Category: Romanticism

When the thought of today, the nineteenth-century writer Edgar Allan Poe is remembered as the master of the short story and the psychological thriller. Born in 1803 to parents who died soon afterward, Poe grew up as a foster child in the home of the Allans, neither of whom were capable of understanding his sensitive and somewhat brooding nature. Upon reaching the majority, Poe struggled to find his niche in life, publishing his first book of poems when he was only 19 and moving to short stories by the time he was 23 (Conklin, 1989). His theory regarding writing was that it should be short enough to be read through at one time. If any literary work is too long to be read at one sitting, we must be content to dispense with the immensely important effect derivable from unity of impression (Mowery, 1997). Although he wrote during what is commonly considered the Romantic period in literary circles, it is primarily through his writing that the concept of the Gothic Romantic came to life. An understanding of the various literary ideas that were floating around while Poe was writing one of his most famous works, The Raven, reveals how these traditions were synthesized and condensed by Poe to create a new genre in literary fiction.

The prevailing literary tradition in vogue at the time Poe was writing was the Romantic period. Largely recognized as having begun in the late 1700s and persisting well into the mid-1800s, the period is marked especially by vast changes taking place in the social landscape. As a result of such sweeping changes, the literary tradition was highly concerned with discovering liberalism in thought. Walter Pater thought the addition of estrangement to beauty (the neoclassicists having insisted on the order in beauty) constituted the romantic temper. An interesting schematic explanation calls romanticism the predominance of imagination over reason and formal rules (classicism) and the sense of fact or the actual (realism) (Holman & Harmon, 2001). Characteristics of the genre identified by Welleck (2003) include a revolt against the principles of neo-classicism criticism, the rediscovery of older English literature, the turn toward subjectivity and the worship of external nature slowly prepared during the eighteenth century and stated boldly in Wordsworth and Shelley (196). The development of nature worship was also a side effect of the social changes that were taking place as many of the idyllic country places that had once been considered common property were being fenced in, boarded up, or heavily developed as new cities and towns. The imagination was held to be the highest of human capabilities while nature was highly revered because of its creative power as well as the freedom for imagination nature represented. Within the Romantic movement, it was felt that the world abounded with omen-like symbols and signs that communicated through their similarity to ancient myths and legends.

In America especially, but throughout the world, another movement had a small undercurrent of followers who had pursued the concept of liberal thought a little further than most. The concept of transcendentalism is often difficult to describe because of its very nature. It is typically associated with concepts of spiritual rebellion from organized religion; however, its primary characteristic is an attempt by its followers to discover a more perfect world through a refocus on the true necessities of life. This necessarily required significant questioning of established social customs already being shaped by the consumerism and materialism of the industrial culture. Directly refuting this material world, the Transcendentalists worked to redefine human experience with an emphasis on spirituality and finding ones interconnectedness with the natural world. Perhaps a natural off-shoot of this exploration was a new interest in the Eastern religions, particularly Buddhism, in which God as a central figure did not exist. Instead, this religion emphasizes many of the things that the transcendentalists revered such as the individuals close connection with nature and concepts of perfecting oneself in keeping with the timeless rules of nature (Ford, 2007).

Moving even further into the spiritual realm, the tradition of the Gothic was also emerging as a small sub-genre in literary circles. It is widely thought to have been started by Horace Walpoles novel The Castle of Otranto published in 1764 (Hume, 1969: 282). Within this tradition, imagination and emotion take center stage, pushing the idealism and reason of the Romantic and Transcendental traditions to the side. Gothic literature particularly is characterized by its unique way of combining horror and romance to create a completely new approach to story-telling. This became even more effective following the publication of Sigmund Freuds psychoanalytic theory which demonstrated the power of the mind to terrify itself (Freud, 1966). Common elements found within Gothic literature include terror, the supernatural, ghosts, death, madness, darkness, secrets, hereditary curses, and crumbling architecture. Characters typically fall into stereotypical personas such as the flawed hero, the femme fatale, and supernatural or natural monsters of various types. Typically, three characteristics served to designate a Gothic novel. These included the concept of the presence of darkness, the element of the sublime, and the exploration of psychometry. The presence of darkness seems self-explanatory, but there is also the darkness of the soul that becomes employed particularly in Poes works in which the individual is incapable of escaping their situation simply because they are unable to discover their own thoughts within the darkness of their mind. The sublime refers to the presence of something intangible that is felt like a present but cannot be discovered with the human eye. This element can be used in several ways, but within the Gothic novel, it is typically used to illustrate the presence of supernatural evil either disembodied or as an element trapped within the body of a known person. Psychometry is a strange-sounding word that refers to the concept of the eternal conflict between the body and the soul. It was an often-used technique in Gothic novels because of the obvious relationship of this to the concept of madness.

