrument both on board and on land necessitated the need to organize and harmonize their operation. Flight Management Systems was specifically created for this purpose. This system is able to presents data such as position, track, desired heading, ground speed and position relative to desired track (FAA 2008, p. 7-48).FMS works by receiving data from navigational aids such as VOR and DME. It also makes it possible for pilots to define flight route, manage fuel and control other navigational aids in the aircraft or on ground. FMS normally are linked to a database of Airports Locations, navigational aids, aircraft data, airways and intersections which can be used to set the travel route during or before flight (FAA 2008, , p. 7-48).

Improvement in aviation engineering and allied technologies has given rise to sophisticated and fully automated aviation system. Because air accidents have zero-survival rate government and companies have always been under obligation to develop safety technologies to minimize such accidents. These efforts have contributed to increased air safety over the years. Some of these systems are discussed in the following sections.

Safety Systems

These are systems designed specifically for safety of the air travelers during flight. Their primary goal is to greatly minimize air accidents although it is important to point out some air catastrophes still occur despite the aircraft having the most sophisticated safety and navigation systems. Some of these systems are Radio Altimeters, Traffic Advisory Systems, Traffic Avoidance Systems and Terrain Alerting System. Radio altimeter provides the height above the terrain directly beneath the aircraft (FAA, 2008, p.3-30). It provides crucial altitude information to the pilot during approach and landing.

Traffic Advisory Systems such as the terrestrial TIS (Traffic Information Service) avails the pilot with information about nearby traffic enabling to make safety decisions in time. This information is relayed on board via a data link that uses S-mode transponder and an altitude encoder (FAA, 2008, p. 3-31).

Traffic Alert System enhances air safety by alerting the pilot about other aircrafts that may be dangerously flying close by. The system is able to compute the position of intruder aircrafts enabling the pilot act accordingly.

Mid air collision is probably the most catastrophic air accidents that can occur. High air traffic due to the high growth of air transportation means that their always is a possibility of such accidents occurring.The nature of air accident is such that they have zero-survival rate as illustrated by the two cases below:

On the night of July 1, 2002 a Boeing B-757 cargo transporter DHL collided with a Russian Tu-154 passenger jet at 34,940 ft over Germany killing all 71 crew members and passengers aboard the two planes. In another similar catastrophe, a Boeing 737 and Embraer Legacy 600 business jet collided over the Amazon jungle in September 2006 killing all on board (Kuchar & Druman, 2007, p.283).

Traffic Avoidance Systems such as the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) were created in order to limit the occurrence of such cases. TCAS is made up special sensors that gather data about the intruder aircraft such as relative position and velocity which are then computed by on-board systems to determine the level of threat ( Kuchar & Druman, 2007, p.279). This data may also be relayed to the intruder aircraft in case it is fitted with TCAS so that pilots of the two aircraft can undertake safe maneuvers out of the situation. In case the intruder aircraft presents real danger to the incoming aircraft, the system is able to offer advisory response (Kuchar & Druman, 2007, p. 279). TCAS only act as advisory aids to the pilot. It is up to the pilots of the two planes to act fast to avoid a mid-air collision. Investigators of the DHL-Russian Tu-154 collision attributed the cause of the accident to the ignoring of TCAS warnings by the Russian pilots (Kuchar & Druman, 2007, p. 283). Both aircrafts had been fitted with TCAS.

Many air crashes have occurred in terrain. The 1995American Airline Flight 965 crash in Cali, Columbia remains one of the most catastrophic air accidents in which 159 crew and passengers lost their lives. Investigators later classified it as a Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) accident caused mainly by pilot error (Wikipedia, 2011). To contain this accident a number of systems have been developed. Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) is a terrain alerting system that determines the aircraft height above ground level. It uses radio altimeter, speed and barometric altitude to determine the aircraft position relative to rising terrain (FAA 2008,. p. 3-31). However, this system in ineffective in mountainous areas due to unusual slopes that give unpredictive information (FAA 2008, Pg 3-31). Another terrain alerting system, Terrain Awareness and warning system (TAWS) uses GPS and a database of terrains to provide predictability of upcoming terrains and obstacles during flight ((FAA 2008, Pg 3-31). Many modern aircrafts also feature Head-Up Display (HUD) that improves the pilot concentration and situational awareness by providing a projection of important data such as speed and altitude on the windshield thus diminishing the need for the pilot to physically observe the outside of the aircraft during flight.

Conclusion

Air navigation has undergone tremendous changes since the early days of air transportation from manual piloting, dead reckoning, radio navigation to fully automated satellite-based systems. Improvements in technology have perfected the art of landing, take off, maneuvering, direction and position finding.

Air accidents are accidents like no other. Very few people survive air accidents. Such accidents may occur as a result of air head-on collision, poor visibility due to inclement weather or pilot error. It is common for the pilot to get lost and crash on running out of fuel. Improved computer technology together with superior aviation engineering has give rise to fully automated navigation and safety systems. The combination of both navigation and safety systems has enabled safe passage of aircrafts over dangerous terrestrial features such mountains.

New cost effective satellite-based systems are quickly replacing a multitude of traditional navigation aids. These systems have made it possible to successfully land and take off from practically every corner of the corner. Superior navigation and safety systems such as GPS have transformed aviation form a local to an international affair. Today, it is possible to map direct flight routes that are cheaper in fuel and fares. Traditional navigation aids have a high deployment and maintenance cost. In addition they provide a steep learning curve to learner as many instruments from different vendors have to be mastered. However, there has been tendency to over depend on satellite systems at the expense of viable legacy systems and equipment. This is despite the fact that such systems are operated at the will of countries which own them. It is important that some effective and reliable legacy systems be retained to provide backup in case of a satellite outage. Superior navigation and safety systems have not completely prevented aircraft accidents from occurring. In this respect it is important to increase the human-pilot capacity to effectively control an aircraft. This is because human input will still be required to complement machine input no matter how sophisticated our current technologies become.

References

Aeronautic Learning Laboratory for Science, Technology & Research (ALLSTAR). Navigation Systems Level 3. Web.

Brain Marshal (n.d) Charles Lindberghs Transatlantic Flight. How stuff works. 2011. Web.

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (2008). Instrument Flying Handbook. US department of Transportation (chap 3 & 7). Web.

Groves, D.P (2008). Principles of GNSS, Inertial and Multi-sensor Integrated Navigation System. (Online Appendix C). Web.

Kuchar, J.K & Druman, C.A. (2007). Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System. Lincoln Laboratory Journal, 16 (2). Web.

Naval History & Heritage Command (NHHC) (2002). Amelia Earhart Information. Web.

National Coordination Office for Space-based Positioning, Navigation and Timing (2011).Advantages of GPS. Web.

Tooley, M & Wyatt, D. (2007). Aircraft Communication and Navigation Systems: Principles, Operations and Maintenance (Online Preface). Oxford: Elsevier. Web.

Aeronautic Navigation Instrument: An overview of VFR pilot. (2005). Web.

Wikipedia (2011). American Airlines Flight 695. Web.

Wood, C. (2008) VOR Navigation Part I. Web.

Ethics Statement

The case itself is the representation of negligence and non-observation of the key safety rules which caused the tragedy. Consequently, the ethical issues that are touched by this report are closely related to the opportunity to prevent similar accidents in the future and provide the proper control system for the companies with potentially dangerous industrial equipment.

Executive Summary

The accident revealed that the victim either did not know how to shut down the machine and how to isolate its energy, or this was simple negligence that cost life to him. The investigation included not only the chronological restoration of the events but also the operational manual of the dough-making machine. Additionally, the safety training procedure had been reviewed to reveal how the accident could take place if the workers were constantly trained, and the safety rules were explained in detail. The investigation concluded that most of the employees are immigrants, and the level of their English is different. Insufficient language skills are regarded as the key reason for the accident, as the victim could not understand all the safety rules.

Introduction

The purpose of the project is to review the accident, reveal the possible reasons that could cause this accident, and create effective safety and control rules for similar organizations to prevent similar accidents. The course of the investigation involved the study of the machine safety documentation, organizational safety rules and practices, as well as the chronology and background of the events. This is required for the proper analysis of the accident, as the instance of murder is rejected. The accident itself is closely linked with the violation of safety rules not only by employees but by employers as well. This is explained by the fact that workers have not been trained properly to shut down the machine, and did not realize the consequences of negligent machine operation.

Research

The quantitative aspect of the accident involves numerous parameters and values of the investigation. In fact, the work with potentially dangerous machinery may require increased attention and additional insurance actions and tests. Hence, the 54-year aged worker could not have the sufficient attention level, and his health condition could be far from norms. The fatal error was the left of the switch on auto position. This cause the automating turning on of the blade system, while the employee was inside the elevator hopper. The co-worker, one of the Chinese employees, helped the victim to clean the machine and had to raise the dough bowl for cleaning this part of the machinery.

Everything happened within several minutes, when the co-worker prepared to clean the bowl and asked the victim to pass him the keys. When the power switch was turned on, the auto detector considered that the elevator is loaded, and the blade was launched. Hence, the double negligence cost a life.

Considering the fact that the victim had been working for the company for five years, he should know the basic safety rules, as the company arranged safety training annually. On the other hand, the co-worker did not have sufficient language knowledge, and the company did not care about interpreters for the training process.

Actually, the power of the blade motor is sufficient for making deadly injuries. And the 3/4 HP of the electrical motor became more than sufficient for decapitating the victim. The cutting cycle of the blade is 20-30 seconds, hence, the chances of the victim could be large enough if the blade was at the beginning of the cycle, nevertheless, the victim had only several seconds for saving his life, and the co-worker had not realized his mistake until he heard the noise from the victims side.

Examples of quantitative information are closely linked with the parameters of the machine. Actually, the safety system is not effective enough, and the fact that the manufacturer decided to refuse from equipping machines with an automatic regime emphasizes the system in general is ineffective. Hence, the manual regime of the machine is the safest at the moment.

