The Roman Empire is an empire that arose after the Roman Republic at the time when Augustus was ruling between the year 27 B.C and 14 A.D. This empire had territories that stretched from North Africa and Persian Gulf to Germany and Britain Later this empire was divided in to the Western Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire. The Western Roman Empire fell into Chaos under the invasion of the barbarians from the east and the north. Romulus Augustulus who was the last emperor of the Western empire was deposed in the year 476 and this marked the end of the empire. This people discuss three theories that suggest the possible causes of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.
Why the fall?
There were various reasons that led to the fall of the Roman Empire that are very much connected to each other. Some people even suggest that the emerging of Christianity could as well have contributed to the fall of the empire. They claim that Christianity changed many people in to pacifists making it very hard to fight with the barbarian fighters in order to win. It is also suggested that money that was spent on setting up churches was a big waste since the same money would have been used to establish the Roman Empire.
For a long time, the Roman armies or Legions were always in position to hold back the German barbarians (Anonymous, 2001).
The Roman Legion
Roman legion was very much organized and the discipline had made it to be very powerful when it came to fighting. A choice between cavalry and infantry favored infantry since infantry after having the training it never backed off in the battle. On the other hand, cavalry portrayed cowardice and could easily run away whenever they came across a more dangerous situation. Contrary to the barbarian army, continuous training was to be given to the legions that made the empire to incur large expenses. This made it difficult for the empire since the economic activity in general was going down as well as agriculture. Collecting taxes became difficult and the entire organization came under tension (Absolute Astronomy, 2009). The military budget ate in to other budgets for other important activities such as setting up roads and providing better housing facilities among others. The Romans at that time became mixed up and much disappointed and surrendered giving protection to their empire. The empire at this point had no option but to recruit people who were not trained from the streets and employ them as soldiers. This army was quite unreliable alongside being very costly to hire. The increase in costs in turn triggered increasing the tax and the tax increase in turn brought higher the inflation. This brought about the general weakening of the economic status of the empire.
Another cause that led to the decline of the empire was moral decay. The moral decay was common place among the rich people and even the emperors themselves and this left a big impact on the people of Rome. There was widespread sexual immorality. Emperor Tiberius sexually molested small boys as a way of pleasing himself. Nero practiced incest. He ordered the castration of his slave in order to marry him. Elagabalus married a Vestal virgin by use of force. Commodus with his several concubines annoyed the Romans by sitting in public places while putting on women clothes.
Moral decay was as well traced among the lower class. They held religious ceremonies in which sexual immorality was practiced. The commercial sex business boomed in brothels and there was much gambling. More so, there was excessive drinking of alcohol among other immoral acts. This kind of self-indulgent caused the Roman people to be lazy and thus found themselves drowned up after losing focus. (Roman Colosseum, 2008). Another theory that is brought forth in regard to the decline of the Roman Empire is the political corruption. This is an issue that brought about poor leadership in which the emperors and the political leaders vested their interest much in protecting and maintaining their own status than making all the possible efforts to ensure their empires survive and stand. Among the complicated problems was how to select a new emperor. The Romans did not come up with a structure that could be followed in order to choose an emperor. New emperor selection involved the former emperor, the emperor’s private soldiers, the army, and the senate.
Over time, the private army of the emperor acquired absolute power to select the incoming emperor. The new emperor could in turn reward the private army and then this army turned out to be more powerful. This practice perpetuated the cycle. This gain of more power by the private army brought a more negative impact in the year186 A.D where the army killed a new emperor. This was a show of the practice of offering to the highest bidder. A hundred years from there, Rome was ruled by 37 emperors and 25 out of which were assassinated as a way of removing them from power. This kind of practice was kind of self-destruction to the Roman Empire and played a major role in weakening the empire and later resulting in its decline and subsequent fall (Anonymous, 2001).
References
Absolute Astronomy. (2009). Early Middle Ages. Web.
Anonymous. (2001). The fall of the Roman Empire. Web.
Roman Colosseum. (2008). Causes for the fall of the Roman Empire. Web.
The decline of the Roman Empire in the West that began in the 5th century had multiple interconnected factors. In general, Rome has faced multiple internal and external problems that led to the split of an amazingly coherent and stable state into smaller political segments (Brooks, 2019). First of all, the Roman Empire was impacted by its overexpansion – the government of its vast territories was accompanied by multiple logistical and administrative issues. A lack of quick and efficient communication between the parts of the Empire led to corruption and political instability that weakened the country.
As a result, the Roman Empire could not sustain the invasions of barbarian tribes that, in turn, became more well-organized and powerful due to the prolonged periods of trade and cooperation with the country’s borders. Due to tribes’ attacks, Rome started to lose its western territories (Brooks, 2019). This situation caused the shrinkage of tax revenues, incorrect distribution of taxes, and military overspending. While the east was supported in defending Roman sovereignty, western Roman armies were vulnerable and underfunded. Both external and internal challenges of the Roman Empire created a vicious circle of lost revenue, poor military performance, and lost land (Brooks, 2019). With already lost unity and coherence, the Roman legions were unable to protect their land from invaders.
In addition, the development of the Eastern Empire contributed to the decline of the Western Empire as well. Divided for the facilitation of government, empires were supposed to support each other. However, the economic and military rise of Constantinople led to the crisis in Rome. Moreover, the Eastern Empire failed to protect the Western one and even contributed to its fall by accepting Germanic kings who pledged formal allegiance to Constantinople in return for “acknowledgment of the legitimacy of their rule” (Brooks, 2019, p. 210). Thus, the prosperity and security of the east led to more internal issues in the west that, in turn, impacted its ability to confront external attacks.
Reference
Brooks, C. (2019). Western civilization: A concise history – volume 1. Portland Community College.
Women’s roles and positions vary greatly from civilization to civilization. This can be well observed while comparing such civilizations of the ancient world as Indian and Roman ones. In the following paper, the two civilizations along with their outlook on women’s position in society will be compared and contrasted. Evaluating the facts, it appears that in Ancient Rome women enjoyed better rights and freedoms than in Ancient India.