All of these traditions are seen in Poes poem The Raven. The Romantic is evident even in the title of the poem as the raven is nothing if not an element of nature. The story of the poem is not possible without the symbolism and messages that nature has to bring the speaker of the poem in the form of the raven as well as in the mood set by the timeof the poem, in bleak December (7) and evening, thus following the Romantic tradition. The poem is written in longing for a woman, which is a common topic within Romantic literature, while the speakers described activity at the opening of the poem, pondering over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore (2), fulfills another element of the Romantic genre. It is recalled that one of the characteristics of this genre identified by Wellek (2003) was the rediscovery of old English literature. The excess of imagination that characterizes the Romantic is also found in the speakers exaggerated reaction to the knocking at his door, taking an entire stanza to bring himself to address the knock. It is also evident in the way in which the man plays with the bird for a while as a means of amusing himself, until the amusement turns haunting. The Transcendental rejection of religion may be discovered in the ravens choice to perch upon the bust of Pallas just above the speakers chamber door. According to Hallqvist (1998), Pallas is the Greek goddess of wisdom. The speakers ability to communicate with the raven, although imperfectly, is also an element of the Transcendental tradition. This communication eventually becomes a sort of blending of the man and the raven toward the end of the poem as the man indicates my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor / Shall be lifted  nevermore! (107-108).

However, with this dark blending of dark bird, shadow, time off, and mans haunted soul, it is easy to distinguish Poes development of the Gothic within his stories. Every element of nature pulled into the story as a part of the Romantic tradition is also presented from its darkest or most frightening side. December is bleak rather than cheerful with holiday greetings; the evening is dark, cold, and full of death as each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor (8). The raven itself is a traditional symbol of death and decay (Hallqvist, 1998) and its entering the house is a sign of darkly supernatural elements, brought more into focus as it lands on the head of wisdom. The speaker tells his listeners his eyes have all the seeming of a demons that is dreaming (106) while the ravens entrance is also marked by other darkly sublime elements: Then, methought, the air grew denser, perfumed from an unseen censer / Swung by Seraphim whose foot-falls tinkled on the tufted floor (79-80). Already haunted in his mind by the ghost of his wife, the speaker becomes further divided, body and soul, by the presence of the raven by the end of the poem, leaving his soul forevermore trapped by the ravens shadow on his chamber floor.

While the elements of Poes poem snugly fit within the same traditional characteristics of the Romantic period, his approach to the subject, flavored slightly with a touch of Transcendentalism and a deeply depressed mindset helped spur the genre of Gothic Romantic literature. Linking the concepts of the Romantic with the concepts of the psychological thriller inextricably in his short but powerful text, Poe helped shape and define this genre of literature, pulling it into the popular realm and giving it life in its consideration of the blending of the real and the unreal. His careful blending of the elements and full concentration on bringing out the dark side of his stories builds up the supernatural element slowly so that, by the end of the story or poem, the reader finds himself completely believing the story despite elements that would ordinarily cause skepticism. Romanticism in its focus on nature and emotion is certainly present, as is Transcendentalism in its focus on spirituality and interconnectivity, but Poe brings the Gothic to the forefront in his focus on the sublime, darkness at various levels, and the psychometry, or division, of the individual.

Works Cited

Conklin, Groff. Introduction. Ten Great Mysteries of Edgar Allan Poe. New York and London: Scholastic, Inc., 1989.

Ford, James Ishmael. The History of UU Engagement with Buddhism and Itsits Growing Significance. UU World Magazine. Boston: MA, (2007).

Freud, Sigmund. On the History of the Psychoanalytic Movement (Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud). New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1966.

Greenblatt, Stephen (Ed.). Introduction: The Victorian Age. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Vol. 8. New York: W.W. Norton, 2005.

Hallqvist, Christoffer. Edgar Allan Poes The Raven. Poedecoder. (1998).

Holman, C. Hugh & Harmon, William. Definitions from A Handbook to Literature, 6^th Ed. On American Romaticism. (2001).

Hume, Robert D. Gothic versus Romantic: A Revaluation of the Gothic Novel. PMLA. Vol. 8, N. 2, (1969).

Introduction to Romanticism. A Guide to the Study of Literature: A Companion Text for Core Studies 6, Landmarks of Literature. New York: Brooklyn College, 2001. Web.

Mowery, Carl. An Overview to The Fall of the House of Usher. Short Stories for Students. Gale Research. (1997).

Poe, Edgar Allan. The Raven. H. Behme (Ed.). (1845). Web.

Thoreau, Henry David. Walden. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1993.

Wellek, Rene. Romanticism in Literature. Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia, (2003). Web.

Introduction

Nathaniel Hawthornes literary works are examples of the romantic period in American literature, which started in the early 1800s. One of the most typical traits of romantic literature is the prevalence of emotions, setting the natural world above the created world, and the most important, freedom of an individual. Therefore, most of the main characters of romantic literature are rebels who contrast themselves with the rest of the world. Moreover, the characters in the romantic literature often strive for supernatural or divine powers, paying attention to the purity of their souls and a clear conscience.

Romanticism in Hawthornes My Kinsman, Major Molineux

One of the examples of romantic literature is the story by Hawthorne My Kinsman, Major Molineux, with its specific traits, which make it be an excellent example of American romanticism. The main character of the story, Robin, encounters many new aspects of the new life when he travels to Boston, and all of them bring Robin a feeling of danger and strangeness. When the young man arrives at the new environment, he can feel that he is strikingly different from the Bostonians, whose clothes, manners, and behavior contradict Robins. Due to his difference from others, Robin is surrounded by social pressure and has to make his own decisions individually.

In spite of being an emotional and passionate young man, Robin tries to avoid conflicts with the locals, either verbal or physical. Robins psychological state and the descriptions of the environment around him also refer to the features of the romantic literature. The description of the scenes, where the author emphasizes the presence of dim light, the dreamlike atmosphere, the mention of the weapons of the knights, and kings from the Middle Ages add to romantic elements of this story.