Discussion

Considering the mistakes of the investigation, it should be stated that the actual importance of the research is closely linked with the necessity to restore the chronology of the events. In fact, the case reminds murder, as the investigation report does not emphasize whether there were witnesses of the accident in the room and whether someone is able to confirm the co-workers testimony. In general, all the facts and statements of the accident have been revealed; however, the actual statement of the accident is rather detailed. The research in the future should pay attention to the safety rule observation by other workers, and their knowledge of the safety measures required for working with similar machinery. (Lutz, 19)

The initial position of the switchers is included in report, however, it is not stated whether the co-worker checked these positions before elevating the bowl. If he did, this would be murder; if he did not, this is culpable negligence. (Lutz, 11) Consequently, the research could be improved seriously if it is applied to solving the problem in the future. The improvements are related to assessing the knowledge level of the other workers, examination of all the workers for their ability to operate machinery they have access to, and increase of the requirements for the employers that own potentially dangerous machinery.

Trade-offs

In comparison with other similar cases, the investigation commission did not check the safety rules that existed before the accident. In fact, it is evident that the workers were not prevented from getting into the point of operation, however, the other ways of cleaning and sanitation serving are not known.

Hence, the commission had to contact the manufacturer and arrange the training campaign for the employers who own similar machines. The essence of the case is that the recommendations had been given, while the ways of implementing these recommendations are unknown. Moreover, the manufacturer had to provide detailed instructions and reminders for the machine. Reminders and warnings are not the most effective solution, however, the chances of the accident could be lower. (OR-FACE; Oregon OSHA; TRIS)

As for the design of the system, it should be constructed with the proper differentiation whether a working material (dough) is inside, or any other object. The sensor may react to the weight of the object that is inside (as a man is heavier than the portion of the dough, there would be no difficulties in implementing this system), and the system would notify overload, if a working personnel is inside. Another sensor may be optical, and react if something is inserted into the machinery that exceeds the normal sizes of the dough portion.

The safety cover should be implemented for sanitary and cleaning works. If it is open, the sensors would not allow the system to turn on, and, independently of the position of the switchers, the blades would stay motionless. Moreover, the sensor should give the signal to blade motor for the blades were placed at the beginning of the cutting cycle, or turned away from the production line. If these principles were observed, turning the system on would cause fewer fatal injuries. (Occupational Health Brach; Graham 45; Braddee, 31)

Another aspect of the construction that may be implemented is the electronic protection of the switching mechanism. Hence, if the machinery is to be cleaned, or any other maintenance works are planned, the machine is turned off. Turning on may be possible only after the input of a specific combination of numbers on the num pad. The combination may be personal for anyone who has access to operate the machinery.

Optical, electronic and weight safety rules are not the overindulgences if lives are endangered. The improved safety rules may violate the manufacturing standards and tempos, however, the observation of these rules may prevent fatalities and excess expenses for the employer. (Higgins, Casini, 33)

As for the PPE usage, this may be the type of improvement. Considering the fact that cleaning and sanitation of the machinery may be featured with essential difficulties, though, the innovative cleaning technique had not been offered, the personal protection devices of every worker may include radio beacons that are inbuilt in working badges or cleaning instruments. If the system registers a radio signal inside the machine, the safety system is turned on. Ultra short waves may be used for this purpose.

Another PPE that is required, had been used by the victim and co-worker. The safety measures that are associated with the accident are not linked with the PPE usage. If the workers were subjected to the jeopardy of blunt trauma, the PPE would be useful. Additional PPE is not required, as the safety reasoning should be focused on the emergency power-off switcher.

Recommendations

Safety recommendations have been stated by the FACE commission, and the recommendations for the construction changes are provided in the Trade-offs chapter. In fact, the actual importance of the changes is stipulated by the fact that technologies develop, and the machinery manufacturers should be the most interested parties in the cases where human life safety is endangered. It is a pity, however most safety rules are written with bloody inks, and the cost of the safety manuals are human lives and injuries. (SHARP)

The recommendations that may be given to employers and employees are to take care of their lives and the lives of co-workers. The recommendations for the investigators are associated with the deeper study of the reasons, as the current case does not presuppose the study of the safety measures accepted within the company, there is no conclusion whether this was the ignoring of the safety rules or simple misunderstanding of the key requirements. The co-worker did not know English properly, and this could be the key reason for his not knowing the safety measurements.

Another option is to perform the entire isolation and de-energizing of the line before the sanitation and maintenance work. This will be helpful for ensuring the workers safety, as well as protection from the accidental turning on the system. This option is the most reliable, that is why it was chosen for specifying in the report. As for the matters of reliability and safety of the machinery, it should be emphasized that unconcern is the largest problem in similar cases, hence, it may cost lives and concerns for others.

Conclusion

The alternatives of the investigation process are associated with studying the motifs of the co-worker. Nothing is stated on the matters of intentional murder, as the details are given neither confirm nor reject the version of the murder. However, as for the matters of recommendations and safety policy changes, the investigators have done great work, and all the details of the accident have been disclosed. Hence, any alternatives are required. The actual importance of the safety recommendations, provided by the investigation commission is based on the importance of observing the protection measures, as well as implementing the insurance measures.

Oral Presentation

The work examines the analyzed accident which happened in a food industry company, engaged in pizza dough manufacturing. The 54-year old Taiwanese male suffered from the imperfect safety system of a dough-making machine. The unlocked blade of the dough dividing mechanism caused his partial decapitation and instant death.

The investigation commission revealed that the co-worker had to elevate the dough bowl for cleaning it, and turn the elevator. This launched the blade while the neck of the victim was under the blade. Another aspect of the investigation is the study of the safety training, though, the commission did not pay attention to whether warning and safety reminders had been available on the machinery and near the switchers. Additionally, the manufacturers cleaning recommendations are not reviewed.

The paper offers the improvement of the safety measures as well as the construction of the machinery for avoiding similar accidents. As for the alternatives of the investigation offered, nothing important has been missed, hence, the alternatives are not required. In fact, the commission had to pay attention to some additional details, while the actual investigation course was helpful enough for defining the key mistakes as well as violations of the rules.

Works Cited

Braddee, Ronald. Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) Report: Volunteer Fire Chief Dies in Motor Vehicle Incident While Responding to a Fire Alarm in Maryland. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 30. 2010. Web.

Graham, Jerry. Internal Control Plans and Worker Safety Planning Tool. Research Board Business Office. 2006. Web.

Higgins, David. N., Casini, Victor. J., The Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation programs role in the prevention of occupational fatalities. Injury Prevention 2001;7(Suppl I):i2733. Web.

Lutz, Vernon. Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) Report: Volunteer Fire Fighter Dies When Struck By a Bus While Working Along an Interstate Highway in Illinois. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 12. 2009. Web.

Lutz, Vernon. Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) Report: Volunteer Lieutenant Dies After Falling From a Bridge While Attending to a Motor Vehicle Crash in Arkansas. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 10. 2009. Web.

Occupational Health Brach Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation Program (FACE), 2010. Web.

OR-FACE. Salesman killed when forklift falls off truck loading ramp. Oregon Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation. 2010. Web.

Oregon OSHA. Young Workers Stay Alive on the Job! Oregon Health & Science University. 2010. Web.

SHARP. Fatality Data Summaries. Safety & Heath assessment & Research for Prevention, 2010. Web.

TRIS. Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) Report for New Jersey: Worker Killed in Compressed Air Explosion at a Tire Retread Plant. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 8; 2002. Web.

Introduction

The increase in population coupled with ever-growing social-economic activities has led to an incredible increase in the number of automobiles on our roads. Because of this, there has been a steady increase in the number of road accidents particularly in metropolitan cities of the Middle East and Gulf countries. The growing number of road crashes is imposing substantial economic and social loads on the affected parties, and a range of indirect and direct financial implications.

On the positive side, a good road network is vital for economic development. Good road networks have numerous benefits namely; cheap transport cost, people spending less time on road and more working, cheap maintenance cost of vehicles and generally low rate of accidents. On the other hand, poor road infrastructure will discourage investors as the cost of transport will be high, there is high rate of road carnage, and all this will have negative impact on the economy. In this paper, we will look at road safety in the Middle East and Gulf countries, global statistics, types of road crashes, causes of road accidents and solutions to road crashes.

According to the World Bank Group report, more than 1.17 million lives are lost on road worldwide annually. Most of these deaths, approximately 70 percent take place in developing countries. Sixty-five percent of deaths involve pedestrians and 35 percent of pedestrian deaths are children. Over 10 million are crippled or injured each year (World Bank Group 1). Judging by these statistics, if nothing is done in developing nations to curb this menace, it is projected that as a minimum 6 million further lives will be lost and 60 million will be wounded in the next 10 years to come.

Who is to blame for this growing rate of road accidents in developing nations and particularly in Middle East and Gulf countries? Is it drivers? No, we cannot point accusing fingers at the drivers only without factoring in some other contributing factors. Habitually, road repairs are restricted to putting in place drainage amenities and filling potholes, and not including replacement of missing guard rails, road markings, traffic signs, and other security attributes crucial to creating secure road network. If the road is not up to standard, no matter how careful road users are, there will significant accidents (Jacobs and Aeron-Thomas 3).

Most road accident victims in growing nationals are not however motorized automobile occupants, but bicyclists, non-motorized automobile inhabitants, motorcyclists, and pedestrians. This is indeed a worrying trend especially with high statistics indicating motorcyclists and pedestrians as leading victims of road crashes. See Figure 1.

To realize the extent of the road accident problem, it is prudent to compare the number of road crashes, and victims to geographical location and other indicative data and then evaluate this association among nations. Organizations such as the International Road Federation, Abu Dhabi Municipalities, Road Association of Engineers in the Middle East and Gulf Region and the International Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences have carried out research on road safety and economical implications presented data as seen in Tables 2 and 3. However, the availability of the data on road usage is scarce. Analysis of the number of victims per 10,000 vehicles is enough to give us an insight into road carnage (World Bank Group 2).