Comparing women’s positions in Ancient Rome and Ancient India, it should be stated that similarities are not many. Of course, in both of these civilizations, women were oppressed and limited in their rights and freedoms. This is the main similarity between the situations women had to face in both civilizations. In particular, in Ancient Rome women were not considered citizens as men believed that women were to be under their guardianship. A similar position existed in India (post-Vedic period) as women were cut off their freedoms and rights. However, in Ancient India, before 1500 BC, women enjoyed a better situation. They were allowed to acquire education, and to occupy high social positions. Both in Ancient Rome and Ancient India, women were considered to be the centers of the household. They were responsible for cooking, cleaning and taking care of their children. In Ancient India, women were also responsible for financial operations related to their families such as purchasing household items, clothing and food products. In Rome, women could make some minor purchases. Finally, in both cultures, women were not allowed to spend too much time in public, they were forbidden to chat in the streets and appear in certain areas of their towns and villages. All in all, in both cultures, women faced serious bias and prejudice problems as to their political, spiritual, material, and family fate.
Contrasting women’s position in the two cultures, it appears that the differences were many. Such tendency is especially observed while comparing certain periods of Ancient Roman and Indian cultures. In India, women enjoyed better rights and freedoms during the earlier period of civilization; in Rome, women became more significant in the society in later periods, particularly, during the period when Rome was an Empire. Thus, the differences are more remarkable if to contrast women’s position in the Roman Empire and Indian states of the post-Vedic period. While in post-Vedic India women lost their rights and freedoms for the most part, in Roman Empire, women acquired unprecedented civil liberties. Namely, they were able to own material values such as land and real estate, get a paid job, and inherit wealth. In addition, women were also allowed to give wills to slaves and, even, free them. Among the most astonishing freedoms that women acquired was permission for drinking wine. It is mind-blowing, but in earlier periods of Roman civilization, women were not allowed to take any alcohol including wine.
As a final point, women’s positions in Ancient Rome and Ancient India appear to be rather different. Among the similarities such points can be mentioned: both civilizations significantly limited women in their rights including the right to citizenship, education and participation in state affairs. In addition, in both of the civilizations under consideration, women’s main duty was in housekeeping and taking care of their families. In both cultures, women faced serious bias and prejudice problems as to their political, spiritual, material and family fate.
Ever since the late Roman state, the Roman world had serious political and social problems that led to the fall of the Roman Empire. The Germanic invasions, especially those that took place in the 5th century contributed significantly to bringing in internal cracks in the Roman Empire. These internal crises led to the collapse of the political unity in the Roman Empire which was replaced by the disintegration of 5th century Europe into various Germanic territories.
Discussion
Regardless of their differences, Romans knew and live well with Germans even before the 2nd century. For these reasons, Romans allowed Germans to cross the border to live and work in the Roman Empire as slaves and farmers as well as soldiers (Geary, 34). This was a kind of mutual relationship whereby the Germans liked the Romanic civilization and on their part, the Romans liked the Germans for their strength and values.
The situation took a different turn at the start of the 3rd century when the Germans invaded the northern Rhine and Danube. The climax was in the 4th century when a German tribe, Huns moved deep into the Roman Empire territory and settled in the Danube. As a result, they forced Visigoths to migrate to the east of the empire. Visigoths were very important to the strength of the Roman Empire’s military.
As a result of unbearable conditions from the Roman administration, the Visigoths revolted and conquered the Romans and killed their emperor Valens in Adrianople in the late 4th century. After their success in their battle, the Visigoths advanced and took control over Greece. Operating from Greece, the Visigoths went on conquered Italy and took over Rome in the early 5th century. Afterward, they advanced and settled in Aquitaine where they formed a Germanic territory in the Roman empires’ soil. They further advanced their rule to Spain where they established another kingdom at Toledo.
Huns on the other hand did not stop at the Danube; they also expanded their rule and took control over central and Eastern Europe. In the period between 451 and 452, the Huns went on and conquered Gaul and Italy with the help of a combined force of Roman and German armies. However, the Huns’ empire collapsed at the hands of Châlons in 453 after their leaders’ death.
The advancement of the Visigoth’s rule in Italy led to the shifting of armies from Britain and the Danube to fight for Italy. This in essence weakened the defenses and as such made it easier for the Germanic tribes to move through the weakly protected frontiers and take control over nearly all the west of the Roman Empire. Overpowered, the Romans were not able to fight their invaders and this led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
The Burgundians also invaded southeastern Gaul and ‘Burgundies’ who are currently living there is a clear mark of a Germanic settlement. On the day that marked the collapse of the western part of the Roman Empire in 476, Odovacer who was then the German leader deposed Augustulus, the last emperor, and founded an independent kingdom in Italy. Later, in 493, Odovacer was conquered by the Ostrogoths under the leadership of Theodoric who took control over Italy (Guy, 76).
A German tribe that moved to other territories and founded a long-lasting presence in those territories was the Franks. The reason for their success in moving to new territories was that unlike other Germanic tribes they never abandoned their homeland. After moving into the Lower Rhine, in the late 5th century, the Franks went on and took control over northern Gaul. Under the good leadership of Clovis, they built a strong army that overthrew Roman’s last empire in Gaul. Under continued good leadership they advanced and took control over Western Europe and made it a unity.
In the last part of the 5th century, Roman control over western territory was over as more than half the territory was under the control of the Germanic peoples. There was a shift of power from Romans to Germans who moved into the territory and founded autonomous kingdoms there. The Visigoths settled in Spain, Burgundians occupied Provence, the Ostrogoths took control over Italy and the Franks settled in Gaul.
Although Germanic tribes were comparatively small in numbers, they easily invaded and conquered Western Europe due to several factors. One of these factors was that they had strong armies than the Romans (Geary, 34). Moreover, the roman frontiers were also poor and the Germanic armies received little if any resistance from the Roman people.
Even though the Germanic tribes led to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, imperial rule went on in the East. In 527, under the leadership of Emperor Justinian, the east started a battle from Constantinople aimed at defeating Germanic peoples and as such take back the western territories (Sherman & Salisbury, 44). In 533 the east military took control over the Vandals in Africa from where they went on and took control over Italy. But their success was temporary since a German tribe by the name of Lombards invaded Italy and took over the northern plain and founded Benevento and Spoleto.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Germanic invasions can be attributed to the slow disintegration of social, economical, and political standings of the Rome Empire which led to its fall. In the 5th century, all western territories of the Roman Empire and Italy fell under the control of invading Germanic tribes. Even though the eastern territories survived, as a result of the invasions, the entire Roman Empire started a wide range of political and social changes since the 3rd century. Some of the transformations included rejection of Romanic traditions, a shift toward autocratic governance as well as the adoption of Christianity among others.
