Category: Roman Empire

Events after the fall of the Holy Roman Empire

After the fall of the Holy Roman Empire in 476 came the establishment of Germanic kingdoms. The fall was precipitated by the Holy Roman Empire allowing peoples other than Romans to serve in the Roman Army. These peoples did not fight as passionately as someone who was defending their homeland. Despite the fall of the empire the papacy continued to bestow titles on individuals within the empire. After the fall of the Holy Roman Empire a chaotic environment of invasions, marriages, revolts, killings, and conversions to Christianity took place. Those who ruled the kingdoms welcomed titles bestowed upon them by the papacy. Although remnants of the Holy Roman Empire still exists (Pope, Catholicism with worldwide following) it has nowhere near the power it had prior to 476 A.D. The Empire and the papacy remain in Rome alone (Vatican City) but have religious significance only as the leader of the Catholic Church. The Popes still holds respectable power when it comes to opinions and religious observance of its followers.

The Germanic kingdoms included areas invaded by Germanic tribes such as the Burgundians, Alemanians, and the Langobardians. Interestingly, the Burgundians occupied a portion of territory in Switzerland that remains a French speaking area today. This remnant from the past reflects the time when the Franks took over the Burgundians and influenced both the language and culture of the Burgundians.

The most destabilizing factor that influenced society at that time was the taking, and retaking, of territory and subdividing territory among decendents. Stability was brought to the region by monks allowed to move among the kingdoms and erecting churches and bishoprics to replace Catholicism in the kingdoms. Many of the Germanic tribes were catholic but allowed Irish and Scottish monks to move about their territories. Ultimately, invaders integrated and assimilated with locals and thus lost the attachments to where they came from. “The Alemannians also pushed farther into the upper Rhine valley, driving the Celts deeper into the Alps. Today in the valleys of the Graubünden (Grisons), the descendants of these Celts speak Romansh, the least-prevalent of Switzerland’s four official languages.”(Encyclopaedia Brittanica, 2007).

Changes from 500 A.D. to 1600 A.D.

European society in 500 A.D. was still very much in flux. Germanic tribes were still acquiring and inhabiting territories. Tribes, such as the Langobardi, were seeking out opportunities for war. Lands were being subdivided among descendents of rulers. Historians refer to this period of time as the ‘Dark Ages’ because this was a time of constant change. Just prior to 500 A.D. the Anglo-Saxons invaded England, Clovis became the King of the Franks, and the Christianization of England began. The region was anything but stable but was the target of missionaries who targeted the Germanic tribes’ conversion to Christianity. It was during this time frame that the practice of giving male children to the monasteries was common (usually around age 7).

By the time of 1600 A.D. Europeans had survived the ‘black death’ and entered the ‘age of reform’. The Protestant Reformation ended in 1598, the Catholic Reformation was nearing an end, and the wars of religion were underway. The protestant reformation was a pull away from the Catholic Church. The Gutenberg Bible helped put the written bible into many more people’s hands thus the reliance on leaders of the various churches for instruction on the contents of the bible was diminished.

The ‘Black Death’ was a deadly pandemic caused by a bacteria called Yersinia pestis (The Black Death, 2007). The fleas carried around by rats carried the plague. One could be affected in three ways: Bubonic, Pneumonic, and Septicemic. Bubonic was the most common and Septicemic was the most deadly.

The structure of society in 1600 differed much from 500 A.D. when people were ruled by Kings and change was normal and frequent. By 1600 many countries were ruled by an absolute monarch. Religion played a big part in people’s lives. The wars of religion began around 1500 A.D. and abated around 1650 A.D. The areas involved included France, The Holy Roman Empire, and Great Brittain.

It was around 1600 A.D. that many voyages were undertaken to explore the outermost reaches of the globe. This is followed by the exploration and colonization of the Americas by Britain, France, and Spain. Those most interested in making the journey of immigration to the Americas were interested in religious freedom.

The biggest changes from 500 A.D. to 1600 A.D. was the institution of absolute monarchy, expansion of Christianity, and the invention of movable type (Gutenburg). Society in 1600 A.D. was structured around the Christian Church (Catholic or Protestant) but was subservient to the King.

The peoples of this time were of very hardy stock as they survived the ‘Black Death’ and the little Ice Age (1560 – 1850) when temperatures plummeted in Europe and the British Isles.

Islam – the dominant religion of North Africa and South West Asia

Islam is the dominant religion of North Africa and South West Asia. Islam dominates daily life and includes the subservience of women. Arabic is the dominant language in the region. Other religions are found in the Middle East but most are experiencing pressures from Islamic extremists to close, relocate, or die.

In many Arab countries male children are educated while female children are trained to be subservient to their male counterparts. This is unchanged from the early origins of Islam. Only recently have female Arab children been allowed to attend school.

The history of the Islamic world includes the period of time when Islam was the dominant religion on the Arabian Peninsula. In 634 Mohammed set out with his followers and occupied Palestine, Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, and Persia. The Arabs are credited with defeating the Romans. Those areas conquered by Arabs quickly converted to Islam. Islamic clerics dominated Islamic society by enforcing shi’a law. “One of the fundamental messages of the Qur’an is the emphasis on material welfare and the entire community’s responsibility for the material welfare of all its members.” (Hooker, 1996)

Religious and social systems in current Arab countries are not much different than they were in 500 A.D. to 1600 A.D. The Arab countries have survived wars with the Turks and the Sultans of Egypt and the domination of the Ottoman Empire. But, the Middle East can best be described as inward looking and defensive. They have survived domination by European powers and have yet to catch up technologically. Westerners often refer to what is happening in the Middle East as “backwardness” (Lewis, 1995). If one wanted to see what life was like between 500 A.D. and 1600 A.D. a visit to current Islamic states would be in order. Selim the Grim is credited with capturing most of the Middle East for the Ottoman Empire in the beginning of the 1500’s.

