Category: Roman Empire

It was widely accepted that male and female bodies complement each other and as in present times, historically women had always been associated with procreation and child rearing. In the ancient world, governments and rulers implemented laws, for a variety of reasons, in an attempt to control womens sexuality. Privately, within the family, girls were taught from a very young age by parents that the honour of the family depended on their sexual behaviour. They were mostly confined to their homes, were under the authority of a male member of the family, could not work outside the house, and could not be as educated as the men. The sole purpose of marriage in the ancient days was not love or companionship but procreation and women were expected to bear many children for their husbands. Those who bore many children, especially sons, were honoured and favoured by their husbands. Those who were unable to bear children were considered cursed by the gods and were dishonoured or even divorced. Ancient civilizations believed in pagan gods and a womans sexuality was often associated with favours received from these gods. Traditions and cultures were created around the thought that a virtuous woman pleased the gods who in return blessed the lands with good crops and gave victory in wars.

To understand the norms and traditions of the ancient civilizations, it is important to step back and analyse the social structure upon which these ancient societies were built, including the Roman society. Unlike modern societies which focus on individual contributions to society, ancient societies were built around communities or groups which were made of families or clans. The family structure was hierarchical and the head of each clan or family was the oldest male usually a father or the grandfather. This male member was responsible for providing for the needs of the family and so had powers to make all decisions regarding the lives of each member of the family. The main source of income was agriculture. Work was divided between men and women with men having to plough the lands or shepherd the sheep and women having to weave clothes, prepare food, and rear children. Labour was not easily available so more the children and larger the family, wealthier the family. Sons were considered assets because they did the work that brought home the money and women were considered an overhead. So when a daughter reached puberty she was married away to a man chosen by her father. The father paid dowry because a daughter had no inheritance rights and handed over her to their husband, who controlled the dowry. Thus the woman passed from the control of the father to the control of the husband. As a wife the woman was expected to bear children and rear them while managing other household chores. There were no laws giving legal status to women and this social structure was prevalent in almost all ancient civilizations. The most powerful and dominant of these societies or communities eventually grew up into a civilization. Once such small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula grew into the mighty Roman civilization (Ancient Rome, pars 1).

Dominant communities grew into civilizations and empires but remained deeply rooted to their core beliefs. Although it is very difficult to generalize the status of women in the ancient world let alone ancient Rome, it can be said with certainty that, according to modern standards, women in the ancient world were considered inferior to men. They were considered property of a male, either of the father before marriage or the husband after marriage. Although communities grew into structured societies or civilizations yet laws concerning women and their legal rights remained unchanged. The ancient family structure of a community transformed into the social structure of the civilization and so the Roman social structure became very hierarchical and class based. Laws were applied based on whether a person was male or female, freemen or bondmen, citizens or aliens. The prevailing social conditions and an old mindset considered equality an alien concept and the rulers were unwilling to anger other powerful men by giving any legal status to Roman women, let alone bondmen and slaves. Roman society placed a lot of importance on traditional family values and women, especially those from noble families, were expected to be shy, obedient, and chaste. Sexual expression was forbidden as it was believed that the virtue of their women helped win their city favour from their gods. (Smitha, Frank E.). Women in ancient Rome played predefined roles of a daughter, sister, wife, and mother. Once married, their primary functions were child bearing and rearing and women were given considerable honour, especially if they bore sons or many children for the family. Mothers were expected to imbibe in their children good values and prepare them to be good Roman citizens. Since women were expected to shape future Roman citizens, there may have been a fear that if women were educated, worked, or run for office they might neglect their primary functions. So they were usually confined to their houses and even the wives of wealthy men did little more than supervising the slaves and house staff. These stereotyped attitudes towards women did not change even after the small Roman community was transformed into the mighty Roman Empire.

Emperor Augustus turned his attention to the social behaviour of his empire after a long and bitter civil war, a war that reduced the population of native Romans. During the later part of the reign Augustus noticed a major degradation in social behaviour and shift in racial balance. Augustus was also concerned that family values and ancient Roman standards had eroded and was replaced with sexual excesses. Divorce and adultery was common, and marriage and birth rate among Romans had fallen drastically. Roman elite spent more time in personal indulgences, focussing more on self than on development of society. Augustus blamed women and associated the moral decay of the Roman society with their expressive sexual behaviour. Augustus like other conservative Romans believed that this moral decline may anger the gods who gave him victory in his wars. To please the gods and men in power he implemented reforms to feminine sexuality in an attempt to improve morality in the society. He introduced legislations declaring adultery a criminal offence punishable even by death. If a wife was proved guilty of adultery the law required the husband to divorce his wife. A woman caught in adultery was to be banished, lose half her dowry and one third of any additional wealth she possessed. A classic example is the emperors own daughter, Julia, who are convicted of adultery and was the victim of his anti adultery law. (Thompson, James C.  The Augustan Reformation).