Works cited
Greary, Patrick.” Myth of Nations. The Medieval Origins of Europe” New Jersey: Princeton press. 2003, Pg. 34.
Guy, Halsall. “Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376–568.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2007, Pg. 76.
Sherman, Dennis & Salisbury, Joyce. “The West in the World.” New York: McGraw-Hill Humanities. 2007, pg. 44.
This paper aims to discuss the enduring contributions of the Greek and the Roman civilizations to the contemporary world and the paper will start by giving some background information about the two civilizations. The paper will then address the major influences of the ancient Greek civilization on the modern world before looking at the major influences of the ancient Roman civilization on the contemporary world. The paper will finally make a summary while including some miscellaneous influences of both civilizations which have not been covered among the major influences.
The Greek and the Roman civilizations are two of the most influential civilizations that have ever graced the face of this world and two civilizations started in the cities of Athens and Rome. The two civilizations are similar in many ways though there are some striking differences between the ancient Greek civilization and its Roman counterpart. For example, the political systems of the two civilizations were very different because the Greeks had an oligarch political system though it became democratic as time went by. Roman Empire on the other hand did not allow the common citizens to participate in state affairs and it formed different organs of government to represent different components of the society (Duicker, 2000). Roman civilization was also more advanced than Greek civilization especially in the areas of art and architecture because while Greeks focused on balanced symmetry, Romans place emphasis on arches and the goal of their architecture was to create an impression of a vast amount of space. Ancient Roman engineering processes were also more advanced than that of the Greeks because though both civilizations had elements of civil and hydraulic engineering, Roman engineering was higher in quality because it had a network of durable variables that towered above the Greek engineering process. Despite the glaring differences between the two civilizations of the ancient world, it is evident that these civilisations had an immense impact on the modern world. The Western civilisation heavily borrows from the Greek and the Roman civilisations and it is imperative to note that modern civilisation is an improvement of the structures created by these two ancient civilisations.
The Greek civilisation has contributed immensely to various disciplines in the contemporary world. One of the most important contributions of the Greeks was is politics. The Greeks had the polis which was an integral part of their culture. The polis was the hub of all artistic, political and commercial activity and each polis would govern itself and this allowed every polis to experiment with different forms of governments. The polis tried all systems of governance ranging from the oligarchs, monarchs, and democracies and these government experiments by the different Greeks states led to the growth of democracy that is used in the modern society. The word polis gave rise to the modern day term, politics. The polis was the most was the most organised form of government in ancient Greece and it has influenced systems of governance in the modern society and were it not for the development of these polis, countries like United States of America would not have the states that are independently run. In fact, the US model of government which is also practised in many other countries was heavily influenced by the Greek polis. The polis gave the chance for the growth of democracy and without the them the world would be not be enjoying the democracy it enjoys today and the world would be ruled through other dangerous forms of governments. The modern idea of the trained and disciplined military was invented in Athens and Sparta during the Greek civilisation. The American military system is based on the civic militarism that was used during the Greek civilisation.
The other area of the modern society that has been heavily inspired by the Greeks is literature and the first novel in the history of literature was written by Homer. The novel was called The Iliad. The people of this civilisation wrote very many literary works that ranged from drama to epics and these works of literature are still used by scholars in the modern day literary world. The Greeks revolutionised the world of Drama and they created the modern dramatic categories of the comedy and the tragedy. The most famous tragedy writers were Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Modern literature employs the stylistic aspects introduced by the Greeks and later day literary greats like Shakespeare and words worth were highly influenced by the Greek literature. Greek literature has really shaped the modern day literary world whose background lies in the works of early Greek literary greats (Wyke, 1999)
Modern sporting world has been heavily influenced by the Greeks. During the formative years of the Greek civilisation, Greek communities in the entire civilisation region would send their best athletes to a polis called Olympia to engage in various sporting events that were meant to test their speed, skills and strength. This led to the development of the modern day Olympic games that are televised world-wide. Similarly, the roman civil code influenced activities such as boxing, wrestling, long distance races and long jump and these have developed into high profile sports in the contemporary world.
The idea of trial by the Jury which is one of the most important roles of the modern legal systems was started by the Greeks (Scheidel, 2008). They also established court systems which were quite primitive in comparison with the modern day court systems. However, it is important to note that the modern day court system is modelled after the primitive system of the Greeks that involved parties arguing in front of the Jury without lawyers, then the Jury would vote to determine if the person accused is innocent or not. The founders of USA borrowed the Athenian model of the courts and put it in the constitution though there were various modifications and evolutions that took place to develop the modern judicial system used in America.
Just like the Greeks, the Roman civilisation had a lot of influence on the modern western civilisation. One of the areas that the Roman civilisation influenced heavily is modern architecture. A look at many modern cities especially in the west will point at the influence of Roman architecture on modern day architecture. The architecture used in modern sports arenas, churches, courts, government buildings, sewerage systems and even roads are heavily influenced by the architecture that was used during the time of roman civilisation. Another modern area that the Roman civilisation has heavily influenced is the Law. The modern law is built upon the Roman civil codes. All the countries outside commonwealth and the US have their laws modelled using the Roman civil law. In fact the Muslim religious law used in the Muslim world borrows heavily from the Roman law. The Roman culture was syncretic in nature and used to absorb cultural practices from its neighbours and this served as a basis for the development of western civilisation after the roman civilisation collapsed. The modern western law is based on the fusion of the catholic laws and the Roman law and this has helped in the development of western legal scholarship, principles of civil rights, legal equality, due process, gender equality and principles of democracy (Gabucci, 2007).
Modern Christianity has a lot of influence from the Roman civilisation. Though the Christians were persecuted by the Roman authorities during the formative years of the development of the religion, Roman civilisation later contributed to the growth of the religion to its modern levels and the rise of Christianity as a global religion started when Emperor Constantine declared Christianity as the de facto religion of the Roman Empire. The vastness of the roman empire helped Christianity to spread faster and without the empire, there would not be any Christianity today and most of the Christian thoughts about life were borrowed from Roman schools of thoughts, the most common one being stoicism which actually started in Greece but became widely established in the roman empire. Paul of tarsus was the principle figure that led to spread of Christianity within the Roman Empire and to the rest of the world. He spread the religion to the Empire and now Christianity has become a global religion. Paul laid strong background that modern Christian missionaries use to spread the religion. Pauline influences are very evident in modern Christian practices especially Christian missions and evangelism. The modern Christian church is based on the teachings of Paul of tarsus who did his work during the roman civilisation.