Conclusion

To conclude, all the features such as the desire for personal freedom, the backgrounds, and the inner conflicts of the main character prove that this story belongs to the romantic period of American Literature. Moreover, Robins rebellion against the rest of the world makes him a representative of the romantic character. Although the inner contradictions complicate the life of the main character, he has the strength to endure everything, which makes him a typical romantic character.

Romanticism was the period of time which extended from 1750 to 1870. The major areas in the world vanguarding the movement were Europe, United States of America and Latin America. This movement was countering the rules of law formulas and was embracing imagination, subjectivity, freedom, expression and idealization of nature. During the Romanticism many writers were involved such as William Blake, William Wordsworth and others. They showed their support to the movement through illustrations and writings. Romanticism preferred the use of mental images and creativity over reality and facts. While the Enlightenment and Romanticism took place in the same period, their emphasis and subjects of interest were completely different and their intellectuals were different as well.

William Blake’s poem ‘London’ explores how everyone has feelings and everyone has jobs to do. This poem reflects Blake’s feelings toward the society that he lived in. He was describing how controlled and forced a man’s daily life is and rebelling to stand for the romanticism. This poem is timeless because it still applies to our lives today, everyone has restrictions and rules to obey by, no matter if free or imprisoned. He outlines his strong belief that the government has too much control and society is too stringent. In this poem, there are a few outdated phrases such as ‘charter’d’, ‘thro’’ and “mind forg’d”. “Charter’d” is defined as controlled. In this poem it is describing the man made structures that are constrained by made to a limit/ aren’t made freely or creatively, in london. “Thro’” is the informal or otherwise known as the short version of through. On line 8 it states ‘’The mind-forg’d manacles I hear’’. Blake is exploring and expanding on the point of self-limitation and the denigration of the human imagination. Blake’s point is well tuned to the quote “man is born free and everywhere he is in chains”.

The first stanza is setting a background of what the poem is going to consist of. From the start you realize that he uses the technique of rhyming very well by using the A B A scheme. It starts off as him walking through the streets of London near the river Thames. He is looking at peoples faces while walking by and seeing them with the expression of weakness and gloom. In the second stanza he goes more in depth of what people are feeling. He talks about how everyone cries but still end the stanza on everyone still being controlled. Stanza 3 breaks down the daily life. When it talks about chimney sweepers it is referring to kids because back then there wern’t any child labour laws, kids were the only people who could fit in a chimney because of their small physic. The line after this starts with ‘’every blackening’’, which can also lead back to the children getting dirty from all the dust and smoke. Line 10 shows symbolism and it links to the other lines. Blake is putting out the message of the church turning black by the chimney-sweepers and all the soldiers. The final line of the third stanza is just a link to the soldiers putting their lives on the line to protect others. The fourth and final stanza is about the sounds you hear at midnight on London streets. Line 14-15 is about a young prostitute giving birth, cursing her newborns tears.

When we first started learning about Romanticism after the study of the Enlightenment, I immediately hated the topic. This was because I thought we would have to learn about PDA, emotions, love triangles etc. I instantly connected the word romantism with romance and love. It felt so normal stereotyping the words without thinking. I soon hated romanticism as who would be interested in a cringy subject? But after writing down notes in class and learning from teachers about Romanticism, if found that this topic is not what it seems to be. I realised this after learning the history of the Romanticism movement.

Through the booklets our teacher gave “Defining Romanticism” and online research I gained an understanding of the movement, as I understood the different ideas, concerns and texts that were discovered. The Romanticism movement dated back to the 18th century in England, where it turned against the realistic side of the Enlightenment. It was a type of literature that allowed views to be shaped and changed to allow writers to include diverse ranges of themes, style of poetry and ideas about the world around them. However, the Enlightenment relied on science to investigate ideas, and encourage scepticism.

In class, we analysed one of the most influential poets during the Romanticism period, Percy Shelly. Along with Lord Byron, John Kleats and other renowned writers we soon understood the deeper meanings conveyed within their texts that explored major concerns of the world. Percy Shelly (1794) was a very intriguing poet, however I disliked him as a person. As we were given worksheets about him, I realised that the writer Shelly cheated with many women, however this doesn’t change the fact that he was a very talented romanticist writer. Who wouldn’t hate someone who played with people’s feelings? His most famous poem ‘Ode to the West Wind’, was the most inspirational poem that held a deep meaning about the world. The whole poem was dedicated to the people of England, depicting how he wanted to be heard. He used sensual terms to describe the wind evoking powerful language.

The poems studied were rich in imagery and were very emotional and descriptive. I loved the fact that he could express his feelings into the stanzas. Most of the poems were often freehanded where emotions were brought out with a stream of conscious.

I learned that the main ideas concerning the romanticism movement was individuality, emotions, beauty of nature and imagination. These themes intrigued me as the supernatural and myth were greatly acknowledged where as the Enlightenment movement disapproved of it. But in today society, the supernatural themes are valued as it allows emotions of fear, and interest to arise. I have often read books that concerned the supernatural such as ‘Vampire Academy’. This is still one of my favourite books as many emotions were brought out depicting the fantasy world, individuality and fear in society. I remember reading my first supernatural book and finishing it within a day. I found that I loved the characters that evoked emotion from being outsiders within society.