Road Crashes

In the Middle East and Gulf countries, the number of road accidents has been on the rise with youngsters of age bracket 17 to 25 years contributing to about 26% of total severe causalities and deaths. Approximately 1 in 4 victims in a period of the past 5 years have involved a driver under the age of 25 years of age (Richardson 3). Road crashes are fundamentally caused by unacceptable interactions between automobiles, roadway characteristics and/or other road users.

The circumstance that leads to unacceptable interactions or exchanges may perhaps be the consequence of the multifaceted interchange of various contributing factors for instance traffic characteristics, pavement distinctiveness, geometric attributes, automobile design, road users actions, environmental features and drivers personalities. Therefore, the entire system of road crashes is an intricate occurrence.

Stakeholders have dedicated their energies to the area of road crashes and traffic wellbeing features in general. In the Middle East and Gulf Countries, works have been undertaken on accident characteristics, accident forecasting, better roadway, and vehicular design for the improvement of road safety in different traffic and roadway conditions(Chakraborty and Roy 4). We will discuss in detail causes of accidents such as driver, vehicle, the environment, and the relationship between them.

Human Factors (Road Users)

Human beings tend to blame something or someone else whenever an accident occurs. Studies done in different parties of the world have concluded that approximately 80 percent of drivers caught up in automobile crashes alleged that the other driver possibly would have done something to avoid the crash. Many contributing factors may lead to driver-causing crashes. For instance, a driver will lose focus probably by an incoming call on their cell phones. While talking on the cell phone when driving, chances are high that the driver will ram in another vehicle, hit a pedestrian, or sway away from road and hit a tree as a result of divided attention. In rare cases do we witness crashes as a result of Act of God, like a tree falling on a vehicle (Smart Motorists 2).

All over the media, we see campaigns against overspeeding motorists, which is a leading cause of crashes. According to Smart Motorist, the force experienced by the human body in a collision increase exponentially with speed (4). Drivers especially youngsters and those driving public service vehicles, speed intentionally whereas they know the potential danger involved in doing this. The risks are further increased when roads are not well marked by traffic signs. Additionally, when a driver is speeding, he/she will easily knock a crossing pedestrian as opposed to those driving at an average speed.

As asserted by Smart Motorist, current automobiles are engineered to very secure benchmarks, and the surroundings they are driven in is engineered to minimize the injuries suffered during an accident (Smart Motorist 5). However, the most daunting task is to transform belligerent driver deeds and self-centered mindsets.

Additionally, aggressive behaviors such as drivers failure to observe road signs and signals, dangerous or numerous lane changes impaired driving, following closely another vehicle, and refusing to give the right of way to another motorist. However, it should also be noted that some accidents are maybe beyond control of some drivers. Take an example where a speeding or careless driver will unfortunately hit a driver driving carefully and thereby causing unnecessary death and destruction of property.

Equipment Failure

Car manufacturers are obligated to engineer automobiles that meet certain minimum-security benchmarks and this has been largely achieved. Unfortunately, cases of a tire bursting and/or tread division, brake failure, and steering/suspension malfunction have been reported to cause accidents. However, combined sum for the entire accident cases reported, automobile malfunction takes only less than 5 percent (International Federation of Red Cross 3).

Basically, when a vehicle is in motion especially when at high speed, should brake develop a malfunction, the driver will no longer have control of the vehicle and consequently, the automobile will either hit any vehicle ahead of it, may roll, or collide with any vehicle coming from the opposite direction.

With technological advances, radial tires are considered secure as compared to older types. However, under inflation, the most frequent cause of tire failure is considered the main culprit in the recent Firestone tire-failure fatalities. Uneven or worn-out tires are the next most serious problem and can also lead to tire failure (Richardson 5). Irregular or exhausted tires have been cited as another leading cause of automobile failure. If the tire is worn out, there will be not enough friction between the road and the tire and therefore breaking will be very difficult no matter how perfect the road is engineered. Jagged wear comes about by inappropriately tire equilibrium, out of order or skewed suspension (Agustin 3).

Car suspensions help keep tires in touch with the road predictably and steadily. Even a competent driver is helpless in cases where suspension or navigation system experiences a malfunction. Such malfunctions are disastrous, in particular at high speeds and on a potholed road.

Road Designs

In some cases, motorists have blamed road designs for road crashes. Authorities in the Middle East and Gulf countries have spent time and millions of money filling potholes, putting road barriers, guardrails, and railroad crossings to enhance road safety. Civil engineers and government provide custom-made designs to meet specific local conditions with special attention focusing on; traffic management tools whereby speed limit symbols, pedestrian crossing, traffic lights, roundabouts and turning lane, speed bumps, road identification symbols, behavioral management gadgets among others (Agustin 4).

Stormy environment can worsen existing vulnerability and occasionally produce fresh road surfaces such as snow and ice. When it rains, the road becomes slippery and when this is coupled with poor road banking, it makes the situation even worse.

Poor Road Maintenance

Roadway maintenance timetables and course of actions differ significantly from country to country and city to city, so countrywide benchmarks do not actually exist. Some impending roadway upholding deficiencies that may lead to road crashes include:

• Dull road symbols, and symbols covered by plants
• fragments on the road
• The roadway is under construction but is poorly marked to give enough warning to motorists. But sometimes this has been blamed on drivers who ignore those symbols and continue to drive at high speeds

Types of Road Crashes

Road crashes occur in different ways and the way it occurs is related to the degree of damage that will occur. Some of the types of road crashes include red-light runner crash, rear-end crash and head-on collision each with varying severity depending on speed that we vehicles were traveling at.

Red Light Runner Crash

This is whereby one driver fails to observe red lights near intersections and/or roundabouts and drives on when he/she is supposed to stop while the other observing green light drives on and therefore crashes somewhere in the middle of an intersection or roundabout. Sometimes red-light running crashes are never intentional for example if in road junctions where there is a horizontal road curve or the crossroad has a downgrade or upgrade distance the halting view may be constrained by possible sight hindrances around the junction.

If those driving are not in a position to notice signal altering and probable contradictory automobile, they have a bigger probability of running a red light and colliding. It has emerged that traffic dynamics such as number of lanes, crash time, weather, highway character, day of week, urban or rural location, speed limit, driver age, alcohol or drug use, physical defect, and vehicle type were significantly associated with the risk of red-light running crashes(Yan, Radwan and Birriel 1).

The severity of the accident depends on factors us as the speed of the collision, the angle of collision, and the types of collision. If the vehicles involved in a crash were in high momentum, then the chances are high that the crash may lead to instant loss of life and complete damage of the vehicles. On the other hand, if speeds were low, there might be minor injuries with less destruction of vehicles involved. Take for instance; if a big truck, in this scenario, hit a small car there are high chances of serious injuries if not death and a high degree of property destruction.

Rear-end Collision

This is road crash whereby a vehicle crashes into or hits the motor vehicle in front or ahead of it, normally as a resulting following the other vehicle closely(tailgating), brake failure, or panic stops. Typical cases occur when suddenly the first car slows down probably to give a pedestrian time to cross while the second vehicle does not have adequate space to brake and thereby hitting it from behind.

In most cases, the severity of such crashes is small (whiplash) but in severe instances, lasting damages such as herniation possibly will arise and generally, those in the first class are the highly affected. In terms of vehicle damage, it depends on the speed at which the second vehicle was moving at with high speeds causing more damage. Additionally, if one car is huge than the other, then the smaller car will be damaged to a higher degree.

Head-on Collision Crash

Statistically, this kind of collision has the worst outcomes due to the speed of vehicles involved in collision. In most cases, lives are lost or permanent damages prevail in such crashes. This kind of crash occurs when one motor vehicle unintentionally drifts into the lane of an approaching vehicle. Nevertheless, the core reason occasionally lies in a navigation overcorrection after veering to the side of the road as opposed to the center (Sabnal 2). In some cases, there has been steering wheel failure or swaying of vehicle particular when it rains due to decrease in friction force and risks are multiplied if the was moving at thrilling speed.

Secondly, a head-on collision is caused by a miscalculation by drivers when overtaking. As the driver tries to overtake, they invade into oncoming cars lane and thereby causing a head-on collision.

Solution of Crashes

Appreciating that over 80 percent of road crashes are caused by pure human error is a major step towards preventing further loss of lives. First, drivers should be encouraged to observe speed limits and never to go below or further than recommended speed restrictions so that risks of being hit or hitting another vehicle are reduced. If a driver over speeds, he/she faces a higher probability of losing grip on the vehicle and will either collide with an oncoming vehicle or roll. To stop these, stiffer penalties must be introduced in the Middle East and Gulf Countries to those found flouting traffic rules with a possibility of revoking their driving licenses.

Secondly, road safety education should be done in these nations. Pedestrians also contribute significantly to road accidents and consequently all stakeholders must take the initiative of educating them. On the other hand, drivers are encouraged to be trained by qualified institutions only, to be equipped with necessary skills. It has been noted with deep concern that, motorbike is nowadays the leading cause of accidents and this is attributed to training. Most of them never attend formal training. Law enforcers must ensure that those without valid driving licenses are banned and even if they have valid licenses but flout rules, they should be taken for refresher courses.

Driving under influence of alcohol and/drug must be stopped at all costs as this reduces the drivers driving skills and concentration by 95 percent. Citizens are encouraged to take with them friends who will drive them once they are drunk or use public vehicles. Since traffic police have adequate machinery to deal with this, they should be more vigilant and deal with those found driving risking their lives and the lives of other road users (Jacobs and Aeron-Thomas 13).