Though the Greeks inspired a lot of modern literature, the Roman civilisation also has a contribution to modern literature. Most European writers especially after the renaissance period were inspired by the works of literary greats like Virgil who wrote during the roman civilisation. Most of the modern day writers, artists and painters in Europe were heavily influenced by classical works of literary greats such as Plautus Menachemi. Shakespeare was also heavily influenced by the roman tradition in some of his works like a comedy of errors. The other area that the Romans heavily influenced was government and politics. Though the Greeks invented democracy that is popular world wide, the Roman republic has inspired very many government models in the contemporary world. The federal government of the United States of America was deliberately modelled after the Roman republic and that is why there is a senate in United States of America.
The Romans were the most formidable empire builders and the principles of the roman civilisation are evident in many modern institutions both private and public. The modern western civilisation is heavily built on the principles of roman civilisation and it is important to note that Jefferson and the creators of the new nation were heavily inspired by the roman tradition (Cowel, 1961). United States of America was founded on the principles of the roman civilisation both in government and in law.
Latin, the language used during the roman civilisation may be a dead language today but it has influenced the growth of many modern languages. For example, the modern English language is sixty percent Latin and without the influence of this language of Roman civilisation, the English spoken today around the world would be radically different. French may be considered purer than English but it also has some Latin influences. In fact, most romantic languages spoken around Europe would not be the way they are today without the influence of Latin.
In summary, there are many ways in which the modern world resembles the ancient work of the Greeks and the Romans. For example, the Greeks developed the alphabet that is used today and they also invented the ideals of democracy that are practiced in the modern world. The justice systems that are found in the modern world were also developed by the Greeks and they also provided the philosophical background that inspires modern literature. Salaries and wages which are very important in the modern economy were also instituted by the Greeks during the Greek civilization. The law code of the ancient Rome inspired the formation of the laws that are used in most countries and the Romans were the first to use the legal concept of someone is innocent till proven guilty which is applicable in almost all the legal frameworks of every modern country. Romans developed the first parliament complete with an upper and a lower house akin to the models used in most countries including the United States of America. The calendar that is used in the contemporary world was also developed by the Romans. The Numeral system that is used today was developed by the Romans and the modern apartments we live in were first developed by the Romans who also spearheaded the social welfare systems that are found in many countries. Romans invented concrete, Bricks and glass that are used in the modern construction industry while the Greeks invented the Marble which is still used in architectural aesthetics. Greeks invented the art of sculpture while the Romans invented the aqueducts, sewers and road construction technology, and it is important to not that most of the roads they built thousands of years ago are still being used in the contemporary world. In conclusion, most of the inventions of the Greeks and the Romans have had a profound effect on the modern world because most of the modern aspects of living are based on the inventions of the Greeks and the Romans. The Greek and Roman civilisations have really helped in the development of mathematics, science, literature, architecture, engineering and art into the way they are in the modern world but the biggest impact on the modern world must have been on religion and government because both the Greek and Roman civilisations gave birth to democracy and Christianity respectively and these are the most important historical developments that have shaped the modern world. Though these two civilisations collapsed many years ago, their influence is still being felt in the contemporary world and they will continue influencing future generations because their principles and structures are timeless. Literature, arts, engineering and many other aspects of life will continue being structured using the foundations laid by two of the most outstanding civilisations of all times.
References
Cowel, F. (1961). Life in Ancient Rome. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons.
Duicker, W. (2001). World History.London: Wadsworth.
Gabucci, A. (2007). Ancient of Civilizations. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Scheidel, W. (2008).The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World.Cambridge: CUP
Wyke, M. (1999). History of Ancient Rome and Athens. New York: Routledge.
Thesis Statement: The clothing worn by Roman women throughout the Roman Empire was intended to convey their social status and financial affluence.
Primary Sources
Olson, Kelly. “Matrona and Whore: The Clothing of Women in Roman Antiquity.” Fashion Theory. 6:4, 387-420, 2002. Web.
Prostitutes and married women both wore the same clothing in ancient Rome, as discussed in this article. According to the text, people in antiquity defied prescribed attire by comparing literary materials to visual sources. Women in ancient Rome wore long garments known as tunics derived from the Greek chiton. A chiton was a loose piece of clothing attached at the shoulder and was worn by the Greeks as a casual garment. In addition to the tunica, ladies wore a loose piece of clothing known as a stola to cover the remainder of their bodies. These tunics might have long or short sleeves, depending on the individual’s taste for length. In ancient Greece, the stola was full-length clothing worn over a tunic and clasped at the shoulder from the waist. The book covers all of these women’s costumes in detail for each of the cultures covered in the book. Olson exhibits timelines and highly detailed artworks of all forms of costume design in their exhibition.
Olson presents several examples of how the fashion of ancient civilizations represented different classes in society. For instance, linen and silk from China were regarded as the most valuable fabrics for wealthy women. The Silk Road trade meant that only a few women could afford it. Plaiting one’s hair was a common practice among Roman ladies, in addition to attire. Curls and waves were frequently applied to women’s hairstyles to appear more polished. Throughout these periods, hairstyles ranged from basic pushbacks to elaborate plaited hair with several layers piled high over their heads. Women donned blond slave hair wigs and hair extensions. In addition to using hair dyes, they also experimented with different shades. The Greek-style heavily influenced fashion in Rome. Roman women’s costumes, which combined elements of Greek and Roman fashion, displayed their wearers’ social status and wealth.
Secondary Sources
Eliza, Burbano. Dress and Womanhood of Ancient Rome. 2016. Web.
This study explores how women in classical antiquity were viewed by other social groups based on their attire, and how this perspective differed from one group to the next. The author of this study contends that clothing in ancient Rome was more than just a way to show off one’s social class; it was a means of communicating societal injustices. To throw some light on how women perceived themselves, the book is interested in investigating the experiences that women have with the diverse perceptions of their clothes by other social groups.