Among all the themes, the beauty of nature stood out from all the others in relation to the time period. However, the romanticism movement was created to oppose the Enlightenment ideas and the industrial revolution. The Romanticism movement was formed to turn against the ideas of the increase of urbanisation, social organisations. Through studying this topic, I now understand the feelings of romanticist writers who despised this. During the romanticism period industrial revolution held a negative impact on society. This was seen in the country side, where people travelled to the city to achieve a better lifestyle and an increase of payment. This included working in factories which increased greenhouse gasses from the burning of fossil fuels.

The increase of overpopulation led to natural resources such as tress and land in nature. This led to the loss of habitat and the decrease of the population of animals. Who wouldn’t hate the idea of industrialisation? The romanticism movement revolted against the industrial revolution where writers conveyed their emotions into poems and spread throughout the country.

They despised the fact that urbanisation and the advancement of technology forced people away from the environment and created a sense of home sickness. Nature brought out the inner emotions of people allowing them to explore the depths of the wilderness of ancient cities.

We also learnt that the romanticists rebelled against the tradition was held during the period. This is seen in one of the poems ‘The tyger’, where the stanza states “What the hammer?/ What the chain?/ In what furnace was thy brain?/ What the anvil?/ What dread grasp?/ Dare its deadly terrors clasp!”. In this stanza Industrial process and human labour are referred to the tiger where imagery is used to depict the tiger as a working class in an industry. The words, hammer and furnace refer to the human items that are used within an industry. The writer uses irony, about the fact that the tiger is supposed to have its own freedom, yet it seems to be trapped.

Through studying the ‘Voices through the centuries’ I realised that the romanticism movement Is a very important above all movements as major concerns were delivered into texts depicting styles of poems, diverse themes and major poems and writers.

“Aww romance” is what many people accept as true with after they hear American romanticism. People don’t understand the genuine evil at the back of such deep dark tales and what would a few call disturbing. They don’t recognize that American romanticism is simply supposed for authors that speak approximately instinct over the reality, and these authors generally tend to elevate the creativeness over purpose and have a tendency to regulate facts to inform the reality. Also, they get to a positive point wherein they speak about an man or woman trying to interrupt free whilst struggling. These writers mostly talk approximately suspense and spooky testimonies with a protagonist which are ugly or twisted. Many humans don’t apprehend that this type of memories aren’t all that superb. For example, many people discuss with the well-known creator Edgar Allen Poe. They consider that his stories are about love once they see that his testimonies are known to be or are referred as American romanticism, which they are. It is just the truth that people don’t have knowledge that Poe become a great American romanticism writer, this all because of his famous thrilling memories such as “The Fall of the House of Usher” and “The Raven”. Although Poe is an great writer, another extraordinary writer was Nathaniel Hawthorne. He provides lots of romanticism details and characters in his well written tale, “The Minister’s Black Veil”. This quick story expresses the truth that most human beings don’t see of their lives and that they don’t renowned their secret sins. Throughout the story there are many tremendous details and examples of literary gadgets that show how and why this quick story is a romanticism.

“Our parson has gone mad!” (236;45) “Why do you tremble at me alone? Tremble also at each other! Have men avoided me, and women shown no pity, and children screamed and fled, only for my black veil? What, but the mystery which it obscurely typifies, has made this piece of crape so awful? When the friend shows his inmost heart to his friend; the lover to his best beloved; when man does not vainly shrink from the eye of his Creator, loathsomely treasuring up the secret of his sin; then deem me a monster, for the symbol beneath which I have lied, and die! I look around me, and, lo! On every visage a Black Veil.”(246;446-455). As previously describedpart of the story just perfectly described that people worry about your secret sin and wonder what it was but they never care to attend their own secret sin and never ask our savior for forgiveness. Throughout the short story many examples of literary devices are used. For example in this context just shown, there was a powerful demonstration of point of view and symbolism. This ending fully emphasizes the plot

Furthermore into the story many literary devices are being used in order for the mind to capture what the short story speaks about and how various people act a certain way when something different appears from a known person. Also this describes how a community truly is how life changes and has hardships that make things just simply how they are. The author shows the true community and real life situation in Mr. Hooper’s life through plot, imagery, symbolism, point of view, and settings.

Many human beings don’t in reality realize what the plot has to do with a story, but it is a very important part of this story. In “The Minister’s Black Veil” the plot includes the arrangement of activities. The plot is crucial because within the entire tale the events wouldn’t simply observe a chronological order. Hawthorne however certainly just kept occurring and on with out following a sure process to tell the tale. The author virtually simply spoke his feelings and how he felt about secret sins. Another extremely good literary tool used to help recognize this quick story is imagery. Imagery is used throughout the complete tale. This is one of these useful method due to the fact it enables the reader experience like they may be involved in the story and it makes a type of film in their heads. For example, when the writer used, “… some talked loudly, and profaned (desecrated)” (238;104-105). In this short element is uses descriptive words to prove the feeling of the village humans and Mr. Hooper’s black veil. Throughout the story the author makes it seem as though there has been a type of awkward and mysterious scenario taking place with the minister and his black veil. It became said that Mr. Hooper become a first rate parson who human beings enjoyed until he wore “that terrible thing on Mr. Hooper’s face!” (238;124-126). Again this demonstrates that the village humans still experience the oddity in the black veil and why Mr. Hooper is wearing it. Imagery is very crucial in order to observe things like these.