We cannot rule out poor road conditions, faded/unclear road symbols, and unmarked roads under construction as contributing factors to road crashes in Gulf and Middle East countries. Government authorities charged with road maintenance responsibilities must ensure that all potholes are filled; road bumps are clearly marked and erected where they are supposed to be. Where we have road intersections, traffic lights must be installed at an angle clear to all motorists to prevent run red crashes.

Finally, road and car engineers must deliver standard roads and vehicles respectively. Some cases of equipment failure have been reported and the government must deal with this. Governments must step efforts to ensure only those vehicles meeting minimum standards are allowed on the road. Additionally, regular checks must be done on those vehicles already registered to weed out faulty ones. When awarding tender for road construction, all those companies must be properly evaluated to ensure that qualified contractors who will deliver quality work are the only ones awarded.

Conclusion

Generally, road crashes are high in Gulf, Middle East and third world countries as compared to occurrence in developed countries. Road crashes are mainly caused by human factors, equipment failure, poor road conditions, and substandard road design. Of the listed factors, the human factor takes about 75 percent of the causes of road accidents.

The degree of severity of an accident varies depending on contributing factors as speed of collision, type of crash and type of vehicles involved. A head-on collision is the worst as compared to run red or rear-end road crash. Middle East and Gulf countries governments have stepped up efforts to curb road carnage by increasing stiffer regulations, educating its citizens, upgrading road networks among other preventing measures.

Works Cited

Agustin, Ivonne. Knowing the causes and solutions to road accidents. Middle East Road Safety Journal, 7.1 (2009).

International Federation of Red Cross. Road safety. New York: Prentice Hall, 2010.

Jacobs, Dan and Aeron-Thomas, Amy. A review of global road accident fatalities. Road Safety Management Journal, 10.5(2009): 1-15.

Richardson, Peter. Road safety crash statistics. Lothian & Borders Police Road Safety Unit Journal, 7.2 (2004):1-19.

Sabnal, Junice. Road accident: head-on collision.Road accidents in Gulf Countries Journal, 34.7 (2007):1-19.

Smart Motorist. Red light running crashes are on the increase. Washington: Natl. Acad., 2009.

World Bank Group. What causes accidents? New York: United Nations, 2008. Print.

Yan, Xuedong V., Radwan, Essam, and Birriel, Elizabeth. Analysis of red light running crashes based on quasi-induced exposure and multiple logistic regression method. Transport Research Record Journal, 1908.3 (2005):1-10.

Introduction

The well-being and peaceful state of a society depend on the nature of community safety intervention measures adopted not only by law enforcement agents within that community but also by the society itself. This is because, although law enforcing agents or safety maintaining bodies, for example, fire stations may put in place measures to prevent the occurrence of accidents, health hazards and crimes, the overall role of ensuring such intervention measures succeed depends on society members willingness to cooperate with such bodies.

It is important to note that, in any societal setting occurrence of deviant behaviors and accidents is a common phenomenon hence, the need for a society to implement measures necessary to deal with such accidents and deviant behaviors any time they occur. Implementation of such measures is of great significance to a community for it helps to ensure that any act of deviance or accident does not disturb a societys patterns of living, modes of operation, and peaceful coexistence (National Community Safety Network 1)

Primarily the practice of community safety entails the overall process of preventing, minimizing, or alleviating chances of activities occurring that are likely to jeopardize the peaceful coexistence of a society or threaten peoples societal rights. Besides, community safety involves the practice of offering assistance to individuals with specific unsociable behaviors as a mechanism of ensuring they cope with their mental and social conditions.

Depending on the forces behind the occurrence of such activities, such activities can be environmentally, socially, or politically driven hence, the need for cooperation between all individuals in a society. Through co-operation, a society can receive the desired guidance, funding, and help from governmental and non-governmental organizations hence, not only helping itself to combat occurrences of deviant behaviors but also helping the government deal with crime and other societal issues. In it important to note that enforcing community safety measures is a function of not only the local authority, but rather it involves all societal members, who include local authorities, academicians, and any individuals involved actively in combating crime and accidents (National Community Safety Network 1).

Community Safety Issues and their Solutions

For communities to deal properly with any safety threats that surround them, it is of great significance for such communities to firstly identify any safety issues, which are of great risk to its existence. Through early identification of such threats, individuals can be able to formulate not only individual mechanisms of dealing with such threats but also it will give them a chance of collaborating with others and seeking higher-order intervention measures from local authorities. It is important to note that the practice of ensuring society is safe should be a collaborative activity because safety threats are not selective but, rather they affect the entire society in many different ways.

Domestic Violence

One primary community safety issue that affects society is domestic violence. Domestic violence is one of the primary safety issues that are of great concern to many societies. Since time memorial, although societies have come up with measures of dealing with domestic violence, this is one of the most unpunished crimes in societies because most abused individuals do not report their abusers to the authorities.

Globally, more than 40% of women deaths occur annually as a result of domestic violence; a number that increases with an increase in suicide cases associated with domestic violence. The majority of battered individuals suffer silently due to fear of intimidation, a fact that increases most battered individuals suffering hence, the suicidal tendencies of most domestic violence victims.

One primary reason why domestic violence is one of the primary threat to society is that, unlike other forms of abuse that cause physical harm, its effects are not only physical, but also they are psychological, emotional, economic, and of great harm to an individuals sense of being. Perpetrators of domestic violence are many ranging from spouses, both nuclear and extended family members, and in some cases caretakers (Advocates for Human rights 1).

Although in most cases, most individuals associate domestic violence with adults, the practice affects young children very much, them being primary recipients of effects resulting from family breakages and problems. In addition to children, as research studies indicate, animals are not either spared when it comes to domestic violence, as some individuals sometimes vent their anger on animals. Primary causes of this form of violence include marital problems, alcoholism, and drug abuse; practices that pose may other security threats to the peaceful coexistence and integration of a society.

Therefore, because of the aggression associated with the practice, in most cases effects resulting from the abuse are very fatal and devastating hence, making it necessary for a society to have appropriate measures of dealing with the practice. Common effects of domestic violence include increased susceptibility to sexually transmitted infections, chronic pains, psychological trauma, and death, in most untamed cases (Pallito 1-7).

Considering the death of effects resulting from domestic violence, it is of great significance for society to work in close collaboration with local authorities in dealing with domestic violence. It is because, through close collaborations, chances of unreported cases going unpunished are minimal, as a result of individuals ensuring their neighbors have the required protections. It is important to note that, although men are victims of domestic violence, the majority of the sufferers are women and young children; they being the most vulnerable members of society.

Therefore, to deal with the problem adequately, there is a need for the formulation of prevention and early intervention measures necessary for offering the required justice to sufferers of domestic violence. Common strategies of dealing with domestic violence include formulating reporting mechanisms, offering training and education opportunities to the vulnerable members of the society, and offering the necessary support to victims of abuse. In addition to this, there is a need for the government in collaboration with organizations that deal with domestic violence to give employers guidelines necessary to ensure workstations are free from domestic violence and employee intimidation (Suffolk County Council 1).

Child Safety

Child safety is another community safety issue that is of great concern to any societal member. Children are the most vulnerable group to most crime perpetrators because, in most cases, they are easy to convince and lure into traps. In addition to them being easily convincible, with the current technological innovations and because of the availability of computers and internet connections in most homes, most children are victims of internet crimes, for example, bullying and kidnappings.

On the other hand, most school transport services are easily susceptible to gang attacks because of the lack of required security patrol systems in some communities. It is important to note that child safety encompasses all safety measures within and outside the schools and homes because even within school premises, there exist many safety issues that administrations should take note of. For example, in dealing with an emergency, an outbreak of a fire, or a deadly infection, a school must ensure it has in place measures necessary for ensuring it averts risks associated with the spreading of such a calamity (National Association of School Psychologists 1).

In addition to safety in learning institutions, child abuse is another society practice that greatly jeopardizes greatly child safety. As research studies show, more than 56 % of adolescents at one time in their life, they were victims of child abuse. Child abuse takes many forms ranging from simple pain infliction to the worst form of child abuse that involves child labor and sexual abuse in form of prostitution or asking for sexual favors from children. All these forms of abuse cause extreme suffering to children, and in case caretakers fail to recognize such abuses, the likelihoods of most children committing suicide are high because most of them lack mechanisms of coping with the pain (Matthews 1).

Globally, according to the World Health Organisation research studies on child abuse, more than fifty-three child abuse murders occur annually; more than two hundred and eighteen thousand children actively participate in child labor, and more than two hundred and seventy-five million children are victims of domestic violence annually. Appropriate children protection policies should safeguard childrens rights from their homes to school and in all activities children engage themselves in (Usborne 1).

Considering all these threats to child safety, communities have to engage themselves actively in the formulation of policies necessary for ensuring children receive the desired protection from any forces within the society that threatens their security. Right from homes to learning institutions parents, and should collaborate with local council authorities in ensuring their children receive required protection from gang activities or any form of abuse. It is achievable through adopting patrol security measures to safeguard children in their traveling ventures. Within the schools premises, school administrations should implement measures necessary to ensure all they minimize all threats to childrens security.

Such measures should include the construction of safe buildings, constructing evacuation channels, and health methodologies of preventing the spread of infectious diseases in case they occur. In addition to these measures, it is important for parents in collaboration with school administrations to offer educational training and guidance to children. This is one of the primary mechanisms of ensuring that children are aware of the nature of security threats they are likely to encounter in their daily endeavors hence, minimizing the chances of most of them being victims of gang activities (Matthews 1).

On the other hand, because of the serious nature of child abuse, there is a need for all community members to take a central role in ensuring children receive the required protection. Although individuals report some child abuse cases, most cases of child abuse go unpunished, because some societies lack appropriate reporting mechanism, necessary for ensuring all child law enforcing agents hold all child abusers accountable for their crimes. Therefore, this makes it necessary for a society to have good and secure reporting procedures, crucial in safeguarding all childrens rights (United Nations Childrens Fund 1)

Gang Violence

Another community safety issue that greatly jeopardizes the well being of individuals in society is gang violence. Although the majority of individuals associate gang violence with joblessness adults, in some communities some students may be involved in gang violence, a fact that makes the scenario worse because most students follow mob psychology. Gang violence is one of the worst security threats to a community because, in most cases, most gang activities end with the loss of numerous lives and destruction of property.