To comprehend the historical significance of fashion, particularly during the Roman era, the book also makes it necessary to recognize that the study of fashion history has its roots in a European tradition that began after the Crusades, putting it in the fifteenth century or later. As Europe became more stable, the formal study of fashion began. There was more finished clothing in European marketplaces than in Roman markets. Products were sold in the market, referred to as the “loci.” European art and design and fashion markets were born out of capitalism. On the other hand, the Romans shaped their conception of femininity by imposing rigid roles on women for them even to be deemed human. Making clothes for one’s use, one’s husband’s use and the family’s use was expected of Roman women. While it wasn’t a skill that could be sold, this Roman moralism-inspired view of a woman’s worth increased her status.
Peacock, John. The Chronicles of Western Fashion, From Ancient Times to the Present Day. Harry N. Adams, 1991.
John Peacock’s Chronicles of Western Fashion features illustrations spanning periods as far back as antiquity and as far forward as the twentieth century. Fashion plates and descriptions of individual costumes and the people who wore them are a part of his collection. These educational plates represent people in modern civilization in various shapes, patterns, and creative expressions. Men, women, and children of all ages are depicted in his section on Egyptian fashion. Details abound as he creates these expressive portraits. Using this data, I will explain the same silhouettes and cuts they devised and the possible reasons behind their utilization.
Cleland, Liza, et al. The Clothed Body in the Ancient World. Oxbow Books, 2010
When Cleland, Harlow, and Jones wrote The Clothed Body in the Ancient World, they discussed the nature of dress and provided additional context for the costumes. Using data from these specialists, these three authors provide a fresh perspective on what these outfits represent concerning place, weather conditions, stage of life, grooming, and artwork. This collection will find information and interviews from textile conservators, costume designers and art historians. Many photographs of Egyptian wigs, jewelry, kalasaris, and make-up for both women and men are included in the publication. My goal is to demonstrate how men’s and women’s clothing differed and how their clothing was related to their environment in a broader context using the information I have gained.
Tortora, Phyllis G., and Sara B. Marcketti. Survey of Historic Costume. 6th ed., Fairchild Books, 2015.
The authors of this book guide the reader through many periods in costume design, beginning with the Ancient World and progressing to the 20th and 21st Centuries. In one of the chapters, they discuss Ancient clothes of different countries, including where they came from, the variations between women’s and men’s textiles, clothing, technologies, the eras, and accessories from the period in question. They cover all of these themes in detail for each of the cultures covered in the book. Tortora et al. exhibit pictures, timelines, and highly detailed artworks of all forms of costume design in their exhibition.
Tortora and Marcketti present several examples of how the fashion of ancient civilizations has inspired contemporary style and a thorough explanation of why the clothes of these civilizations were necessary. This book also recounts the significance of fashion during these specific periods and how it served as a forerunner for everything we have today, such as the wrap skirts they designed, which are still highly fashionable today. I intend to use this material to educate myself on the clothing of the historical period and learn how men’s costumes differed from women’s costumes.
FIT Student. “Fashion History Timeline.” About the Timeline | Fashion History Timeline, fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu, 2016. Web.
For those interested in fashion and dress history, the Timeline was created as an initial pilot project by FIT art history faculty and students in the Fall of 2015. For lovers of the history of fashion and clothing, this website provides comprehensive, easily understandable articles on a wide range of topics of fashion in ancient Rome. It is a living resource that will continue to grow and change to serve better the needs of both students and faculty (from the Renaissance scholar to the simply curious).
Work Cited
Wagner-Hasel, Beate. Women’s Work: The First 20.000 Years. Women, Cloth and Society in Early Times. 411-415, 1995. Web.
The Fall of The Roman Empire is an epic film made in 1964 that was released by Paramount Pictures. The film was directed by Anthony Mann, while the well known historian Will Durant was the advisor in regard to the plot and the specific details of the period. Unfortunately the film had collapsed at the box office and was a financial failure. It was however considered an intellectual film that put forth before the public the historical aspects of the Roman Empire. The plot of the film depicts the historical personalities, events and trends during the period 180 to 192 AD which is taken as the period during which the Roman Empire stopped growing and witnessed a steady down fall which culminated in the ultimate fall of the Empire. The film is particular in highlighting the tradition of choosing an adopted successor to the throne, which had continued since the time of Nerva in 96 AD. The stars of the film included legendry actors of the time such as Stephen Boyd, Sophia Loren, Alec Guinness, Christopher Plummer, James Mason and Omar Sharif.
At the beginning of the film there is a clear depiction of the fate of the Roman Empire by way of a dialogue which implies that a great civilization can never be conquered by outsiders unless it first destroys itself internally. It is in this sense that the entire length of the film bears witness to such circumstances while the story depicts the rampant greed and corruption that would eventually lead to the collapse of the Roman Empire. The film opens on the snow covered northern border regions of the Roman Empire where Marcus Aurelius, the Caesar, played by Alec Guinness, had been trying to repress the barbarians who had become very dominant. The Caesar is under the impression that there will be peace and he has called upon all the leaders of the empire to this front line to observe what he perceives to be the beginning of a peaceful era which will bring about the existence of a group of powerful and equal nations in achieving the dream pf Pax Romana.
Consequently there is a distinguished gathering of provincial governors and generals who are present to shower praise on the present Caesar. The Emperor is portrayed as relying heavily on Timonedis (James Mason), a former Greek slave whom he always has beside him in being his primary advisor. Amongst the august gathering is also Livius (Stephen Boyd), the powerful General of the Army who is slated to become the successor to Aurelius. Another dignitary amongst the leaders is Commodus (Christopher Plummer), the real son of Aurelius who has been ruling the playful city of gladiators and games in a rather irresponsible and dissolute style. Commodus is portrayed as being coarsely ambitious in expecting to succeed as Caesar one day, and when he comes to know of his father’s plans to place Livius on the throne and not him, he is shocked and the rift between the two widens. Commodus and Livius had been childhood friends but the events would soon depict their transformation into bitter enemies.
In matters that get further complicated, Livius clandestinely falls in love with Lucilla (Sophia loren), the daughter of Caesar, for she is to be given in marriage to Armenian King Sohamus (Omar Sharif) in order to strengthen the relationship between the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire and Armenia. The illicit love affair between Livius and the prospective queen of Armenia is shown as being parallel to the long standing affair between Faustina, the wife of Aurilius and her stealthy lover.