Third and most important, symbolism is a huge part of Hawthorne’s short story because that is what truly gives this story meaning. For example, many people believe that the black veil is what he uses to hide his secret sins.This is established since the start of the story to the end due to the fact Mr. Hooper does not talk to absolutely everyone about why or what appear so as for him to be carrying this veil. Another symbol might be his face. His face symbolizes secret sins (supply 4) due to the fact because the black veil covers his face this suggest that he is attempting to cover up his face with the veil meaning he’s hypothetically hiding his secret sins. Himself is a symbol as well (source 2). He sees himself as them. He seems himself as each and all people in the village because all people has a mystery sin, they have got held onto them and despite the fact that they don’t say anything, they nonetheless have that sin. One example from the story would be,, “If I hide my face for sorrow, there is cause enough”. This shows that Hawthorne tries to lead his readers towards knowing these symbols.

Point of view is always important in short stories. In “The Minister’s Black Veil” the author uses third person point of view, but occasionally changes into a sort of omniscient tone.The point of view helps us develop what kind of person the author is and what kind of tone and direction he or she is going towards with their story.

Finally and most importantly the setting is vital to the plot because in Hawthorne’s story he says that it is a village and when readers think of a village, they think that everything and everyone knows your business and it is true. Because of this, the author sets an idea that this is already going to be a problem. The author also sets a sort of sad and mysterious setting with all that was going on with Minister Hopper and his black veil.

Although there is already enough information about Mr. Hooper and his black veil their are still questions that have to be answered as far as how Hawthorne used romanticism characteristics in his story and with his protagonist character, Mr. Hooper. One example of romanticism characteristics is the importance of individual freedom in the sense that each person has the right to choose for themselves or in this case himself. In the short story, Mr. Hooper chooses to wear a black veil over his face for the rest of his life for whatever reason it was but he just did. Another example would be that the “supernatural” referring to “beyond” the natural, physical world is taking place when talking about God and secret sin. Hawthorne is inferring a higher power known as God in this story and Mr. Hooper knew that he knows everything including secret sin. While we think of the supernatural as vampires, zombies and aliens, in Romantic literature and in Hawthorne’s story, the supernatural would have included God, angels, or demons which happen to actually be God. Mr. Hooper has many romanticism characteristics himself when explaining, through imagery and symbolism, that the black veil and himself represent the guilt of human beings and how there is darkness in the human soul. Another great thing to know about the story itself is that it contains examples of a parable. A parable is a simple story illustrating a moral or religious lesson. “The Minister’s Black Veil” is a perfect example of a parable, because Mr. Hooper explains a perfect lesson of the human’s soul (source 1). Another level of example to why this is a parable is because it has to do with the secret sin and how you can’t hide it from greater powers. Lastly, this short story is an example of a parable because the village shows the sins of humanity which is the fact that society has secret sins and just hides and ignores it.

To conclude, in the stories including “The ministers black veil” , “The Raven” and “The house of Usher” all provide detailed examples of sinful imagery and dark settings which all compliment the theme of Romanticism.

Romanticism emerged in Europe towards the late 18th century, and is referred to as an “artistic, literary and intellectual movement”, that opposed many societal aspects such as family, government, and monarchical that were apparent during the Enlightenment period. This era created an atmosphere booming with ideas surrounding freedom, liberty and equality. However, these ideas appeared to be futile for women as they were not entitled to the same human rights as their counterparts were. Hence, female advocates argued that for Romanticism to exist, they too deserved to be treated and given the same opportunities as men were.

Many women writers contributed to the feminists wish to transgress towards a more liberal and equal state, and none more so than the ‘mother of feminism’, Mary Wollstonecraft. In her novel, A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1972), Wollstonecraft shaped new ideologies, partaking in what was known at the time as a public and masculine domain. In doing so, Wollstonecraft both refuted and responded to writers before her like Edmund Burke and Emile Rousseau. Her writing, commonly known as the first female manifesto influenced writers after her to begin debating similar topics and questioned the fairness of equality between genders. Whilst Wollstonecraft’s work did elicit debates within the literary world and was sometimes not agreed on, it can be agreed that it created a discourse in hopes of improving the lives of women.

Women in the Romantic period, despite their differences agreed that education was the source of their inequality. For example, whilst men were taught more valuable lessons, such as philosophy, politics, and economics; women were taught subjects such as how to dance, paint and sew. Thus, it could be argued that the focus of women’s education was primarily based on their ability to please society, and in turn charm themselves a husband. Women were said to be taught how to act, rather than act, and “so weak they must be entirely subjected to the superior faculties of men” (p.108, A Vindication of the Rights of Women). Wollstonecraft argued that instead of women being forced into a certain livelihood, a livelihood that was not in parallel with Romanticists ideas, women needed to be allowed to break free from such boundaries.

The notion of importance of education was supported by another female writer during the Romantic period, Mary Hays. Hays, like Wollstonecraft argued in her work Letters and essays, moral and miscellaneous that women were pawns within their own lives as she writes “that they deserve a better fate; and that it is to man alone to whom they owe their humiliating state in society” (pp. 112-113, Letters and essays, moral and miscellaneous). Both feminist authors argued that women deserved to have reason behind the way they acted, and if this was not provided to them their actions in everyday life was merely superficial and baseless.

Although many of the ideas brought forth by Wollstonecraft and the writers who followed behind her, the arguments they raised provided leeway for future feminists to create a possible solution to the ongoing inequality.

The Scarlet Letter, written by Natheniel Hawthorne, reflects the literary movement of Romanticism through three distinguished characters within the novel to show the connection between the natural world and human emotions.