It is crucial to note that most gang activities are well organized, and in most cases, criminals will target innocent individuals, for example, mothers and young children. Therefore, considering this, it is of great significance for societal members to work in close collaboration with law enforcement agents; it is the primary mechanism of ensuring the government meets their security needs (Bania 90-92).

Closely related to gang violence is prostitution and drug abuse. These are two other primary threats to a societys security, because in most cases, as research studies show, there is a close relationship between criminal gangs, prostitution, and substance abuse. Considering the nature of outcomes from gang activities and the impacts of such activities on the societies, firstly, parents should ensure they monitor their childrens activities, for it may provide a mechanism of realizing early gang warning symbols, for instance, tattoos and languages. The monitoring initiative should go beyond the normal family monitoring to monitoring childrens acquaintances, a fact that is only achievable through close collaboration with neighbors (Veale 1).

On the other hand, at the communal level, there is a need for all community members to cooperate amongst themselves through community policing programs in addition to collaborating with law enforcement agents. This is one of the primary mechanisms of discovering the reality behind criminal activity hence, formulating appropriate mechanisms of dealing with such activities. For governments and local authorities to deal with criminal gangs activities, there is a need for authorities to formulate criminal activity reporting mechanisms that will ensure reporters and witnesses of criminal activities receive the desired protections. This is one of the primary mechanisms of reducing chances of intimidation from criminal gangs hence, a mechanism of ensuring individuals report all criminal activity (Veale 11

As compared to other community safety issues, fire safety is of great concern because of the destructive nature of fires. Fire hazards range from simple home fires to complex fire scenarios that involve vast tracks of land or property. Hence, considering the destructive nature of fires, there should be many governmental initiatives to sensitize the public on the importance of maintaining a fire-free environment. Such initiatives involve the need for all occupied structures and building to have fire fighting gadgets and evacuating tunnels necessary for fighting fires and avoiding dangers of fire in case they occur.

In addition to fire fighting equipment, there is a need for individuals to ensure their houses have working smoke detectors connected to fire alarms, necessary for providing early warnings of a fire outbreak in case it occurs. It is crucial to note that the availability of fire fighting and prevention equipment is of no use without proper training on how individuals should handle fires. Hence, to ensure every individual, including children, have the required know-how on fire fighting mechanisms, there is a need for all society members in collaboration with local authorities to develop training programs, necessary for ensuring all individuals have the required fire fighting skills (Direct government 1).

To avoid small fires from occurring or spreading as a result of carelessness, there is a need for individuals to learn fire safety rules for all electrical appliances and the necessity of fire retardant cloth ware necessary for avoiding small home fires. Finally, for homes to access the services of firefighters in case the situation goes out of hand, it is necessary for local fire helplines to be functional and to be known to all home occupants (Direct government 1).

Conclusion

In conclusion, regardless of any community safety issue, the overall role of ensuring a community is safe lies in the hand of community members. It is because it is the community members who understand problems that face them; hence, they can easily formulate mechanisms of dealing with such issues, even without the help of local authorities. It is important to note that community issues are inevitable hence, the need for societies in collaboration with local authorities to formulate appropriate methodologies of handling such issues whenever they arise.

Works Cited

Advocates for Human Rights. Effects of domestic violence. Advocates for Human Rights. 2006. Web.

Bania, Melanie. Gang violence among youth and young adults: (dis) affiliation and the Potential for prevention. IPC Review, 3 (2009): 89-116.

Direct Government. Fire safety in the home. Direct Government. 2010. Web.

Matthews, John. School safety tips. School Safety Institute. 2009. Web.

National Associations of School Psychologists. Tips for school administrators for Reinforcing school safety. NASP. 2010. Web.

National Community Safety Network. NCSN guide to CDRP/CSP working 2009: An NCSN induction guide for practitioners. NCSN. 2010. Web.

Pallito, Christina. Domestic violence and maternal, infant, and reproductive health: A critical review of the literature. 2010. Web.

Suffolk County Council. Domestic violence. 2010. Web.

United Nations Childrens Fund. Stop violence against children in communities: Safety tips-what you can do. 2007. Web.

Usborne, David. UN report uncovers global child abuse. The Independent. 2006. Web.

Generally water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. However, the presence of the water forming atoms, hydrogen and oxygen does not determine the quality of water. The quality of water has been described as the measure of water suitability for a particular utilization (Chapman, 1996). The quality of water is based on physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. The factors observed in determining the quality of water include the following. First of all, it is the color of the water. Most of the water varies in color due to dissolved materials in it. For instance, nutrient rich water tends to be green in color. PH is another factor; pH is the measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of water. It ranges from 0 to 14. Since pH of water can be affected by dissolving chemicals in it, it is then determined as an important element in determining water quality. Water of different ionic content has variable conductivity ability. Specific observance of water conductivity aids in calculating the amount of dissolved particles in water. Turbidity is the measure of the amount of suspension elements in water which portrays the light scattering of water. Water hardness is also another aspect that determines the quality of water; it is determined by the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in water and it varies with place.

The majority of the citizens in Canada take the consumption of water for granted. To solve the issue, Health Canada has come up with guidelines that would aid in ensuring that Canadians consume clean and pure water.

In Canada, the microscopic organisms such as the bacteria, viruses and protozoa have been associated with many water related diseases. To solve this, we will implement the Canada Health microbial health guidelines in testing the quality of Dalhousie University; we will achieve this by taking water samples and testing it for the presence of bacteria such as Escherichia coli that is associated with fecal material (Chapman, 1996). In addition, we will ensure that we have strengthened the guidelines associated with microorganisms because in case of failure to comply with water quality demands, the health conditions of people in Canada will be quite severe.

The quality of water is also determined by the amount of chemicals dissolved in it, some of the drinking water may have chemicals and radioactive substances. Such materials affect an individuals health if they exceed guideline levels. To solve this, amicable measures are going to be applied to enable one to reduce the chemical and radioactive concentration of these substances. The order will be tested for carcinogenic elements in it, and if present, the individuals at Dalhousie University will be discouraged from using that water for consumption purposes (Chapman, 1996).

In the current society there exists an overutilization of aesthetics. The aesthetics has been associated with the poor quality of water. To solve this, our engineering firm will observe water quality guidelines in determining the amount of aesthetics that has dissolved in the water, and if it proves to be carcinogenic, the water will be pronounced unsafe for drinking.

In conclusion, while observing the Canadian health guidelines, the students at Dalhousie University will be entitled to have good health due to consumption of drinking water as recommended by the government of Canada. In addition, through our activity in testing the safety of water, the majority of the students have the chance of learning the importance of taking pure quality water, hence reducing the contraction of many water related diseases.

Reference

Chapman, D. (1996). Water quality assessments: a guide to the use of biota, sediments and water in environmental monitoring. New York: Taylor & Francis.

Background Paper

Religious diversity and its impact on the community have been some of the most popular topics of discourse in the last couple of decades. This was primarily caused by a growing share of ethnic immigrant communities in the developed countries of Europe and the United States. It is, therefore, crucial for public service workers to understand the difficulties associated with the management of multi-religious communities and to learn more about how to address these difficulties effectively.

Rationale

Religious persecution and the widespread neglect of religious diversity originated from the increase in terror attacks and the events of 9/11, which led to the increased alienation of religious minorities, religious persecution, and even hostility (Friedman and Cannon 1379). However, whereas there are a lot of provisions aimed at protecting the public from possible terror attacks, there are no widespread practices to address religious diversity and religious persecution that were also the results of terror attacks. For example, Spalek argues that the lack of proper jurisdiction to address religion-based hate crime in the UK led to an increase in the said offenses due to the fact that they are not charged as severely as gender-based or race-based hate crimes (4). The primary goal of this project, therefore, is to explore the impact of religious diversity on public safety and community policing and to articulate the need to address religious persecution in order to promote public safety.

Review of Primary Sources

Given that Muslim groups are among those most affected by religious persecution in the western world, one of the primary forces of this study was Spaleks work, Islam, Crime, and Criminal Justice. The book provides an overview of the struggles faced by Muslim communities in Europe and the west and outlines the existing policies that are used to promote the safety of multi-religious communities in Britain. Another important source for this paper is Hodges article Social Justice and People of Faith: A Transnational Perspective, which explores the intersection between social justice and religion, as seen in the field of social work. The article is particularly useful in outlining the challenges that religious diversity poses for public work: for instance, the author argues that the offenses are usually directed to religious people with low social status, that are often marginalized in both international and community policing (Hodge 139).

An article by Friedmann and Cannon, which compares public safety policies before and after the 2001 attacks, is also a useful source in outlining the gaps in policing that have to be addressed to promote the security of all people in the community, regardless of their religious beliefs. Finally, articles by Smith and Putnam provide a summary of religious diversity today and its perception in public. For example, Putnam argues that increased diversity leads to social issues, such as Lower confidence in local government, local leaders and the local news media (149) and Less happiness and lower perceived quality of life (150). Smith, on the other hand, claims that the US attitude towards other religions can be characterized as religious orthodoxy, the notion that society, [&] ought to try to ensure that its members adhered to a single faith (2), which also poses complications for religious integration and cooperation.

Overall, I believe that this project will help me to get a deeper insight into the issues associated with increased religious diversity and their impact on public safety policing. Obtaining more information on the ways to counter these difficulties, on the other hand, will help me in my further work and studies.