The first half of the film gives an account of the attempts by the Roman Empire to conquer the barbarians and to somehow take into custody their chief, Ballomar. The campaign is doomed to become a failure due to the excessive faith of Commodus in his army of weak gladiators, which stands no ground against the well trained soldiers that Livius commands. Ultimately the two men would confront each other in gaining the entitlement to command the Northern armies. Such a battle of wits, which also includes a fierce chariot race bears all the signs that foretell the darkness in the future of Rome. The prophecy in this regard becomes worse with the guarded death of Aurelius, allegedly due to poisoning by conspirators, before the confirmation of his successor. The sudden death of Aurelius would in due course lead to the usurping of the Roman Emperor’s title of Caesar.
The second half of The Fall of the Roman Empire is focused on Rome and the rule by its new Caesar. With the abrupt death of Aurelius, Livius has no other choice but to make Commudus as the Caesar while he himself continues to be the Commander of all the armies in the empire. Commodus started to rule in stark opposition to the policies pursued by Aurelius which he labeled as weak, and demanded more tributes and tax collections from the eastern regions of Egypt and Syria thus compelling them to rebel. During this time however, Livius is able to pacify the northern frontiers by sticking to Aurelius’s policies of building human frontiers. Along with Timonides, the ex-slave and Aurelius’s advisor, Livius returns to Rome with a plan to settle and Romanize the conquered Germans on farm lands that had been abandoned. The plan is given acceptance by the Senate in Rome but Commodus is not happy with such developments and sends away Livius for extended duties in the northern frontiers.
Very soon Commodus has to face defection by Armenia and the eastern provinces, but Livius comes to his rescue in crushing the rebellion. But Livius refuses to adopt cruel and brutal retribution policies as ordered by Commodus and gives him an ultimatum that either Rome should be transformed or there should be a new Caesar. The consequent reaction by Commodus in seeking vengeance is to bribe the army and city of Rome to take his side against Livius. Commodus succeeds in influencing the people which is evident when the colossal statue in the Temple of Jupiter is swapped with a head that is similar to that of Commodus. The Senate too passes a proposal to change the name of Rome to City of Commodus and that of the empire to Empire of Commodus. Soon Livius is arrested and is to be executed along with Lucilla, but at the last momentum Commodus decides to return the favor that Livius had showered on him in making him Caesar. He challenges him to a gladiator combat promising to make him the Caesar if he wins. In the combat Livius kills Commodus and rescues Lucilla from being executed. Livius is prevailed upon to assume the title of Caesar but he refuses saying that if he became Caesar he would have all the conspirators executed. The film concludes with an auction wherein there are bids for the imperial throne which culminated with the taking over the throne by Didius Julianus. Hence began the downfall of the Roman Empire.
The film is awash with magnificent combat sequences, sturdy performances, awe inspiring sets and imposing production ethics. But one cannot ignore the fact that eventually The Fall of the Roman Empire is a rather gloomy film with lot of pessimism. As the story unfolds, most of the major characters in the film meet tragic ends. The film is characterized by a depressive climax whereby reasonableness vanishes in an environment of the ever present greediness for money and power, and with the realization that a great empire had begun to disintegrate in losing its solidity. The film does not portray the fall of the Roman Empire but only the beginning. Critics have criticized the film for having distorted some facts such as the Roman Emperor Aurelius being murdered although the truth is that he died because of plague. The death of Commodus is also depicted wrongly because he was strangulated while having a bath and not killed in combat with Livius.
Works Cited
Bosley Crowther, The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964), The New York Times.
Ed Nguyen, The Fall of the Roman Empire, 2009. Web.
Tod Conrad, Critique of The Fall of the Roman Empire, Independent Film Quarterly, 2009. Web.
The Etruscan culture surfaced in Italy ca. 800 B.C. Etruscan culture is characterized by its various art forms and architecture which have influenced Roman art and architecture. It is distinguished by a proliferation of burial types, extensive use of the corbeled arch and vault, the growth of cities, the development of sophisticated metallurgy, and evidence of extensive trade with other cultures (Infinity 1). At the time of Rome’s foundation the highest civilizations in Italy were those of the Greek in southern, and of the Etruscans in central, Italy. Etruscan art is strikingly displayed in the museums of Florence and Rome. The Romans admit that many of the arts of civilization were acquired from the Etruscans.
The first temple on the Capitoline Hill was Etruscan, and terracotta figures made after the Greek pattern by an Etruscan stood on the roof. The Etruscans were the close neighbors of the Romans, who were Latins, who, in turn, resembled the Etruscans in their tastes and lives. There is much to show that Rome, under the Etruscan influence, was in the sixth century B.C., one of the chief centers of artistic development north of Magna. The Etruscans also held Greek influences in their works of art that were passed on to later Roman art and architecture as well.
Historical Background
When Rome first knew the Etruscans, the main seat of power was in Etruria or Tuscany (Dudley 15). Historically, the Etruscans had occupied Rome from c.616 B.C., but in c.510 B.C. they were driven out by the Romans. Rome’s last three kings sprang from the Etruscan ruling dynasty; the mother of the first was a royal Etruscan prophet. Their absolute power in Rome lasted 106 years. In the early 4th cent., after Etruria had been weakened by Gallic invasions, the Romans attempted to beat the Etruscans back. Beginning with Veii (c.396 B.C.) one Etruscan city after another fell to the Romans, and civil war further weakened Etruscan power.
The material remains of Etruscan civilization can be seen at Italian sites as Caere, Tarquinii, and Vulci, with their great cemeteries and richly decorated tombs. The museums which are especially rich in the objects from Etruscan tombs are those of the Vatican at Rome and of Florence, while many others are in the Louvre at Paris and in the British Museum (Goodyear 29). Among the most famous excavated early Etruscan tombs at the “ReguliniGalassi” tomb at Cervetri and the “Polledrara” tomb at Vulci (Goodyear 30).
Etruscan Art
The Etruscans were themselves great workers in metal, at first under oriental tutelage, and consequently using oriental patterns in the pieces of earlier date. Large bronze shields and vessels of their make can be seen in the British Museum (Goodyear 30). Etruscan art had certain characteristics that included the grotesque and the supernatural. The same gifts caused it to excel in portraiture of a highly realistic kind (Britova et al 1).
Etruscan art depicts vividly a life of luxury and pleasure on the earth, of gloom and punishment beyond the grave. Like other ancient nations the Etruscans believed in a life after death, and, like other ancient nations, they actually believed that the utensils, ornaments, and surroundings of this life were available for the use of the deceased (Goodyear 28) in the spirit world. Hence the practice of burying in the tombs so many various objects of daily life, which, as excavated in the last two centuries, now enable us to reconstruct a picture of an ancient civilization.