“In addition to language and text, at the heart of Islam is the Arabic vision of the world and society. Codified only a couple hundred years after the foundation of Islam, the Shari’ah, or law of Islam installed permanently the Arabic order of society on subsequent generations. The genius of Islam, then, is fundamentally the genius of the Arabs; the cadences of Islam are the cadences of the Arabic language; the universe of Islam was one forged in the mind of Arabic culture.” (Hooker, 1996).

Mongol culture and Islamic culture share an important feature. If you visit a ‘ger’ on the Mongol steppes it would be like visiting the past. Rural Mongol people still live in the same type of homes and do many of the same things every day that their ancestors did so long ago. The big difference between Islamic society and Mongol society is that Mongols are forward thinking and adopt new technologies as they present themselves.

Mongols are the descendants of ancient nomadic tribes that raised horses, camels, cows, sheep and goats. Mongols society during the middle ages was much like rural Mongols of today. Their territory about 500 A.D. was described as:

“in accordance with the decree of his Majesty, the state situated to the north of the Great Wall shall be governed by the decrees of Shan Yu, and the territory situated to the south of the Great Wall, peopled by those who wear tushmed belts and caps, shall be governed by me. Both the State of the Huns and the State of Han are powerful neighbor states”. (Badral, 2007).

Mongols lived side by side with Turks and Khamnigan tribes. Before the departure of the northern Huns to eastern Europe (Hungary) northern and southern Huns coexisted. After their departure the Huns that stayed behind were recognized by the Chinese Khan recognized himself as the son of the Kidan Khan (Liao). Between 500 A.D. and 1500 A.D. many of the Mongol tribes were dispersed because of conflicts with other nations. The Mongols are credited with unifying a relationship between East and West.

The most famous Khan was Ghingas Khan. He undertook a longtime battle to conquer the whole world. Under Ghingas Khan and his successors Mongolia became a powerful nation. Interestingly, the Mongols did not impose their social system or religion on those they conquered. “Their religion focused on a sky-god that ruled over nature deities, similar to the Japanese native religion Shinto, and the gods communicated to them through shamans.” (Hooker, 1996)

Feudalism

Fuedalism got started in Europe at the fall of the Holy Roman Empire. It replaced the bureaucratic power structure provided during the Holy Roman Empire. Fuedalism began when power shifted to local political units. The land was considered the wealth, the people the laborers, and the political (or hereditary) leaders the recipients of the products produced by the work. The relationship of Lord with client was central to the function of the feudal society. The most essential element of feudalism was power. The Lord could protect the client and also render punishment to the client who disregards the commands of the Lord. Feudalism was essentially dominance and subordination.

Fuedalism became ineffective and obsolete when money was introduced and replaced feudalisms reward system. Money became the reward for work provided, crops grown, etc…

Works Cited

1. Badral, Surenguin. The Mongolia Society. 2007. Introduction to the History of Mongolia.
2. The Black Death. 2007. Web.
3. Hooker, Richard. 1996. Washington State University.
4. Lewis, Bernard. 1995. The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years. New York: Scribner, 1995.
5. Rome.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.
6. Rome.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.
7. Switzerland.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web.

Soon after the death of Marcus Aurelius, the last of five good emperors in Rome, the empire began to crumble. An examination of Roman history during the period from 180 to 305 AD reveals that political instabilities, inflation, and a weak defense contributed to the territory’s collapse. Potter (2014) asserts that during the years that characterized the fall, the Roman Empire had more than 50 leaders, including Commodus, Aurelius’ son, and Diocletian. The high number of leaders who reigned stemmed from a series of frequent overthrows or assassinations that exemplified the governance in the region. The armies and those who sought to become emperors desired power and regularly plotted to murder or oust leaders, a phenomenon that greatly affected the territory’s control. Additionally, some emperors wastefully spent the empire’s resources. Misuse of resources caused inflation in the country and plunged its populace into an abyss of poverty. Frequent assassinations and political unrest weakened the empire’s armies, rendering them vulnerable to attacks from neighboring communities.

When Diocletian took power, he instituted policies to salvage an empire that was on the verge of decline. According to Longo (2017), some of the measures that Diocletian implemented included the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern regions. Although he delegated some duties to his co-emperors, he retained supreme power. At the time of Diocletian’s reign, people paid high taxes and had to work like slaves for the wealthy. To address these challenges, Diocletian fixed the prices of commodities. Such strategies played a pivotal role in reducing the fast pace at which the empire was collapsing. However, inasmuch as he struggled to control the empire, the level of instability hindered any success wrought by his initiatives. On May 1, 305 AD, Diocletian became the first leader in the history of the empire to resign.

References

Longo, M. (2017). From Sovereignty to Imperium: Borders, Frontiers and the Specter of Neo-Imperialism. Geopolitics, 22(4), 757-771.