Interview Questions

Introduction: Hello, my name is (&). I am here today to talk about your opinion on religious diversity in multicultural communities. Your answers will be used as part of a research study to determine the effects of religious diversity on public safety and policy. Your name and personal detail will not be disclosed in the paper unless under you provide informed consent.

Q1. What religious community are you part of (Christian, Buddhist, etc.)?

Given that Christianity is the primary religion in America, the answer will determine whether the respondent is from the main religious group or part of a minority religion, which can help to evaluate the answers to further questions.

Q2. What other religious groups are there in your community?

The project is focused on religious diversity, so it is crucial to ensure that the respondent is living in a multi-religious community.

Q3. What is your personal opinion on religious diversity?

Determining the respondents opinion on religious diversity, in general, gives more insight into his or her answers to further questions.

Q4. What, in your opinion, is the impact of religious diversity on public safety and security?

According to the study by Algan, Hemet, and Latin, many people see religious diversity as a threat to public safety (2). Understanding the respondents personal views can be useful in evaluating this finding.

Q5. Are there any religions that you believe pose a threat to public safety and security?

As noted by Spalek, Islam has been widely perceived as a threat to public safety in recent years (7-9), whereas other religions are considered to be more peaceful, although they are more victimized (2).

Q6. What do you think determines the perception of religion in the community?

Spalek argues that the terror attacks of 2001 were largely responsible for the demonization of Islam and Muslims in multi-cultural settings (1). The answer to this question will help to determine how widespread the problem is and whether the respondent shares the same view.

Q7. What are the effects of the negative perception of a religious group? Do you feel like a negative image of a certain religion extends to the people who practice it?

This question is based on research by Friedmann and Cannon, who argue that people who have an ethnic or religious resemblance to the terrorists may face distrust and alienation when living in a multicultural community (1379). The answer will help to identify whether this is true in the respondents community.

Q8. How prevalent are religious persecution and religious-based hate crime in your community?

According to Vine, religious persecution remains a widespread issue that affects the people of all religions (35). Religious persecution may lead to hate crime, thus impairing public safety and security (Spalek 4).

Q9. What are the ways in which the public and social workers address religious diversity and religious persecution in your community?

As noted by Brintnall, public workers have to be aware of the issues that might affect the safety of the community (40). However, few efforts to determine the impact of religious diversity on public policing, which is why most areas do not have sufficient provisions to deal with persecution and minor religious hate crime.

Q10. What do you think are effective ways of addressing religious diversity in public policing?

The answer may provide useful suggestions for further research or support the existent findings regarding the policing of multi-religious communities.

The Implications of High Religious Diversity for Public Safety Management

Religious diversity is increasing throughout the world, particularly in developed countries that have large immigrant communities (Putnam 137). Despite the number of benefits that interreligious cooperation and integration have for the future of the community, such as increased solidarity, equality, and the promotion of human rights, religious diversity proved to be one of the most critical challenges that multicultural societies face (Putnam 137). In particular, religious diversity was shown to increase social isolation (Putnam 141), as well as provoke distrust, hostility, and hate crimes against certain religious groups that are viewed as threatening public safety (Friedmann and Cannon 1379). Understanding the development of religious diversity, as well as its effects on multi-religious communities, can equip social workers with the information necessary to develop strategies for reducing the adverse effects and promoting social and cultural cohesion. In the long run, the implementation of appropriate social justice practices for people of all religions can decrease the instances of religious persecution, thus helping to ensure public safety and security in developed countries.

Origins and Benefits of Religious Diversity

The main reason for the increase of religious diversity is the globalization of the world, which leads to an increase in immigration (Putnam 137). Current events, such as the refugee crisis, can also promote immigration and thus facilitate religious diversity in some European countries, as well as in the US. Putnam claims that the increase in cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity has a lot of opportunities for social and economic development (139). For example, the author states that there is historical evidence of the relationship between diversity and creativity: Throughout history, for example, immigrants have accounted for three to four times as many of Americas Nobel Laureates, National Academy of Science members, Academy Award film directors and winners of Kennedy Center awards in the performing arts as native-born Americans (Putnam 140). Moreover, in the long run, immigration has a positive influence on the economic development of countries, including an increased income of the native population (Putnam 140).

Furthermore, businesses that employ workers from a variety of backgrounds have more opportunities to grow globally, as employees may become a source of valuable cultural knowledge that can facilitate expansion to certain countries. Religious freedom is also one of the basic human rights (Smith 1), which means that the provisions allowing the free exercise of religion and the protection of religious groups that are under threat of alienation and discrimination promotes the social values of the community and ensures its stability. Nevertheless, since the beginning of the 21st century, religious diversity is widely viewed as a threat to public safety rather than an opportunity for growth (Algan et al. 1). The main reason for the fear of religious diversity in developed countries is the rise in terrorism.

Terrorism and Public Safety Issues

Terrorism became a widespread issue after the 9/11 terror attacks on the buildings of World Trade Center in New York City. The attacks took the lives of almost 3000 people and left thousands more injured. Such a massive incident shook not only the United States but the entire world, prompting most countries to impose stricter public safety controls to prevent future attacks. For instance, in the US, Encompassing a variety of functions and responsibilities, the DHS has recognized the value of local police forces and has supported these agencies through increased training and monetary funding (Friedmann and Connan 1373). In fact, the entire working of the Department of Homeland Security was changed after the attacks to incorporate new goals (Friedmann and Connan, 1376). Another effect of the incident was the increased focus on anti-terrorism training of law enforcement and other public service agencies since the attack proved that the current resources were insufficient to provide the necessary aid during such a large-scale crisis (Friedmann and Connan, 1378).

The 9/11 attack was one of the reasons for the US to start a war on terrorism (Pastor 11). The war on terrorism is still on-going, and it affected many countries, as well as their economies. Most importantly, however, it affected the peoples perception of the Islamic religion  since it is deemed to be the source of terrorists ideology. Pastor argues that the peoples fear of Muslim people is understandable, especially in the aftermath of the terror attacks: the message that is conveyed [through the attacks] is this: Anyone, anywhere, at any time may be the target of the next attack (46). In fact, the personalization of the attack, or the thought it could have been me is one of the goals of terrorism, as it helps to raise the fear and incite the conflict between different nations and religions (Pastor 46).

Repercussions of Terrorism for Multi-Religious Communities

Therefore, terrorism is the primary reason for the publics negative attitudes towards the people of other religions, particularly Islam. Despite the fact that radical activists only represent a very small share of the Muslim population, the fear extends to anyone who shares ethnic, religious, and immigrant resemblance with individuals involved in terrorist organizations (Friedmann and Cannon 1379). The fear causes disruptions to the public perceptions of minority religions, which is why religious diversity in the contemporary settings often leads to lower cohesion, decreased social trust, impaired investment into public goods (Putnam 143). Even when people of the minority religions are accepted by the wider society, it is preferred that their religious identity remains invisible to the public. For instance, in the Netherlands, there were major debates about Muslim women wearing veils and other religious attire in public places (Saharso and Lettinga 455). In particular, The court argued that headscarves threaten peoples trust in the neutrality of the courts (Saharso and Lettinga 460), whereas the public saw veiling as a symbol of radicalism and of a cultural threat to Western or Dutch values (Saharso and Lettinga 468). Algan et al. argue that evidence suggests that religious diversity is now perceived by many as the biggest obstacle to social peace (2). Such social attitudes have led to the increase in hate crimes based on religion and to religious persecution that affected the people of all the religions, thus increasing tensions between the religious groups living or working in the same community.

Religious Persecution and Religion-Based Hate Crime

According to Vine, people all over the world today suffer from religious persecution as a result of increased inter-religious tensions. For instance, in some countries, governments seek control of all the religious groups: in these countries, religious groups are often viewed as enemies of the state (Vine 35). In the countries where multiple religious coexist, on the other hand, certain minority religions become the target of hate crimes. For examples, in Britan, violence against all ethnic minority and religious groups is persistent (Spalek 63). In Mauritania, on the other hand, the Muslim majority often shows hostility towards Christian religious groups: It may be argued that governments tolerate this social hostility, either to further their own religious or political objectives or to divert social hostility away from themselves to convenient scapegoats (Vine 35). The US also became a major scene of religious hate offences after the events of 9/11: These attacks had serious repercussions among Muslim communities in the western world in that many individuals were attacked (some were killed) or subjected to abuse, and mosques also became the targets of hate crime (Spalek 53). As such, religious hate crimes pose a threat to public safety which is no less crucial that terrorism.

Moreover, whereas there are multiple counter-terrorist measures in place to control terror attacks and decrease their incidence, there are currently no distinctive policies to promote the safety of religious minorities and to prevent religious hate crimes. Spalek argues that in most developed countries, religion-based offenses towards minority groups are often overlooked, and the victims of religious crime often decide to claim that the crime was based on racial or ethnic hate in order for the offenders misconduct to be taken seriously (5). Thus, the increase in religious intolerance calls for public policy measures to promote justice and security for people of all religions.

Implications for Public Service and Safety

Brintnall argues that Successful governance of multiethnic democracies and advancement of social and political equity for minorities has become one of the most important goals of social work in developed countries (39). Policymakers must have an understanding of the particular circumstances of the citizens that their policies are aimed at, as well as of the issues appropriate to the various groups of the community (Brintnall 40). Field workers, such as law enforcement, on the other hand, have to be equipped with the necessary training to be able to address the variety of problems generated by multicultural and multi-religious groups (Brintnall 39). Both the community policies and the training provided should promote (a) assurance of rights for everyone, (b) equitable delivery of services, and (c) movement toward full (Brintnall 40). One way of completing these goals is by developing new regulations for religious persecution and religious-based hate crimes and to provide the necessary training for the law enforcement to enable the workers to identify religion-based crime from common offense (Brintnall 41). Another practice proposed by Brintnall is to recruit people from minority religions into social structures (41). Indeed, social workers that come from minority religions may offer new ways to adjust the existent approach that will improve the ways in which social workers address religious issues in the community. Finally, Hodge proposes the practice of self-education and the spreading of information regarding religious-based crime as one of the ways in which social workers may help to address the issues (143).