Dimmesdale, who is disclosed to be the father of Pearl, is used by Hawthorne to embody the struggle of man between one’s inner emotions and one’s outer look in society’s eyes. At the end of the novel, Dimmesdale confesses his sins and divulges the truth to the community as a result of being in love with Hester. During this situation, Dimmesdale was simply thinking about the feeling he had for Hester rather than thinking about the aftermath. He felt so much relief when confessing the truth.

The young character of Pearl shows individuality throughout the whole book, which is a characteristic of the literary movement Romanticism. Right when Pearl is born she becomes isolated due to the very fact that she was born from a sin. This young girl soon starts to become very different from society. Her perspective and clothing begin to shock the rest of her community, this encourages them to mock her. As she grows she starts to realize what this society is doing to her, her temperament begins to become terribly irritable and angry. “If the children gathered about her, as they sometimes did, Pearl would grow positively terrible in her puny wrath, snatching up stones to fling at them, with shrill, incoherent exclamations that made her mother tremble, because they had so much the sound of a witch’s anathemas in some unknown tongue.” (Hawthorne 85), As Pearl grew older, she became more like a wild animal as a result of realizing the hatred she is receiving from the community.

Within the novel, Romanticism radiates off of Hester Pryne’s character. Hester shows great individuality throughout the entire novel which isolates her from the society frequently. After committing adultery and getting shamed by her whole community, she stayed and took the penalization like nobody else would. Years after she decides to leave with the love of her life while she is married to a different man, in this society, no woman would ever consider doing this. “In order to free his mind from this distinctness and duplicity of impression, which vexed it with a strange disquietude, he recalled and more thoroughly defined the plans which Hester and himself had sketched for their departure.” (Hawthorne 196), during this point in the novel these two characters did not care about fitting into the society or their reputations, they loved one another more than any other puritan had loved.

Before we compare and discuss the works of leading representatives of Romanticism; Eugène Delacroix and Caspar David Friedrich, we first need to understand the concept of the mentioned art movement. Romanticism first emerged in the mid-18th century as opposed to Neoclassicism, which was characterized by objectivity and reason (hence, the Age of Reason), as a way of expressing the artist’s feelings on specific matters; heavily, the birth of the modern world and longing for nature. They also focused on the celebration of the individual, nature, beauty, and importance of imagination. They firmly rejected industrialization, urbanization, and rationalism; they idealized the concepts of women, children, and rural life while blending all these ideas with a pinch of interest in the past and absolute personification.

In the work of Eugène Delacroix, “Liberty Leading the People” (1830), we notice that in addition to emotionally-driven works, there are also paintings that tell the viewers a story; taking inspiration from the current events of that time. The bare-chested woman in the center who symbolizes liberty is holding a tricolor flag which refers to three concepts of the French Revolution and the motto of the French Republic: “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”. This shows us even though Romanticism was a backlash against Neoclassicism, it also borrowed from the previous art movement. And not only the use of female figures but also perspective and proportions remind us of Greek classical beauty. But, looking closer, we see Delacroix added some underarm hair which is far from perfect and closer to real representation.

We see French people from any step of the social ladder, fighting for liberty; and even dying for it. This scene refers to the July Revolution of 1830. She wears a Phrygian cap which was used as a symbol of liberty by the slaves that were freed in the Roman Period. Thus, representing the slaved common people of France reaching for liberty; meaning, a republican sense of regimen.

But, why is this painting of a revolution considered romantic? Revolution has always been a romantic ideal for people. By the end of the 19th century, Europe was full of revolutions. There was an evolving social structure as a result of industrialization. Europe had changed; with factories, came the raw materials market and of course, colonialism. Thus, new classes emerged and one of them was the working class. Later, some concepts which defend the rights of the working class followed, such as communism and socialism. This type of searches for revolution kept happening because the people wanted to live a better life. They were chasing a romantic ideal; a dream. That’s why even though the painting deals with pain and death; it’s approached in a romantic manner.

Meanwhile, Caspar David Friedrich’s “Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog” (ca. 1818) handles romanticism from a much more personal and lonely point of view when compared to Delacroix’s work. When we look at the Delacroix’s “Liberty”, it invites us into the event; the pain, the passion. Whereas, Friedrich’s “Wanderer” stays still, turning his back on us; rather than letting us in, it makes us feel as if we are behind him as a viewer. It is romantic because the way it glorifies nature; and how small and insignificant man looks by comparison. The longing for going back to the old, pre-mechanic times is obvious. Also, considering that Caspar David was a firm believer of the Catholic church, it is possible he was specifically missing the old times where the church was in control. Mountains in this painting – and most of the religious paintings – are a reference to God; meaning he is on the top, above us. Here, our Wanderer is also on the top of a mountain, feeling closer to God, thus, feeling purer above the sea of fog which hides the corrupted world of industrialization. He sees the world underneath him as sinful and disrespectful. So, in a manner, rising above them represents purification. The fog can also represent the fear of the unknown, depicting the not-so-bright things the future will bring.

If we compare these two works of art, we can say that Delacroix used rich colors to give energy to his painting about a national event, making it as passionate and vivid as possible. While Friedrich used a rather gloomy pallet to express his feelings about the modern world. Although they have different subjects and perspectives, they are both considered romantic because they carry the viewer away with their dramatic visions.