The Etruscans were especially famous for their skill in working terra-cotta (baked clay), of which many examples survive. In gem-cutting they even excelled the Greeks, as far as actual skill in execution is concerned. Their bronze utensils were in high demand even in Athens. The two most noted existing works of Etruscan art are the life-size bronze wolf of the Capitol Museum in Rome and the large bronze Chimaera in Florence (Goodyear 35). Their sculptured stone sarcophagi and stone cists (for the ashes of cremated bodies) are quite numerous in several museums, but the decorative reliefs and surmounting reclining figures of these works are generally of rather inferior art and execution.
Capitol Hill
The most sacred place in early Rome was Capitol Hill. On the Capitol, the acropolis of Rome has enshrined the great Etruscan trinity of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva (Dudley 18). Certainly, it was under the Etruscan influence, perhaps with an Etruscan king as founder, that the ritual inauguration of the city of Rome took place. A union of Latin, Sabine, and Etruscan elements provided the Capitol with a fortress and a center for common worship.
There is nothing left of it except, perhaps, a few foundation stones. But the hill today is harmoniously set about with buildings and courtyards (Menen, 26). The cult statues and the terra-cotta decorations of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol were the work of the Etruscan artist Vulca (Dudley 26). They have swept away in the reconstruction of the temple in the time of Sulla. The discovery in modern times of the superb statues of Veii and Conca however stands as testimony to the Etruscan influence in Roman art (Dudley 26).
Archeological studies show that the temple was large, almost square, and it was built of wood. Columns made up a deep portico and supported a steep roof. It was decorated with a vast profusion of terracotta plates, masks, gargoyles, and floral panels. On the roof stood a quadriga, also of terracotta, and all the decorations were lavishly and brightly painted. It is said that the builders and decorators were brought in from all Etruria (Menen 29).
Examples of Etruscan Influences on Roman Art
The following are some examples of Etruscan influence on Roman art:
An antique Etruscan monument depicts the pathos of the human frame: the figures of a dying huntsman on an ash chest in the Museo Gregariano of the Vatican. A young man wounded in the thigh and thus identified as Adonis, lies back in death – the thin wiry legs are restlessly drawn up, the right arm thrown over the side of the couch – the body has a slightly swollen puffy look as in early Tuscan sculptures. Below the couch lies the huntsman’s dog, quietly licking his back. In sarcophagi, the dead man is shown lying at full length with closed eyes. The Etruscan artists anticipated the Christian idea of “eternal rest” so familiar with medieval tombstones – an idea to which Greek sculpture had remained strangely indifferent (Strong 32).
The Tomb of the Reliefs at Cerveteri is carved out of living rock. The bodies were placed in the niches visible in this slide and relief carvings decorated the interior with mythological figures such as Cerberus the Greeks’ three-headed dog of the underworld and copies of ordinary household implements.
The figural ash urn seen is the simplest type of container for the deceased, a male or female effigy vessel made from clay.
Although the Etruscans borrowed Greek vessel types and vase painting techniques, they did invent a whole new kind of ceramic that was to become for them a major export item. It is a lustrous monochromatic blackware called bucchero. This example is a graceful chalice doubtlessly used for drinking one of Etruscan’s favorite beverages, wine.
From the proliferation of tomb types, it is safe to assume that the Etruscans were very much interested in the afterlife and providing well for their ancestors. One type of funerary container, the terra cotta sarcophagus was unique to the Etruscan culture. It has on its lid, reclining as though at their own funerary banquet, the husband and wife whose remains were contained within. The style of the couple is Archaic in emulation of Greek Archaic figures, even down to the stylized triangular beard of the husband and the Archaic smiles on both faces.
Another sarcophagus, with the realistic treatment of a rather homely, middle-aged couple, is in the Hellenistic style of Etruscan art.
Metallurgy was a real forte of the Etruscans. They had extensive mines in Italy and crafted marvelous bronze sculptures. Bronze mirrors had on their back an engraved design based on an episode in Homer’s Iliad.
The Chimera was a Greek mythological creature who was killed by the hero Bellerophon. An Etruscan bronze captures the snarling ferocity of the combined animal with its semi-crouching pose, well-fanged mouth, and taught muscles.
Etruscan Architecture
The sacred area (temple) of Rome corresponds in miniature to the temple of the heavens, with the four cardinal points and the four quarters of the sky. Such were the foundation rites. Some archaeologists claim to have traced the lines of cardo and decumanus beneath the foundations of later buildings and to have found their crossing-place appropriately by the ancient Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum. These rites, and the religious ideas behind them, are known to have been Etruscan (Dudley 18).
However, no ruins of Etruscan temples have survived. They are known to have resembled the Greek temples in form and are presumed to have been rather inferior to them in the beauty of detail and of proportions. The Etruscans are credited with devising the cold and formal style of Doric capital which was generally used by the Romans in the time of the empire and which has been known as the “Tuscan” order (Goodyear 36).
It has been shown, however, by an American archaeologist, that the so-called Tuscan Doric capital is probably the survival of a very simple and undeveloped Doric form, rather than the late corruption and debasement of a better one. The capital in question lacks the fine curve and bold projection of the Parthenon Doric and is also distinguished from the Greek Doric by a projecting fillet at the top of the column. It is probable that the so-called “Composite” order of the Romans originated with the Etruscans (Goodyear 36).
The most famous contribution of the Etruscans to Roman architecture is the use of the arch. That they were the first to use it in Italy is clear and it is also clear that they used it largely, though even the ruins of their work in this line are scanty. The general repugnance of Greek builders to the arch is notorious and its later widespread use throughout the modern world is certainly due to the Etruscans, as the Romans learned its use from them. Etruscan engineering capacity is attested by various drainage constructions, of which the most famous is the Cloaca Maxima, or great sewer, at Rome, dating from the sixth century B. C..(Goodyear 37).
The walls of Falleri, north of Rome, are an example of what may be seen in the way of Etruscan masonry in various quarters. The lower layers of the town walls of Cortona, for instance, date back to the Etruscan period and show a similar construction. In the surviving Italian towns, on sites dating from the ancient days of Latium, there are many remains of similar massive walls and also of town gateways. Of the latter class, there is a fine example at Alatri, south of Rome.