Potter, D. (2014). The Roman Empire at bay, AD 180–395. New York, NY: Routledge.

Roman Republic

The Roman Republic existed during the ancient Roman Civilization.

Struggles between common citizens (Plebeians) and the land holding aristocracy (Patricians) gave rise to a new constitution.

Government was ran as a Republic after the Roman Monarch was overthrown about 508 BC.

Through time, a complex constitution developed based on two principles.

• Separation of powers;
• Checks and balances.

Government was led by two consuls advised by a senate.

Public offices were limited to annual tenures, so no individual could dominate other citizens .

The laws and regulations that granted Patricians special rights to hold the most important offices were either done away or made feeble.

A new aristocracy arose from the Plebeians.

The Republic leaders in both war and harmony initiated strong customs, tradition and ethics that necessitated benefaction and civic service.

Political service and military prowess were closely linked.

The military was thus stronger than that of neighbours.

Expansion

Republic expanded considerably within the first two hundred years of its being.

This occurred through conquest and formation of treaties from central Italy to the Italian isthmus.

The Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, Greece and the current Southern France followed.

Towards end of 1BC, much of the east was included together with all of modern France.

Despite existing laws, the politics of Rome were at the time dominated by a few Roman leaders. This unstable alliance gave rise to a series of civil wars.

Transition: Rise of the Emperor

Civil wars gave rise to a final victor, Octavian, who was later named Augustus.

He reformed the Republic into a Principate, and he became a Princep (first citizen of Rome).

Elections were carried out as before and the senate continued with its work.

However, the Princep became an imperator or first among equals (emperor).

He held monarchic powers for life.

The Republic was neither restored nor abolished.

The pivotal event that marked a transition into the Roman Empire is debatable .

Different historians propose:

• Appointment of Julius Caesar as dictator for life in 44BC.
• The defeat of Mark Anthony during the Battle of Actium in 31BC.
• In 27BC, the Roman Senate accorded Augustus unusual and unexpected powers under the original settlement.

The Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was characterized by a dictatorial government and was composed of huge regional holdings around both Europe and the Mediterranean.

Romans exported their language, culture, laws, currency and political institutions to the conquered people.

This left a mark on western culture that is evident to this day.

Loyalty of governed people was attained through granting of citizenship to the Empire.

Conclusion

At its peak, the Empire covered more than two million square miles stretching from Britain to Asia Minor and from the Rhine River to Egypt.

The transition took a long time and was triggered by civil wars during the Republic.

The Roman Empire was powerful, extensive, and influential to such an extent that it left a long-lasting legacy. After reading this week’s material on the fall of the Roman Empire, one can learn much about the time when the kingdom began falling apart. An individual understands that the whole empire did not fall once. The Western Roman Empire fell first at around 390 CE, while the Eastern one disintegrated in the mid-15th century (“Fall of Roman Empire”). Thus, vast historical information about the Roman Empire era is observable from the reading.

Additionally, several conditions led to the collapse of the Roman Empire. The most significant one is the fusion of the Germanic mercenaries and fighters into the Roman troops. While the Romans were busy conquering other nations in Eastern Europe, they also allowed the subdued individuals to assimilate into the their culture, and the warriors had liberty to join the forces. The Germanic soldiers valued payments, which they received in the form of gold, and listened to their commanders only (“Fall of Roman Empire”). Therefore, with time, most commanders in Roman army were foreigners. Leadership challenges emerged, leading to instability and the eventual fall of the empire. Historically, the period is also linked with the acquiring of Christianity as the main religion. Constantine the Great was the ruler then, and he blended the new faith with the culture of the Romans.

The understanding of how enemies contributed to the destruction of one of the world’s powerful empires is vital for developing effective foreign policies in contemporary societies. States should learn not to allow foreigners to hold critical departments in the government no matter how qualified or loyal they can be. Such individuals can easily betray a nation, leading to a security breach and ultimately wrecking a country.

Work Cited

“Fall of The Roman Empire…in the 15th Century: Crash Course World History #1.” YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse. 2012. Web.

The Roman era lasted from the 10^th century B.C. to the 5^th century A.D. It can be described as a period of immense progress on many fronts, especially political, cultural, and technological. In this remarkable era, there came an efficient form of governance that built the backbone for forms of government in many countries over the world. Their culture, and mostly so the Latin language, has contributed enormously to languages used by billions around the world today while roman religion gave us our calendar. Technologically, Roman roads and architecture built centuries ago still exist today and are in use by Italy’s modern cities.

Ancient Rome was founded in 753 B.C. in what is now central Italy. It began as a farming village on the seven hills beside the Tiber River. Over the next 12 centuries, it expanded to become a vast empire covering Europe from England to North Africa as well as from Arabia up to the Atlantic Ocean. Rome passed through three periods. Starting 753–509 BC, it first developed from a village settlement into a city ruled by kings. Between 509–27BC, the Romans took over to form the Roman republic. This later collapsed, leading to the third period between 27 BC-AD 476, where it became an empire and stayed that way for the next five centuries. The existence of Rome has many lessons to teach to the civilized world today. (Kishlansky, Geary and O’Brien, 2004).