Religious Diversity in the Franciscan Tradition

The issue of religious diversity applies to the Franciscan Tradition as it has a wide history of facing and coexisting with other religions all over the world. For example, Botta provides an overview of the Franciscan views on polytheism. He claims that the Franciscan views helped to alleviate the theological conflict between the indigenous people of New Spain and the colonialists: the Franciscan offered a clear theology of history that achieved the result of nullifying the scandal generated by the emergence of a plurality of cultures (Botta 17). Warner, on the other hand, provides another historical view of the relationship between Franciscans and the people of other religions. Drawing on the experience of St. Francis of Assisi, the author argues that the Franciscan tradition was tolerant of a wide variety of people, including those of other religions (Warner 69). One of the main doctrines of the contemporary Franciscan tradition, for instance, is that God is understood as expressing agency through other social actors to further or deepen ones own conversion (69). In this sense, an encounter with people from other religious backgrounds is understood as a favorable experience that does not incite alienation or hostility, but rather facilitate the development of Franciscan values. Moreover, since social cohesion and avoidance of conflict are also important provisions of the Franciscan tradition, ensuring a safe environment and promote cooperation for people of all backgrounds is also a goal that fits the Franciscan understanding of the world.

Conclusion

Overall, I believe that religious diversity is a concept that is widely undervalued in the contemporary world. The instances of interreligious hate and crime become more and more widespread after terror attacks or threats. Nevertheless, there are still opportunities for social workers to promote cohesion and understanding in multi-religious communities. The correct implementation of appropriate education, employment, policing, and training practices will have a positive influence on the quality of life of people from religious minorities, while at the same time allowing a variety of people to enjoy the benefits of diversity and religious freedom.

Annotated Bibliography

Algan, Yann, et al. Diversity and Public Goods: A Natural Experiment with Exogenous Residential Allocation. Institude for the Study of Labor Discussion Paper Series, no. 6053, pp. 1-40.

This is a quantitative research study aimed at examining the effect of ethnic and religious diversity on the quality and safety of public places. The authors use French Housing conditions to explore peoples social interactions in a heterogeneous community. The results show that diversity leads to lower levels of sanctions for anti-social behavior, but can impair public efforts to improve housing conditions. The effect on public safety in this setting was rather minimal.

Botta, Sergio. Towards a Missionary Theory of Polyethism: The Franciscans in the Face of the Indigenous Religions of New Spain. Manufacturing Otherness: Missions and Indigenous Cultures in Latin America, edited by Sergio Botta, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013, pp. 11-35.

This chapter outlines the history of the Franciscans attitudes towards other religions. The study was done in a qualitative research setting using a literary review method. The chapter provides a good overview on how the religious diversity was viewed in the Franciscan tradition, thus helping to link my project to the Franciscan values and history.

Brintnall, Michael. Preparing the Public Service for Working in Multiethnic Democracies: An Assessment and Ideas for Action. Journal of Public Affairs Education, vol. 14, no. 1, 2008, pp. 39-50.

This article is especially relevant to contemporary multiethnic communities in developed countries. The author explains the challenges of working with people from various backgrounds and provides suggestions for public safety workers to address some of the common issues. Moreover, Brintnall explains the importance of understanding the specifics of multiethnic communities in developing long-term public service solutions.

Friedmann, Robert R., and William J. Cannon. Homeland Security and Community Policing: Competing or Complementing Public Safety Policies. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, vol. 4, no. 4, 2007, pp. 13721391.

In the article, the authors compare and contrast the notions of Homeland Security and Community Policing in the aftermath of 9/11 terror attacks. The authors present a qualitative article that reviews the previous literature on the subject of terrorism and the counter-measures to it. The article is particularly useful for the project as it defines the threat that the people who have an ethnic or religious resemblance to terrorists face and how the hostility and distrust towards them affect the community policing.

Hodge, David R. Social Justice and People of Faith: A Transnational Perspective. Social Work, vol. 52, no. 2, 2007, pp. 139-148.

In this article, the author aims to equip social workers with a basic understanding of religious persecution today. The article draws on a variety of human rights resources to argue that the limitations on the free exercise of religion are some of the most pressing concerns of contemporary social work. Moreover, the author also outlines the framework for addressing the issues that seems promising in promoting social justice to people of all religions.

Pastor, James F. Terrorism and Public Safety Policing: Implications for the Obama Presidency. CRC Press, 2009.

In this book, the author describes the modern terrorism in terms of its implications for public safety policing. Pastor offers an outline of the definitions and concepts associated with terrorism, as well as a section on the larger issues evoked by terrorism. This source is useful for the project as it shows how, even though most extremists are not religious, people that practice minority religions are still viewed as a threat to public safety.

Putnam, Robert D. E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-first Century. Scandinavian Political Studies, vol. 30, no. 2, 2007, pp. 137-174.

Putnams work on religious diversity has been one of the most influential recent studies on the effect of religious diversity on contemporary communities all over the world. In this article, the author presents the result of his qualitative survey study that aimed to determine the common problems faced by people living in diverse religious communities. Among the effects outlined was the lower trust in the government and a decreased feeling of social security.

Saharso, Sawitri, and Doutje Lettinga. Contentious Citizenship: Policies and Debates on the Veil in the Netherlands. Social Politics, vol. 15, no. 4, 2008, pp. 455-480.

This article provides an analysis of the debates and policies regarding Muslim womens religious attire, which started in Netherlands back in the 1990s. The authors use a qualitative research technique to provide a thorough historical and literary review of legal and public sources on the issue. They explain the reasons for the negative view of Muslim people and the impact that the debates had on public policy in the Netherlands.

Smith, Steven D. Religious Freedom and its Enemies, or Why the Smith Decision May Be a Greater Loss Now Than it Was Then. Social Science Research Network Electronic Paper Collection, no. 10-037, 2010, pp. 1-33.

In this article, the author describes the attitudes towards religious freedom in the United States. Smith provides a thorough literary review of the issue of religious freedom from a legal point of view. Most importantly, the author offers an explanation of the notion of imposed religious orthodoxy, arguing that in most countries, people from religious minority might be pressured into conversion to other religions.

Spalek, Basia, editor. Islam, Crime and Criminal Justice. Routledge, 2013.

In this book, Spalek presents a range of articles on the current issues surrounding the Islamic religion. The authors explain that one of the effects of the rise in terrorism was the change in the public perception of Islam, which became the most demonized religion in the contemporary world. The authors outline the effect of these issues on public safety in diverse communities.

Vine, Conrad. Discipleship and Suffering: The Christian Response to Persecution. Journal of Adventist Mission Studies, vol. 12, no. 2, 2016, pp. 35-52.

The author of the article provides another view on religious persecution in the contemporary society. He draws on a literary analysis of the Bible to understand the reasons for persecution and find ways to deal with it that apply to people of all religions, particularly to Christians. The author also discusses the statistics of Christian persecution and the history of the issue, which I use in the project to define the scale of the issues linked to religious diversity.

Warner, Keith Douglass. The Farm Workers and the Franciscans: Reverse Evangelization as Social Prompt for Conversion. Spiritus: A Journal of Christian Spirituality, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 69-88.

This article provides a review of the process of religious conversion as seen in the eyes of the Franciscans historically. The author uses literature review to draw the information from different historical and theological sources. The article adds to the exploration of religious diversity in the Franciscan tradition by exploring the meaning and motives for conversion to Franciscanism.

Nowadays, we live in a relatively peaceful world compared to the life of past generations. Despite that, there are numerous sources of danger whose impact on society should be reduced to maintain safety. The latter remains extremely important in various settings as people face risks of injuries and assaults in many situations.

The term safety can be explained in different ways. In general, being safe involves being protected from various risks. For instance, in the video on safety in Abu Dhabi, police officers maintain safety by catching a highway lawbreaker whose behavior on the road poses a threat to other drivers and pedestrians (MOIUAE, 2015). When it comes to a citizen or urban safety, this term relates to a more specific situation in which the government is acting through the defense and law-enforcement agencies to exercise its responsibilities and improve its citizens quality of life. The importance of safety in the world cannot be overstated as it remains the key element of a happy and prosperous life. With the development of modern technology, cyberspace safety has become a separate area of attention (Hollman, Bickford, & Hollman, 2017). Reducing the key risks that people face at the workplace or on the streets, specialists from different countries enable citizens to focus on their key tasks and responsibilities. The opportunity of every citizen to make positive contributions to society can be limited due to the presence of various factors, and maintaining safety remains an essential task. The existence of safety responsibility can be regarded as a factor that encourages specialists in socially significant fields to become more task-oriented and work with total efficiency. Within this framework, safety has a heavy influence on social life and well-being.

The effects of global safety on prosperity and the economy are numerous since safety runs through all aspects of life. On the one hand, the necessity to maintain safety involves significant financial contributions because successful safety management requires research. On the other hand, the ability to create a safe environment can be regarded as a key to the future, helping to save and grow money.

All people can contribute to the safety of their cities and other citizens. I believe that the key role of any citizen, including me, is to display vigilance and report the presence of suspicious individuals or objects as soon as possible (Kvalheim, Antonsen, & Haugen, 2016). Apart from that, common citizens can contribute to safety by attracting the attention of authorities to circumstances that can cause dangerous situations in the future. For example, such factors include faulty traffic lights, the lack of traffic signs, and other problems that can pose a threat to the safety of common people. To put it in other words, even though the government is supposed to play the key role in protecting peoples safety and health, a part of the responsibility lies on the shoulders of common citizens who are not expected to leave potential sources of danger unattended.