In Rome, there are no traces of the so-called Pelasgic or polygonal style of masonry. The oldest remains, like the walls of the Palatine and of the Capitol, are built-in opus quadratum in the Etruscan style, with the blocks of tufa placed lengthwise in one tier and crosswise in the next. This rule was followed through the Republican period. As early at least as the sixth century B. C. Greek influences are very distinct in Etruscan art and were intact dominant from that time. They are not, however, obvious to an eye accustomed to tile perfected Greek style and to a person unaware how thoroughly oriental in appearance the early Greek art.
An example of Etruscan influence in Roman architecture can be seen in the interior of the tomb at Casal Marittimo which displays a corbelled dome. The exterior was covered with a large earthen mound contained at the base by a stone wall. Such mounded structures are known as tumuli; these structures were typical of Etruscans (Infinity 1). The tombs which are most generally visited by tourists are those of Cervetri and of Corneto, which are in the neighborhood of Rome.
At a tomb in Cervetri, the pillows are carved in stone in the cavity where the body was laid to rest. The capitals of the pilasters are of a primitive Ionic form, illustrating the evolution of the Ionic capital from the Egyptian lotus flower, and also illustrating the way in which such primitive Greek forms are constantly found in Etruscan examples. During the Republican period, Augustus constructed the huge mausoleum for the imperial family, modeled on the burial mounds of Etruscan tradition, but on an enormous scale (Dudley 154). It received the ashes of most of the leading members of the imperial family from Marcellus to Nerva.
Tomb Paintings
The Etruscan influence was paramount in the early part of Rome. In their wall paintings, many of which are still preserved in the splendid tombs of Orvieto and Corneto, the Etruscans showed themselves as masters of the early renaissance. In reliefs such as those of the three beautiful Cippi lately placed in the room of the archaic sculpture in the British Museum, they come very close to a style that is peculiarly Greek (Strong 31). But it was in their great clay sarcophagi surmounted by reclining figures that Etruscan art was manifested in its most individual mood. In the group of a man and his wife on the sarcophagus from Cervetri in the British Museum of about B.C. 500. Etruscan artists exhibited great expressive vitality.
The most beautiful examples come from the city of Tarquinia. During the Archaic period of Etruscan art, the paintings show characteristic Etruscan exuberance and joy of life with many scenes of dancing and revelry. One of the rooms of the Etruscan Museum at Florence has a collection of Etruscan antiquities. On the walls above one can see some copies of the tomb paintings. The apartment is filled mainly with sarcophagi and cists for the ashes of the dead.
As apparent in the varying sizes of these objects, both ordinary burial and cremation were practiced. The two large sarcophagi belong to a class that is not very numerous and the much larger number of cists for ashes shows that cremation was the habitual custom.
There is an even larger number of these cists in the Museum of Volterra, from which museum we have selected a characteristic example for the relief style of later date to contrast with the relief from Chiusi. The size of these cists is generally about two feet in length. The subjects of the reliefs with which the front and sides of the cists are decorated are mainly taken from Greek mythology and very frequently from Homer (Goodyear 41).
The reliefs of these cists are the best possible illustration of the manner in which Italian art became saturated with Greek influences and of the conditions under which Roman art developed. The reclining figures which are represented on the covers of the cist are invariable of a more hurried and ruder art than the reliefs on the body of the object and seem to have been made by an inferior class of artists. They represent the deceased in a conventional way and generally without effort at exact portraiture. These reclining figures always hold a patera, or dish for the receipt of the funeral offerings of food and drink (Goodyear 42).
In a tomb at Corvette, there is a picture showing two shields, a sword, a helmet, a staff, a drinking cup, a frying pan, and two necklaces, carved in relief on the walls of the tomb. Corneto in the locality most remarkable for tombs whose walls are decorated by frescoes. An illustration from Corneto shows a banquet scene and musicians. The style of drawing seems to fit the fifth century B. C. The animals, which are facing a shrub and which resemble leopards, are originally lions and are copied from lions facing a “sacred tree,” such as are common in early Greek art under the oriental influence.
Etruscan Art in Museums
Among the Etruscan treasures at the Museum of Perugia, there is a terra-cotta head of the Medusa, a terra-cotta cist decorated with a mask of the Medusa, and two griffins, and a silver mirror-case with a relief of Bacchus riding on the Panther—all of which have a Greek connotation. The small museum at Cortona boasts a bronze lamp with apertures for sixteen wicks, which was found suspended in a tomb, and is on account of its decorative relief designs the most remarkable object of its class in Europe. In the Museum of Chiusi, one can find a large amount of pottery, many cinerary cists, and some statuary.
The museum at Corneto (Tarquinii) has as its most remarkable possession a set of false teeth. This reminds of an exception to the Roman law forbidding the burial of gold objects at funerals, in favor of the gold filling of the teeth of the deceased.
Greek influence on Etruscan Art
The early Etruscan surface design paintings, known from tomb frescoes and reliefs, exhibit a general dependence on Greek art (Goodyear 33). In the relief from Chiusi, the exaggeration and contortion of the attitudes are distinctively Etruscan, although the general conception of the art shows Greek traditions. The museums have many ladies’ bronze mirrors which are decorated on the back with subjects of Greek myth (Goodyear 34).
The most palpable indication of the Greek influences in Etruscan, and therefore in Italian, art is the very large number of imported Greek painted pottery vases found in the tombs. In fact, they are so many in number that they are generally called “Etruscan vases” despite their Greek origin (Goodyear 35). These Greek influences were carried through to the Republican and Empire periods of Rome.
Conclusion
Thus, a study of Roman art and architecture would show that it carries the influence of Etruscan art and along with it, traces of Greek art that touched Etruscan art. Knowledge of Etruscan art is in reality not only a means of visualizing what the early Roman art was, but it is also a means of knowing what the Roman art became during the later periods in history.
Bibliography:
Britova, N.N.; Loseva, N. M.; and Sidorova, N. A. (1975). The Roman Sculptural Portrait. “Art”. 1975. Web.
Dudley, R. Donald (1960). The Civilization of Rome. New American Library Publishers. New York.
Goodyear, W. H. (1897). Roman and Medieval Art. Grosset & Dunlap Publishers. New York.
Infinity (2008). Unit IV Review: Etruscan and Roman Art. Web.
Menen, Aubrey (1960). Rome for Ourselves. McGraw-Hill Publishers. New York.
Strong, Sellers Eugenie (1969). Roman Sculpture from Augustus to Constantine. Ayer Publishing.