Early Romans particularly valued family relations. They had a patriarchal system with the father exercising supreme authority though still leaving other important tasks to the mother. The parents took a key interest in their children’s education. Sons would accompany their fathers to observe public meetings in preparation for their roles as citizens or leaders. This element has caused quite a number of rows in the modern society where the parental role in education has been almost minimized to payment of fees and provision of other means of accessing learning. Parents in contemporary society have left learning to schools and teachers and curriculums they themselves barely understand, for the roman parent education was used to secure their children’s future as well as to cultivate family pride. By taking a more front seat approach, parents in modern society can bequeath their children in real-life skills along with information and attitudes essential for appropriate adjustment to their community as well as to the larger society.

Another important role left to us by ancient Rome has to do with the relationship between husbands and wives. In ancient Rome, women had the role of child-rearing and household management. They were also a source of moral guidance to their children. The woman also shared any honors and respect given to her spouse. The law allowed for equal sharing of property in cases of death where a will is lacking though in most cases where one did exist, a provision was usually made for the daughters. In modern society, especially in more traditional settings, gender roles are still strictly adhered to but mostly have a stifling effect on women and their daughters. It is not uncommon for them to be denied basic education in order for them to do household duties. In many cases, they are also denied the right to inherit property is that they are to be married off to another family. (Solway and Connolly, 2001).

Another lesson we can get from this involves governance. Rome was ruled by kings elected from its major tribes in turns. However, unlike traditional monarchies where absolute power was vested in the king or queen, this king had a senate formed from heads of noble families to act as his advisors. The senate was composed of quite powerful individuals, but its authority was only to advise. There was also the Comitia Curiata which could endorse and ratify laws recommended by the king. The third administrative assembly was the Comitia Curata which would gather the people to give an announcement or bear witness to certain acts such as the proclamation of a new king or a declaration of war. This has a huge bearing on modern forms of government all over the world. The appointment of administrative assemblies which had representatives from all over the empire provided solid representation for the citizens of the empire. Where representation was given, then it provided stability, making way for progress. Compare this to nations such as Swaziland, where the king appoints his prime minister and cabinet as well as appointing 20 out of a 30 man senate. This has led to widespread abuse of his power to the detriment of his country and its people as a whole. (Kishlansky, Geary and O’Brien, 2004).

Ancient Rome also showed the importance of innovative or progressive planning in terms of technological advancement. Rome was superior in both military and structural engineering. It constructed hundreds of roads and bridges, theaters, aqueducts, baths, as well as arenas, a lot of which still can be seen today. Water was conveyed into the city from adjacent hills through fourteen aqueducts, three of which are still in use, the first having being built about 313 B.C. The aqueducts allowed Roman agriculture to flourish through irrigation. Sewers also intersected Rome, and some were of immense size. The largest, Cloáca Maxima, with an arch of fourteen feet diameter, is still in use.

The Appian Way is a road built in 312 BC. It linked the city of Rome to southern parts of Italy and still remains usable. The roads allowed trade to prosper as well as communication; for example, they could manage to have horse relays that allowed a message to travel up to 800 km in 24 hours. Its application to contemporary society is simple. Progress comes through applying novelty. We can also learn that social and economic development can be directly linked to how strong a country’s infrastructure is. This disparity can easily be seen between 1^st and ^rd world countries whereby both may have equal recourses, but the poorer country has no way or means to ship them from the farm to the market due to poor or complete lack of roads.

Rome finally fell around the 5^th century to German invaders. This was on its west side due to a combination of factors. They included its geography since it had a longer border to manage. There was also an unequal distribution of resources with the eastern empire, which had a tradition of urbanization that gave it continual support. It also had a strong economic base following lucrative trade with India, China, and Arabia, while the west was run by peasants. Once conquered, the west could not assist economically through taxes and tributes, leading the east to raise their own taxes. However, it wasn’t enough to sustain themselves, pay their army, and pacify the invaders. These factors combined led to its quiet demise in 476BC. The rise and fall of Rome teach us to avoid disparities in development since they might bring a weak point to an otherwise stable state leading to total collapse. It also advises against dependence on one factor in the economy, such as taxes alone, and preaches diversity.

References

Andrew Solway and Peter Connolly 2001, Ancient Rome, London, Oxford University Press.

Kishlansky, M., P. Geary and P. O’Brien 2004, A Brief History of Western Civilization: The Unfinished Legacy. New York, NY: Pearson/Longman. (4th Edition).

Robert F. Pennell., Ancient Rome From The Earliest Times Down To 476 A.D. Anno Urbis – The Roman Empire Online. 2008. Web.

Ancient Rome, 2008. Web.

It was widely accepted that male and female bodies complement each other and as in present times, historically women had always been associated with procreation and child rearing. In the ancient world, governments and rulers implemented laws, for a variety of reasons, in an attempt to control women’s sexuality. Privately, within the family, girls were taught from a very young age by parents that the honour of the family depended on their sexual behaviour. They were mostly confined to their homes, were under the authority of a male member of the family, could not work outside the house, and could not be as educated as the men. The sole purpose of marriage in the ancient days was not love or companionship but procreation and women were expected to bear many children for their husbands. Those who bore many children, especially sons, were honoured and favoured by their husbands. Those who were unable to bear children were considered cursed by the gods and were dishonoured or even divorced. Ancient civilizations believed in pagan gods and a woman’s sexuality was often associated with favours received from these gods. Traditions and cultures were created around the thought that a virtuous woman pleased the gods who in return blessed the lands with good crops and gave victory in wars.