The government that collects taxes is responsible for managing financial resources and allocating enough money to create a strong safety control system. Apart from that, authorities are supposed to set high standards for the work of power-wielding agencies. Another area of governmental responsibility is providing such agencies with enough resources to perform orchestrated actions. Importantly, the video posted by MOIUAE (2015) illustrates the power of coherence and collaboration in neutralization.

In the end, authorities play a key role in maintaining safety because they have the power to set standards and compliance requirements. However, active citizens can also contribute to safety by reporting actual dangerous situations and potential threats. Therefore, safety can be seen as everyones responsibility.

References

Hollman, A., Bickford, S., & Hollman, T. (2017). Cyber insecurity: A post-mortem attempt to assess cyber problems from IT and business management perspectives. Journal of Cases on Information Technology, 19(3), 42-70.

Kvalheim, S. A., Antonsen, S., & Haugen, S. (2016). Safety climate as an indicator for major accident risk: Can we use safety climate as an indicator on the plant level? International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 18(1), 23-31.

MOIUAE. (2015). Abu Dhabi& Safe city[Video file]. Web.

New South Wales labor laws mandates employers to look into their employees health, safety, and welfare at work; The Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 is the principal statutory act that employers must work within in maintain the expected standards (Work Cover NSW).

In part 2, section 8, division the acts gives employer the duty to ensure that their staffs working condition and to some extent their social welfare like health.

According to the act, employers are expected to ensure that work stations do not offer any workplace risks; the work place environment should be favorable for living by human beings. Among the issues that the act proposes should be looked into is proper sanitation, veneration, safety exists, fire extinguishers among other parameters to make life bearable.

The act advises employers to not only work with local bodies to maintain the set standards but should consider the opinions and standpoints of their employees when setting safety measures. The act is of the opinion that a number of work place injuries can be avoided if employees abide to set regulations and work with their employees in that effect (Storey, 2004).

The Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 is founded on international labor laws that require that employees should be protected from unhealthy and unsafe working environments; in Section 8 of Part 2, division 2, the act extends the requirement to other people within the premises of an employer.

According to the division, in the case that an organization has some other people apart from normal employees then employers are mandated to ensure that they are protected against any workplace related injury (Creighton and Rozen, 2007).

In Section 9 of Part 2 referred to as Duties of self-employed persons, employers are given the mandate to enact such appropriate measures that will protect any third person to be injured, health wise or otherwise by the conduct of his or her employees.

The part protect the society in general as well those people who are working closely with an organization; to make the definition clear, the act refers to visitors, students and contractors as other people within working environment who are not employees, they are categorized under the title non-employees.

When the non-employees visit a NSWFB workplace, the act requires that they need to be given safety rules, identification budges or other such gadgets, any protective gear, or any such equipments that can be used to reduce their chances of getting injured.

Non members despite having the gears and being well trained on how to remain save the act requires that in NSWFB workplace, they should be guided strictly and rules of restrictions within the company adhered to (Hofmann and Tetrick, 2003).

Section 10 and 11, mandates controller of working premises to ensure that machinery and any other properly that is under their control has been well vetted for safety; other than vetting the safety, they should ensure that they give such safety information that can assist in prevention of accidents or injuries.

The section separate the mandate given to controller of dwelling premises and those of working premises, those in the working places should have the power to control when the place will be opened, how and by whom, when the premises should be closed or exited and offer such appropriate methods to approach the same.

Like any other act in New South Wales, any person, whether natural or artificial, who goes against the requirements of the act, through an action or an omission is liable of an offence with the punishment there on as penalties.

Employers are on the receiving end where the act requires and emphasis that the need to consult their employees when it comes to issues of health, safety and welfare at work; in the event that the employer fails to do this, employees can enforce the law against the employer.

In section 68 of Part 5, division 2, the enforcement of the act is given to the local councils where at any one time the state can conduct an investigation to ascertain that a certain facility has what it takes to be called safe; when conducting the exercise, the act gives power to the investigator to appoint any person whom he or she thinks is capable of guiding the exercise to do so.

Failure to comply with this provision leads to an offence punishable by law. To make the law comprehensive, the following are some of the provisions provided in Part 2, sections 21, 24, 25, division 3:

• Nobody within or without an organization should make people fear of an injury if the situation cannot be justified (Boyd, 2003).
• Employees, employers, and non employees should not interfere with safety measures put by the company
• Everybody should be willing to respond to a call of help; spirit of assisting each other should be reinforced within the company
• Nobody should hinder another when the later has offered to give aid or prevent injury with work places.

In the process of implementing various policy instruments to keep up traffic safety in Oman, the policy analysts should consider various policy instrument alternatives. Problems involved in the implementation of a given policies should be considered to decide the most effective instrument which can be applied to end traffic problems in Oman.

Normally problems occur in the process of implementing various policies. For instance a policy may be inconsistent with the incentives of target people whose behavior is supposed to change. Secondly, a given policy instrument may not be in line with the interest of the policy makers who may be unwilling to carry out the policy.

In addition, adequate resources may not be available to put a given policy instrument into practice (David and Vining 294). Below are implementation scenarios for two policy instruments which can be applied to make sure that traffic safety in Oman is sustained.

Implementation Scenario for Rules

Rules in form of indirect information provision according to David and vining (87) can be the most proper rules when it comes to restricting certain type of people from offering specific service and allowing only specific trained people to offer a given service. Most accidents in Oman are caused by drivers, as a result formulation of rules which target drivers, motorists and bicyclists on roads are needed in Oman to check traffic problems (Abulbasher et al., 175).

Rules which address reckless driving, driving while drunk, safety belt violation, rules which prohibit young and old vulnerable drivers from using roads and those which make sure only licensed drivers are on the roads are needed in Oman. A variety of problems may arise during implementation of rules to tackle the above traffic issues in Oman.

To begin with, it may be very hard to enforce the rules on the people of Oman particularly on drivers who are the main target. Rules restrict the movement of people and force them to follow specific ways and abiding by certain rules is difficult for most people. A rule which forbids drivers from driving while drunk may not be followed by many people because it may be hard to detect these people on the roads.

After all traffic patrols are not always available on the roads to detect alcohol content using breathalyzer. Furthermore the act of monitoring drivers on roads may be tedious and this monitoring may only be applied in urban areas or in busy roads and in other areas drivers may not abide by the rule since they are not monitored.

Secondly a rule which prohibits young drivers and old vulnerable drivers from using roads may not be effective because it is almost impossible to restrict young energetic, ambitious youths from driving just like restricting old people from driving who may not be active and will always drive when they want to move from one place to another (Young Drivers 3).

As a result this kind of rule may be ignored by many. Imposing rules to check over speeding by drivers and generally reckless driving may not be effective because at times people will over speed when they are in rush and when they are sure that no traffic patrol is on the lookout. Most drivers ignore over speeding rules while others even resist arrest by traffic patrol as a result a rule which addresses over speeding in roads may not be followed by many.

Another problem which might arise in the implementation of rules in the process of ensuring traffic safety in Oman is the long and complex processes of rule formulation and development. Coming up with a rule takes time and requires contribution of various parties such as drivers, lawyers, and government representatives. All the people involved must come together to decide the most effective rule to be applied and this may take time.

This is a drawback in the process of dealing with traffic safety problems in Oman considering accidents occur frequently and a way of cutting down the number of accidents in Oman is needed at the moment. Under normal circumstance rules will take time before they are put into practice because they have to follow specific steps for ratifications.

Implementation Scenario for Government Provisions

Government provision is one policy instrument which can solve a lot of issues on traffic safety. The government can offer a lot of provisions in trying to improve road safety. One of the most important provisions a government can offer to improve traffic safety is the provision traffic education and important traffic information to the public.

This can occur through various means such as through television, posters, government press, roadsides posters, and issuance of leaflets by the government to the people and through government exhibitions (Abulbasher et al., 176). This information may be about use of a new traffic control system or information about climatic conditions in various parts of the country.

Another provision which the government can give to increase traffic safety in Oman is construction of better roads with wider pavements and flyovers for pedestrians and tunnels to cut traffic jam and make sure that there is fast movement of goods and people from one place to another.

Certain problems may arise in the process of implementing these provisions by the government to the people of Oman to improve traffic safety. Although the government may opt to improve infrastructure to cut the number of accidents arising due to poor infrastructure, improvement of infrastructure may not be achieved soon (Plant and Scott 23).

The government of Oman may not have adequate funds and may need extra grants from other governments and this may not be forthcoming. Even if the government has adequate resources, it may take several years before better roads are constructed in Oman because road construction will need labor, time and experienced engineers.

The government might choose to offer traffic education to the public through the social media, posters or through issuance of various publications. This information may be about weather in various areas in Oman or about unsafe roads. Most people neglect this information from social media.

Due to that only few people are able to get the information and follow the government precautions. Ignorant drivers may cause accidents and this ignorance is a problem in the implementation of government provisions and government should choose the most proper means of communication which will reach many drivers. Most of the provisions by the government of Oman for addressing traffic security maybe expensive.

For instance, installing a new traffic control system may be expensive for the government and may inconvenience drivers on the roads who are not conversant with the new system. The government may also incur extra cost of educating the public on how to use the new system. Collaboration by the government of Oman with various institutions which offer traffic education may also make the government to incur extra costs.

Works Cited

Abulbasher, Shahalam, Ali Galal, Charles Bakheit, and EmadFadhel. Factor Analysis: Traffic Accidents and Potential Causes  A Case Study in Oman. National Engineering Conference on Roads, (2011).175-190. Print.

David, Weimer L., and Aidan Vining R. Policy Analysis: Concepts and Practice. Upper. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. (2005). Print.

Plant, Joel B., and Scott, Michael S. Effective Policing and Crime Prevention. A problem Oriented Guide for Mayors, City Managers and Country Executives. Center for Problem-Oriented Policing. US Department of Justice. Washington DC. (2009). Print.

Young Drivers: The Road Safety. Organization for Economic Corporation and Development. (2006). Web. https://www.itf-oecd.org/