Works cited

1. Esaak, Shelley. “Romanticism – Romantic Art History (1800-1880).” ThoughtCo, ThoughtCo, 3 Sept. 2018, www.thoughtco.com/romanticism-art-history-183442. Date accessed, May 21, 2019
2. The School of Life. HISTORY OF IDEAS – Romanticism, YouTube, 13 Feb. 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=OiRWBI0JTYQ. Date accessed, May 20, 2019
3. “Romanticism Art Movement.” Identify This Art – Your Guide through the Art Movements, www.identifythisart.com/art-movements-styles/pre-modern-art/romanticism-art-movement/. Date accessed, May 21, 2019
4. “Romanticism Movement Overview.” The Art Story, www.theartstory.org/movement romanticism.htm. Date accessed, May 21, 2019

Nowadays, it became a common practice to discuss the literary movement of Romanticism, in terms of people’s subconscious longing towards irrationality, as opposed to rationality, associated with the era of Enlightenment. However, such a suggestion is only partially valid. There can be no doubt as to the fact that Romantic writers and poets strongly opposed the ideals of the French Revolution; however, this was not due to these ideals’ rational essence, but because, during the course of the French Revolution, the conceptual inadequacy of humanistic materialism, strongly associated with the idea of “liberty, equality, and brotherhood”, became apparent to just about anyone. Therefore, the Romantic Movement in European literature of the early 19^th century can be best defined as poets and writers’ strive towards fusing their emotionalism and their ability to operate with highly abstract categories (rationalism) together. European intellectuals of the era, associated with the Romantic Movement, believed that relying on materialistic rationale alone, within a context of individual pursuing its destiny, can hardly be beneficial for such individual, simply because people are not just physical but also spiritual beings. Romanticists refused to adopt a purely materialistic outlook on one’s individuality while implying that every person is something so much more than simply the bulk of organic matter, governed by the set of animalistic instincts. They were convinced that a certain harmony could be found in how an individual interacts with objective reality. Moreover, Romanticists used to suggest that it is named such harmony that represents the foremost aesthetic value. In its turn, this explains why Romanticists continuously sought artistic inspiration by observing nature. In our paper, we will analyze motifs contained in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poems “Frost at Midnight” and “The Nightingale” – in order to substantiate the validity of this thesis.

Even after having read a few initial lines of Coleridge’s poem, we are being left with no doubts in our mind that “Frost at Midnight” can be clearly defined as a Romantic poem, because in it, the author entitles the expressions of nature with creative individuality, which is one of most characteristic traits of European Romantic poetry:

“The Frost performs its secret ministry,
Unhelped by any wind. The owlet’s cry
Came loud–and hark, again! loud as before”

Coleridge establishes a close and personal relationship with the surrounding reality, by meditating on the subject of darkness and silence. He does not simply perceive silence as the absence of sounds, but as a concept that actively opposes noise: “so calm, that it disturbs”. The same can be said about Coleridge’s perception of darkness – he thinks of it as not just an absence of light, but as something, that actually radiates blackness. As a true Romanticist, Coleridge strives to emotionally savor every moment of his existence:

“Methinks, its motion in this hush of nature
Gives it dim sympathies with me who live”

After having instilled readers with a melancholic and somewhat meditative mood, the author moves on to expound on his childhood memories, in order to establish a connection between his past and his present as being essentially predetermined:

“Of my sweet birth-place, and the old church-tower,
Whose bells, the poor man’s only music, rang”

This is another indication of “Frost at Midnight” close association with the Romantic literary movement – Romanticists believed that different aspects of their existence were innately related, which explains their tendency to idealize the past and to think of it as containing insights onto the future. In his poem, Coleridge describes his past memories as having a value in itself, even though he cannot define the objective subtleties of this value. As a true Romanticist, Coleridge simply believes it to be the case, because he experiences a high mental exaltation while analyzing his memories. However, the author seems to have no doubts that namely the rural motifs that provide his memories with conceptual soundness, even though he was brought up in a big city:

“For I was reared
In the great city, pent ’mid cloisters dim,
And saw naught lovely but the sky and stars”

Thus, Coleridge predisposes readers towards accepting the main idea of his poem: poet’s daughter will be able to lead a meaningful existence because Coleridge had deliberately decided to raise her in Britain’s countryside:

“But thou, my babe! shalt wander like a breeze
By lakes and sandy shores, beneath the crags
Of ancient mountain, and beneath the clouds,
Which image in their bulk both lakes and shores
And mountain crags”

Just as other Romanticists of the era, Coleridge associated the urban mode of existence with spiritual corruption, because living in a big city, automatically indicates a person’s willingness to be cut off from its ancestral roots. Urban civilization dehumanizes people to such an extent that they eventually turn into mechanized beings, incapable of remaining in close touch with nature. It is only in rural areas, where people can take full advantage of their inherited sense of idealism; as such, that elevates them over their petty problems towards the stars. Thus, we can say that, despite being comparatively short in size, “Frost at Midnight” does contain the full spectrum of ideas, associated with the Romantic literary movement. In this poem, the author does not simply express his subconscious anxieties, deriving out of his attitude towards urban materialism, but he also provides readers with practical advice on how they can avoid spiritual degradation.