To understand the norms and traditions of the ancient civilizations, it is important to step back and analyse the social structure upon which these ancient societies were built, including the Roman society. Unlike modern societies which focus on individual contributions to society, ancient societies were built around communities or groups which were made of families or clans. The family structure was hierarchical and the head of each clan or family was the oldest male usually a father or the grandfather. This male member was responsible for providing for the needs of the family and so had powers to make all decisions regarding the lives of each member of the family. The main source of income was agriculture. Work was divided between men and women with men having to plough the lands or shepherd the sheep and women having to weave clothes, prepare food, and rear children. Labour was not easily available so more the children and larger the family, wealthier the family. Sons were considered assets because they did the work that brought home the money and women were considered an overhead. So when a daughter reached puberty she was married away to a man chosen by her father. The father paid dowry because a daughter had no inheritance rights and handed over her to their husband, who controlled the dowry. Thus the woman passed from the control of the father to the control of the husband. As a wife the woman was expected to bear children and rear them while managing other household chores. There were no laws giving legal status to women and this social structure was prevalent in almost all ancient civilizations. The most powerful and dominant of these societies or communities eventually grew up into a civilization. Once such small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula grew into the mighty Roman civilization (Ancient Rome, pars 1).

Dominant communities grew into civilizations and empires but remained deeply rooted to their core beliefs. Although it is very difficult to generalize the status of women in the ancient world let alone ancient Rome, it can be said with certainty that, according to modern standards, women in the ancient world were considered inferior to men. They were considered property of a male, either of the father before marriage or the husband after marriage. Although communities grew into structured societies or civilizations yet laws concerning women and their legal rights remained unchanged. The ancient family structure of a community transformed into the social structure of the civilization and so the Roman social structure became very hierarchical and class based. Laws were applied based on whether a person was male or female, freemen or bondmen, citizens or aliens. The prevailing social conditions and an old mindset considered equality an alien concept and the rulers were unwilling to anger other powerful men by giving any legal status to Roman women, let alone bondmen and slaves. Roman society placed a lot of importance on traditional family values and women, especially those from noble families, were expected to be shy, obedient, and chaste. Sexual expression was forbidden as it was believed that the virtue of their women helped win their city favour from their gods. (Smitha, Frank E.). Women in ancient Rome played predefined roles of a daughter, sister, wife, and mother. Once married, their primary functions were child bearing and rearing and women were given considerable honour, especially if they bore sons or many children for the family. Mothers were expected to imbibe in their children good values and prepare them to be good Roman citizens. Since women were expected to shape future Roman citizens, there may have been a fear that if women were educated, worked, or run for office they might neglect their primary functions. So they were usually confined to their houses and even the wives of wealthy men did little more than supervising the slaves and house staff. These stereotyped attitudes towards women did not change even after the small Roman community was transformed into the mighty Roman Empire.

Emperor Augustus turned his attention to the social behaviour of his empire after a long and bitter civil war, a war that reduced the population of native Romans. During the later part of the reign Augustus noticed a major degradation in social behaviour and shift in racial balance. Augustus was also concerned that family values and ancient Roman standards had eroded and was replaced with sexual excesses. Divorce and adultery was common, and marriage and birth rate among Romans had fallen drastically. Roman elite spent more time in personal indulgences, focussing more on self than on development of society. Augustus blamed women and associated the moral decay of the Roman society with their expressive sexual behaviour. Augustus like other conservative Romans believed that this moral decline may anger the gods who gave him victory in his wars. To please the gods and men in power he implemented reforms to feminine sexuality in an attempt to improve morality in the society. He introduced legislations declaring adultery a criminal offence punishable even by death. If a wife was proved guilty of adultery the law required the husband to divorce his wife. A woman caught in adultery was to be banished, lose half her dowry and one third of any additional wealth she possessed. A classic example is the emperors own daughter, Julia, who are convicted of adultery and was the victim of his anti adultery law. (Thompson, James C. – The Augustan Reformation).

Augustus belonged to the aristocrat class and he was upset by the decline in numbers of his own class. He attempted to increase the birth rate especially among native Romans and restore family values through a series of laws that promoted not just marriage but also procreation. People who remained single or married without children after they were twenty were to be penalized through taxation (Smitha, Frank E.). He passed laws that encourage all men under 60 and women under 50 to marry. Failure to do so would mean they could not inherit. Women with three or more children could wear a special garment and were freed from the authority of their husbands (James C. Thompson – The Augustan Reformation). In spite of aggressively pushing for family reforms, he was unsuccessful in improving the moral standards of the Roman Empire.

Without a doubt wars have both a direct and indirect effect on the population. Wars in ancient days lasted long years and invariably led to the deaths of soldiers who were mostly men. The only way to maintain a steady population of a certain race was through procreation. In the Roman class based society, slaves could not become governors and therefore there was a need for steady population growth not just within the empire but within each class to fill positions of priests, administrators, tradesmen, and slaves. Under new Augustus laws marriages ended up with divorces and procreation reduced. To add to that since infant mortality rates were very high only the strongest few survived. With diseases spreading easily and a low life expectancy few people lived beyond 50 years. Ancient civilizations had laws in place such as Augustus’ family reform laws for marriage and procreation, which was used to exercise control over woman’s sexuality to ensure stable population of a nation and particular race.