Augustus belonged to the aristocrat class and he was upset by the decline in numbers of his own class. He attempted to increase the birth rate especially among native Romans and restore family values through a series of laws that promoted not just marriage but also procreation. People who remained single or married without children after they were twenty were to be penalized through taxation (Smitha, Frank E.). He passed laws that encourage all men under 60 and women under 50 to marry. Failure to do so would mean they could not inherit. Women with three or more children could wear a special garment and were freed from the authority of their husbands (James C. Thompson  The Augustan Reformation). In spite of aggressively pushing for family reforms, he was unsuccessful in improving the moral standards of the Roman Empire.

Without a doubt wars have both a direct and indirect effect on the population. Wars in ancient days lasted long years and invariably led to the deaths of soldiers who were mostly men. The only way to maintain a steady population of a certain race was through procreation. In the Roman class based society, slaves could not become governors and therefore there was a need for steady population growth not just within the empire but within each class to fill positions of priests, administrators, tradesmen, and slaves. Under new Augustus laws marriages ended up with divorces and procreation reduced. To add to that since infant mortality rates were very high only the strongest few survived. With diseases spreading easily and a low life expectancy few people lived beyond 50 years. Ancient civilizations had laws in place such as Augustus family reform laws for marriage and procreation, which was used to exercise control over womans sexuality to ensure stable population of a nation and particular race.

These days with advancements in science people live longer and there is a general consensus that population need to be controlled if we want to eradicate poverty and control effects on environment. Modern governments have developed policies, rules and regulations designed to control or manage population, mainly through controlling the sexuality of women. They have created departments such as family planning and health that focus mainly on educating women about their sexual rights and liberties, giving them the ability to regulate their fertility. To appear modern and progressive, these governments have abolished most laws against fornication, adultery, or homosexuality. This has encouraged women to freely express themselves sexually. Moreover since the consequences of sexual freedom are conception or sexually transmitted diseases, a variety of contraceptives are made available to control unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. If contraceptives fail, under the guise of promoting womens health, abortion is freely available which is state sponsored. Since 1973 in USA alone there has been an estimated 32.5 million abortions which is the approximately the population of Canada. It causes one to wonder if sexual revolution and freedom of sexual expression has actually turned women into merely objects of sex. It can be plainly seen that there is a definite attempt to reduce the national population, though not explicitly, and the argument for that seems to that an increasing population puts strains on the economy and natural resources. However this is not true and the major cause of unequal access to resources seems to be that 20% of the nations population control 80% of its wealth. This deprives the remaining 80% of the struggling population of even the basic necessities. (Karkal, Malini para 1). This attempt to manipulate population through controlling a womans fertility and sexuality has led to delays in marriage and reduced number of children per couple. There are concerns now that this may affect our ability to provide social care for the aging population.

In conclusion, male dominated cultures treated female sexuality as something that needed to be controlled, usually through social laws and restrictions on female behaviour. Modesty, virginity and chastity were highly priced characteristics in a woman and ancient cultures enforced them, without imposing them on men. Adultery was wrong and immoral and Emperor Augustus imposed harsh laws including banishment and death for those convicted of adultery. To improve moral behaviour and return to ancient Roman standards, he publicly rewarded marriage and procreation. Governments, both ancient and modern, sought to control female sexuality in an attempt to manage the overall national population.

Works consulted

1. Ancient Rome. Wikipedia. https://ed.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome. Web.
2. Karkal, Malini. Womans sexuality dominated by men. Indian Journal of Medical Ethics.
3. Smitha, Frank E. From Republic to Emperor Augustus. Web.
4. Thompson, James C. Women in the ancient world. Web.
5. Women in Ancient Rome. Wikipedia. Web.

The Roman empire did not fall till the mid-15th century. A number of factors, majorly the Barbarians raid, contributed to the massive and powerful empires fall. Following the empires extension out of Italy, the territory became far from the capital, making governance a problematic task. However, the focus is on the Barbarians raid and the development of Christianity being significant factors that sped up this massive empires fall. The Barbarians were Germanic warriors who incorporated into the Roman army. Though this incorporation initially worked during the reigns of other emperors, it became grievous in 476 CE during Emperor Romulus Augustuss reign. The Barbarians precipitated civil wars, which saw them engage the Romans into constant domestic bliss. The empire weakened further when it split into two; East and West sides (Fall of the Roman Empire). The Westside descended into chaos, while the East flourished into the 15th century.