In his poem “The Nightingale”, Coleridge comes up with essentially the same ideas, contained in “Frost at Midnight”, even though both poems’ settings vary substantially. The author catches himself thinking that nightingale’s singing is not only highly aesthetic, but it actually allows an attentive listener to realize the ways of nature:

“A melancholy bird? Oh! idle thought!
In Nature, there is nothing melancholy…
A venerable thing! and so his song
Should make all Nature lovelier, and itself
Be loved like Nature!”

Again and again, throughout this poem, Coleridge praises nature as the reflection of the true essence of divinity. He rejects the idea that his melancholy was being caused by nightingale’s singing while referring to it as the mental by-product of his physical imperfection. According to the poet, no expression of nature can trigger one’s mental sadness, regardless of what it might be, because everything about nature is perfect. In its turn, such perfection relates to nature’s inner harmony. Although we are quite incapable of perceiving the full scale of such perfection’s grandeur, we nevertheless can still enjoy its various emanations, such as the singing of nightingales:

“They answer and provoke each other’s song…
Stirring the air with such harmony,
That should you close your eyes, you might almost
Forget it was not day!”

Such an idealist attitude towards surrounding reality causes the poet to experience true happiness, in the full sense of this word. He does not seem to wish anything else from life, but to allow him to remain in close touch with nature for as long as possible. However, Coleridge would not be a supreme Romanticist, if it was not up to his ability to prompt readers to feel a similar kind of emotional exaltation, by simply reading the lines of his poem. Despite the poem’s high stylistic refinement and its whimsical sounding, the semantic message of “The Nightingale” is quite apparent – just as “Frost at Night”, this particular Coleridge’s poem promotes the idea of “existential totality”, which is another distinctive feature of Romantic Movement in 19^th-century European literature.

From all we know about poet’s biography – throughout his life, Coleridge strived to acquire new emotional experiences, because as Romanticist, he considered them as pathway to wiseness. This is the reason why his poems are marked with hypertrophied expressiveness. However, just as there can never be too much chili in hot sauce, there can never be too much emotionalism in Romantic poetry. Coleridge understood this fact very well, which allowed him to leave an inerasable mark in the history of British poetry.

Bibliography

Bray, Elisa “Sex and Drugs and English Literature: Coleridge and a Faustian Pact”. 2007. The Independent.

Coleridge, Samuel “The Nightingale”. 1798. The Literature Network.

Coleridge, Samuel “Frost at Midnight”. 1798. About.Com: Poetry. Web.

Johns, Lloyd “The Literary Works of Romanticism in English Literature”. 2006. Article Alley. Web.

Introduction

Romanticism, Realism, and modernism are among the most influential literary movements in literature. Romanticism focused on abstract ideas, and Realism aimed to depict real-life scenarios, while modernists revolted against the previous writing styles. The impact of these ideas can be seen in modern literature and works such as “After the Ball,” which showcases a scenario of the Regency England servant’s life. This paper will analyze the impact of Romanticism, Realism, and Modernism on modern literature.

Discussion

Romantic literature is characterized by several key traits, such as a love of nature, an emphasis on the individual and spirituality, a celebration of solitude and sadness, an interest in the common man, an idealization of women, and a pathetic fallacy and personification. Nature was viewed by romantic authors as a teacher and a source of boundless beauty. The poem “To Autumn” by John Keats is one of the most well-known examples of Romanticism. Keats personifies the season and charts its development from its initial appearance following the summer through the harvest season and finally to the conclusion of fall as winter is about to start.

A literary movement known as Realism, which began in the middle of the 19th century, emphasized realistic, true, and relevant subject matter as a reaction against Romanticism. The romantic age, or romantic literature, was frequently characterized by magical tales that were perceived by many to be disconnected from reality. In contrast to this, Realism was a development from Romanticism into more relatable circumstances and narratives in literature. The utilization of familiar, commonplace individuals and circumstances served as a powerful example of Realism in writing.

French author Stendhal is renowned for his role in promoting the Realist literary movement. Along with other authors, he produced characters and circumstances that were understandable to regular people. In typical settings and eras, middle- and lower-class people were frequently the center of Realism. Subjects and backgrounds of Realism in American literature and beyond were influenced by industrialism, history, racism, social mobility, war, and the burgeoning scientific fields of the century.

Realism appealed to a wide spectrum of readers since the aforementioned list was symbolic of actual issues and events that people dealt with at the time and are still dealing with now. By the middle of the 20th century, Literary Realism as a movement had ended (“Realism”). However, it served as an inspiration for later authors who continued to try to depict characters and circumstances that readers could relate to. Next, modernistic literature gained popularity as the 19th and 20th centuries came to a close. Modernism was a revolt against Realism, which had very abstract writing. The authors of the era experimented and employed novel methods.

For example, the author of “After the Ball” uses realism themes to describe a situation happening in the Regency England era. The main character of this short story is placed into real-life circumstances, which links this work to Realism. However, she also reflects on her life and future in the following dialogue: “What hope do I have for a future? Last evening, I overheard many young women lamenting their limited options for suitable husbands.” Hence, this work shows some of the more modern ideas and prompts the reader to think about topics beyond real-life situations.

Conclusion

In summary, the three movements discussed in the paper had very different themes and settings, each influencing modern literature. A love of nature, stress on the individual and spirituality, a celebration of solitude and grief, and others are the key characteristics of romantic literature. Industrialism, history, racism, social mobility, war, and the developing scientific fields of the century all had an impact on literary Realism in American literature and literature. Modernism was a revolution against Realism and abstract writing.

Work Cited

“Realism.” Encyclopedia Britannica.