These days with advancements in science people live longer and there is a general consensus that population need to be controlled if we want to eradicate poverty and control effects on environment. Modern governments have developed policies, rules and regulations designed to control or manage population, mainly through controlling the sexuality of women. They have created departments such as family planning and health that focus mainly on educating women about their sexual rights and liberties, giving them the ability to regulate their fertility. To appear modern and progressive, these governments have abolished most laws against fornication, adultery, or homosexuality. This has encouraged women to freely express themselves sexually. Moreover since the consequences of sexual freedom are conception or sexually transmitted diseases, a variety of contraceptives are made available to control unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. If contraceptives fail, under the guise of promoting women’s health, abortion is freely available which is state sponsored. Since 1973 in USA alone there has been an estimated 32.5 million abortions which is the approximately the population of Canada. It causes one to wonder if sexual revolution and freedom of sexual expression has actually turned women into merely objects of sex. It can be plainly seen that there is a definite attempt to reduce the national population, though not explicitly, and the argument for that seems to that an increasing population puts strains on the economy and natural resources. However this is not true and the major cause of unequal access to resources seems to be that 20% of the nation’s population control 80% of its wealth. This deprives the remaining 80% of the struggling population of even the basic necessities. (Karkal, Malini para 1). This attempt to manipulate population through controlling a woman’s fertility and sexuality has led to delays in marriage and reduced number of children per couple. There are concerns now that this may affect our ability to provide social care for the aging population.

In conclusion, male dominated cultures treated female sexuality as something that needed to be controlled, usually through social laws and restrictions on female behaviour. Modesty, virginity and chastity were highly priced characteristics in a woman and ancient cultures enforced them, without imposing them on men. Adultery was wrong and immoral and Emperor Augustus imposed harsh laws including banishment and death for those convicted of adultery. To improve moral behaviour and return to ancient Roman standards, he publicly rewarded marriage and procreation. Governments, both ancient and modern, sought to control female sexuality in an attempt to manage the overall national population.

Works consulted

1. “Ancient Rome”. Wikipedia. https://ed.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome. Web.
2. Karkal, Malini. “Woman’s sexuality dominated by men”. Indian Journal of Medical Ethics.
3. Smitha, Frank E. “From Republic to Emperor Augustus”. Web.
4. Thompson, James C. “Women in the ancient world”. Web.
5. “Women in Ancient Rome”. Wikipedia. Web.

The Roman empire did not fall till the mid-15th century. A number of factors, majorly the Barbarians’ raid, contributed to the massive and powerful empire’s fall. Following the empire’s extension out of Italy, the territory became far from the capital, making governance a problematic task. However, the focus is on the Barbarians’ raid and the development of Christianity being significant factors that sped up this massive empire’s fall. The Barbarians were Germanic warriors who incorporated into the Roman army. Though this incorporation initially worked during the reigns of other emperors, it became grievous in 476 CE during Emperor Romulus Augustus’s reign. The Barbarians precipitated civil wars, which saw them engage the Romans into constant domestic bliss. The empire weakened further when it split into two; East and West sides (“Fall of the Roman Empire”). The Westside descended into chaos, while the East flourished into the 15th century.

Constantine re-oriented religion by having Christianity towards the East, making it the main religion for the people. Furthermore, political affiliations and sports rivalry in the East birthed two rival groups, the blues and the greens (“Fall of the Roman Empire”). Lives were lost whenever there was an encounter between the two groups. The fall of the Roman empire coincides with the growth and spread of Christianity which started with Judaism. The Hebrews initially practiced polytheism but later developed monotheism, a religious concept that entailed the existence of one God and a covenant. Unlike the Roman and Greek gods, this God did not take pictorial forms (“Christianity from Judaism to Constantine”). Christianity proved to be a threat to Roman leadership as it changed people’s perspective of life, more so, their religious lives. The coming of Jesus in Roman history had a tremendous impact as he influenced many people who turned out loyal and believed in him and his messages.

With this insight into the fall of the Roman empire, we realize that there’s still a cultural line between ancient Rome and the contemporary world. Football rivalry seen in the modern world is based on religion and is similar to sports rivalry experienced in ancient Rome. The Justinian law code still forms civil wars in the contemporary world as it did in ancient Rome. It is true to talk about Christianity and Judaism the same way one talks about Greek and Egyptian Pantheons since they all believe in one God’s existence.

Works Cited

“Christianity from Judaism to Constantine: Crash Course World History #11.”YouTube, uploaded by Crash Course, 2012, Web.

“Fall of The Roman Empire in the 15^th Century: Crash Course World History #12.”YouTube, uploaded by Crash Course, 2012, Web.

Introduction

The Roman Empire exemplifies the lives of the people that lived during the era of western civilization. Like other cultural affiliations, the Romans wanted to dominate Europe and other parts of the world thereby, new strategies were devised including investment in military and use of diplomatic relations to rise to power. However, differences in interests and power among few elites caused divisions that led to the fall of the empire. The purpose of this essay is to examine the rise and fall of the Roman Empire, including the influence of the Catholic Church and Kings in the secular and religious activities of the Europeans.

Strong military power and economic expansion were the major contributing reasons for the rise of the Roman Empire. After the difficult transition from monarchy to republican government embarked on a course of military expansion that led to the conquest of the Italian peninsula.¹ The soldiers were committed to the coursed as they persisted even after the loss of an army or fleet. The romans invested heavily in new armies and machinery that gave them leverage against their threats. Secondly, the Romans had a practical sense of economic and policy strategies that increased its power. By 264 B.C.E, they had established fortified towns at all strategic locations which provided adequate human and financial resources to help the colonies spur economically, giving Romans adequate power to make demands and expand territories. In addition, the Romans were excellent in diplomatic relations. They extended citizenship and autonomy to foreigners, increasing movements into the territory for a stronger empire.

The jostling for power by a number of powerful individuals and civil war contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire. Senate was the governing body of the Roman state. Notably, it comprised a select three hundred men drawn from the landed aristocracy and remained senators for life.² As the empire grew, some elite families started to dominate senate and magistrate affairs, leading to a long-standing scramble for power. In the lecture on the problems that faced the Roman Empire, Santelli noted the nobles governed through intimidation and coercion, to maintain their hold over the magistrates and senate.³ The selfish interests of the few elite families fueled conflicts that resulted in civil wars. These wars disrupted the peace and military strength held by the state. Some powerful individuals, such as Pompey who took advantage of the internal troubles facing Rome to establish punitive reforms, such as putting equites back on the jury courts, and gain more power to control empire.⁴ Internal wrangles led to an increase in the number of invasions and civil wars. This caused a decline in population and economic, weakening the military power and the state’s ability to establish its authority against invaders.

The Influence of the Catholic Church and European Kings on the lives of Europeans

The Catholic Church and European kings exerted power and influence in both secular and religious lives of Europeans by using the bible and their power over the masses to make and impose new reforms. During the Carolingian times, the Catholic Church changed the attitude of the population on sexuality, family life, and childbearing.⁵ Marriage was a civil arrangement, and while wives were expected to remain faithful to their husbands, men could keep concubines, either slaves or free women. The church influenced this aspect of the European community by emphasizing monogamy and permanence. In 789, A Frankish church council stipulated that marriage was indissoluble and condemned divorce.⁶ Moreover, the church introduced and started to enforce clerical celibacy, and condemned all forms of procreation and homosexuality.

In addition, the Bishops used converted powerful men into Christianity, and used the opportunity to change the secular and religious beliefs of the people. For example, Augustine, a monk from a monastery in Rome, visited Kent and persuaded King Ethelbert to become a Christian.⁷ Most of the kings subjects became Christians and started following traditions of the Catholic Church, including pursuing celibacy and committing to a monogamous family. Pope Gregory emphasized persuasion rather than force or intimidation to convert the pagans. This approach made it for the Catholic Church to dominate the Europe and most of the temples were converted to churches⁸. Similarly, pagan feasts were given new names and incorporated into the Christian calendar. For example, the community started the Christmas celebrations, which were held on December 25, the day the pagan celebration of the winter solstice was previously held.⁹

The Catholic Church served as instruments of political power, influencing policies and the way of life other Europeans. Monasteries’ were major beneficiaries of grants from kings and gifts from people who wanted religious favors. These gifts increased the wealth of individual monasteries, giving them power to rule in the political space. Through these positions, the church influenced a change education and other social activities, including observance of justice, purity, devotion, charity and other virtues that impacted their everyday security and religious activities.

Conclusion

The rise and fall of the Roman Empire and the early influence of the Catholic Church through the middle Ages are critical in understanding western civilization. The changes that happened in the society led to the development of art, culture, and enduring ideas that are prevalent in the current society. What is evident in these two discussions is the fact that powerful people and institutions have a great influence on the culture and the rise and fall of societies.

Works Cited

Santelli, Lecture notes.

Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western civilization. Cengage Learning, 2020.

Footnotes

1. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, 114.
2. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, 132.
3. Santelli, Roman Empire.
4. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, 134.
5. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, pg. 216.
6. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, pg. 215.
7. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, pg. 193.
8. Santelli, influence of church on western civilization.
9. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, pg. 193.

Introduction

The fall of Rome is widely considered a major turning point in the history of Europe. The Roman Empire, which had been a major political and military force since the 1st century B.C., collapsed in the late 5th century A.D. The causes of the fall of Rome were complex and varied, but the consequences were seismic. Rome was eventually divided in 395 A.D by the death of Theodosius I, with the East becoming the Byzantine Empire and the West becoming the Western Roman Empire. This continued to exist in some form until 476 A.D, when it was officially dissolved by the Germanic King Odoacer. Therefore, although Rome fell in 476 A.D due to deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustulus, some of its practices such as religion and political system were continued while others were discontinued.

Discussion

The fall of the Roman Empire is traditionally dated to be 476 A.D, when the emperor of the Western Empire, Romulus Augustulus. This marked the end of the Roman imperial system and the transition to the Middle Ages. Despite this, many of the continuities between Rome and its successor kingdoms can be seen throughout the 5th century and beyond. The Byzantine Empire, which emerged in the East, claimed to be the legitimate successor of the Roman Empire, and its rulers continued to use the title of ‘Emperor.’ The Byzantine Empire maintained much of the Roman political, legal, and religious traditions, including the Greek language and Christian faith.

One of the main continuities that can be seen after the fall of Rome was the continued presence of a strong and unified Christian faith. Despite the rise of the Ostrogothic, Visigothic and Frankish kingdoms, Rome and its legacy of Catholic Christianity remained a major unifying force throughout Europe. This was further reinforced by the growth of the Holy Roman Empire from Charlemagne, which further spread the influence of Catholicism. Additionally, the claims of the Papacy to be the legitimate heirs of Roman imperial rule in the West helped to maintain a sense of continuity after the fall of Rome. Thus, the successor states maintained much of the Roman political, legal, and religious traditions, including the Greek language and Christian faith.

However, there were some discontinuities such as adoption of a new form of government adopted by Roman Empire’s successor kingdoms. The most significant of these was the decentralization of power, as the Ostrogothic, Visigothic and Frankish kingdoms replaced the unified Roman Empire. This led to the emergence of a number of new political entities, which competed for power and influence in Europe. Additionally, the decline of the Roman Empire led to a decline in the level of technological sophistication and economic prosperity that the Romans had enjoyed. Therefore, this decline in the standard of living was further exacerbated by the emergence of new diseases and the decline of trade networks

Conclusion

The fall of the Roman Empire in 476 A.D. marked the end of the classical period and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The continuities and discontinuities between Rome and its successor kingdoms depend largely on the region in question, but all of them adopted some of the Roman traditions and institutions while developing their unique characteristics. The Byzantine Empire is among the successors that sustained Roman traditions the longest. However, the claims made by the Papacy to be the legitimate heirs of Roman imperial rule in the West were declared with the Donation of Constantine in the 8th century.

Introduction

The Roman Empire is an empire that arose after the Roman Republic at the time when Augustus was ruling between the year 27 B.C and 14 A.D. This empire had territories that stretched from North Africa and Persian Gulf to Germany and Britain Later this empire was divided in to the Western Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire. The Western Roman Empire fell into Chaos under the invasion of the barbarians from the east and the north. Romulus Augustulus who was the last emperor of the Western empire was deposed in the year 476 and this marked the end of the empire. This people discuss three theories that suggest the possible causes of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.

Why the fall?

There were various reasons that led to the fall of the Roman Empire that are very much connected to each other. Some people even suggest that the emerging of Christianity could as well have contributed to the fall of the empire. They claim that Christianity changed many people in to pacifists making it very hard to fight with the barbarian fighters in order to win. It is also suggested that money that was spent on setting up churches was a big waste since the same money would have been used to establish the Roman Empire.

For a long time, the Roman armies or Legions were always in position to hold back the German barbarians (Anonymous, 2001).

The Roman Legion

Roman legion was very much organized and the discipline had made it to be very powerful when it came to fighting. A choice between cavalry and infantry favored infantry since infantry after having the training it never backed off in the battle. On the other hand, cavalry portrayed cowardice and could easily run away whenever they came across a more dangerous situation. Contrary to the barbarian army, continuous training was to be given to the legions that made the empire to incur large expenses. This made it difficult for the empire since the economic activity in general was going down as well as agriculture. Collecting taxes became difficult and the entire organization came under tension (Absolute Astronomy, 2009). The military budget ate in to other budgets for other important activities such as setting up roads and providing better housing facilities among others. The Romans at that time became mixed up and much disappointed and surrendered giving protection to their empire. The empire at this point had no option but to recruit people who were not trained from the streets and employ them as soldiers. This army was quite unreliable alongside being very costly to hire. The increase in costs in turn triggered increasing the tax and the tax increase in turn brought higher the inflation. This brought about the general weakening of the economic status of the empire.

Another cause that led to the decline of the empire was moral decay. The moral decay was common place among the rich people and even the emperors themselves and this left a big impact on the people of Rome. There was widespread sexual immorality. Emperor Tiberius sexually molested small boys as a way of pleasing himself. Nero practiced incest. He ordered the castration of his slave in order to marry him. Elagabalus married a Vestal virgin by use of force. Commodus with his several concubines annoyed the Romans by sitting in public places while putting on women clothes.

Moral decay was as well traced among the lower class. They held religious ceremonies in which sexual immorality was practiced. The commercial sex business boomed in brothels and there was much gambling. More so, there was excessive drinking of alcohol among other immoral acts. This kind of self-indulgent caused the Roman people to be lazy and thus found themselves drowned up after losing focus. (Roman Colosseum, 2008). Another theory that is brought forth in regard to the decline of the Roman Empire is the political corruption. This is an issue that brought about poor leadership in which the emperors and the political leaders vested their interest much in protecting and maintaining their own status than making all the possible efforts to ensure their empires survive and stand. Among the complicated problems was how to select a new emperor. The Romans did not come up with a structure that could be followed in order to choose an emperor. New emperor selection involved the former emperor, the emperor’s private soldiers, the army, and the senate.

Over time, the private army of the emperor acquired absolute power to select the incoming emperor. The new emperor could in turn reward the private army and then this army turned out to be more powerful. This practice perpetuated the cycle. This gain of more power by the private army brought a more negative impact in the year186 A.D where the army killed a new emperor. This was a show of the practice of offering to the highest bidder. A hundred years from there, Rome was ruled by 37 emperors and 25 out of which were assassinated as a way of removing them from power. This kind of practice was kind of self-destruction to the Roman Empire and played a major role in weakening the empire and later resulting in its decline and subsequent fall (Anonymous, 2001).

References

Absolute Astronomy. (2009). Early Middle Ages. Web.

Anonymous. (2001). The fall of the Roman Empire. Web.

Roman Colosseum. (2008). Causes for the fall of the Roman Empire. Web.