Constantine re-oriented religion by having Christianity towards the East, making it the main religion for the people. Furthermore, political affiliations and sports rivalry in the East birthed two rival groups, the blues and the greens (Fall of the Roman Empire). Lives were lost whenever there was an encounter between the two groups. The fall of the Roman empire coincides with the growth and spread of Christianity which started with Judaism. The Hebrews initially practiced polytheism but later developed monotheism, a religious concept that entailed the existence of one God and a covenant. Unlike the Roman and Greek gods, this God did not take pictorial forms (Christianity from Judaism to Constantine). Christianity proved to be a threat to Roman leadership as it changed peoples perspective of life, more so, their religious lives. The coming of Jesus in Roman history had a tremendous impact as he influenced many people who turned out loyal and believed in him and his messages.

With this insight into the fall of the Roman empire, we realize that theres still a cultural line between ancient Rome and the contemporary world. Football rivalry seen in the modern world is based on religion and is similar to sports rivalry experienced in ancient Rome. The Justinian law code still forms civil wars in the contemporary world as it did in ancient Rome. It is true to talk about Christianity and Judaism the same way one talks about Greek and Egyptian Pantheons since they all believe in one Gods existence.

Works Cited

Christianity from Judaism to Constantine: Crash Course World History #11.YouTube, uploaded by Crash Course, 2012, Web.

Fall of The Roman Empire in the 15^th Century: Crash Course World History #12.YouTube, uploaded by Crash Course, 2012, Web.

Introduction

The Roman Empire exemplifies the lives of the people that lived during the era of western civilization. Like other cultural affiliations, the Romans wanted to dominate Europe and other parts of the world thereby, new strategies were devised including investment in military and use of diplomatic relations to rise to power. However, differences in interests and power among few elites caused divisions that led to the fall of the empire. The purpose of this essay is to examine the rise and fall of the Roman Empire, including the influence of the Catholic Church and Kings in the secular and religious activities of the Europeans.

Strong military power and economic expansion were the major contributing reasons for the rise of the Roman Empire. After the difficult transition from monarchy to republican government embarked on a course of military expansion that led to the conquest of the Italian peninsula.¹ The soldiers were committed to the coursed as they persisted even after the loss of an army or fleet. The romans invested heavily in new armies and machinery that gave them leverage against their threats. Secondly, the Romans had a practical sense of economic and policy strategies that increased its power. By 264 B.C.E, they had established fortified towns at all strategic locations which provided adequate human and financial resources to help the colonies spur economically, giving Romans adequate power to make demands and expand territories. In addition, the Romans were excellent in diplomatic relations. They extended citizenship and autonomy to foreigners, increasing movements into the territory for a stronger empire.

The jostling for power by a number of powerful individuals and civil war contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire. Senate was the governing body of the Roman state. Notably, it comprised a select three hundred men drawn from the landed aristocracy and remained senators for life.² As the empire grew, some elite families started to dominate senate and magistrate affairs, leading to a long-standing scramble for power. In the lecture on the problems that faced the Roman Empire, Santelli noted the nobles governed through intimidation and coercion, to maintain their hold over the magistrates and senate.³ The selfish interests of the few elite families fueled conflicts that resulted in civil wars. These wars disrupted the peace and military strength held by the state. Some powerful individuals, such as Pompey who took advantage of the internal troubles facing Rome to establish punitive reforms, such as putting equites back on the jury courts, and gain more power to control empire.⁴ Internal wrangles led to an increase in the number of invasions and civil wars. This caused a decline in population and economic, weakening the military power and the states ability to establish its authority against invaders.

The Influence of the Catholic Church and European Kings on the lives of Europeans

The Catholic Church and European kings exerted power and influence in both secular and religious lives of Europeans by using the bible and their power over the masses to make and impose new reforms. During the Carolingian times, the Catholic Church changed the attitude of the population on sexuality, family life, and childbearing.⁵ Marriage was a civil arrangement, and while wives were expected to remain faithful to their husbands, men could keep concubines, either slaves or free women. The church influenced this aspect of the European community by emphasizing monogamy and permanence. In 789, A Frankish church council stipulated that marriage was indissoluble and condemned divorce.⁶ Moreover, the church introduced and started to enforce clerical celibacy, and condemned all forms of procreation and homosexuality.

In addition, the Bishops used converted powerful men into Christianity, and used the opportunity to change the secular and religious beliefs of the people. For example, Augustine, a monk from a monastery in Rome, visited Kent and persuaded King Ethelbert to become a Christian.⁷ Most of the kings subjects became Christians and started following traditions of the Catholic Church, including pursuing celibacy and committing to a monogamous family. Pope Gregory emphasized persuasion rather than force or intimidation to convert the pagans. This approach made it for the Catholic Church to dominate the Europe and most of the temples were converted to churches⁸. Similarly, pagan feasts were given new names and incorporated into the Christian calendar. For example, the community started the Christmas celebrations, which were held on December 25, the day the pagan celebration of the winter solstice was previously held.⁹

The Catholic Church served as instruments of political power, influencing policies and the way of life other Europeans. Monasteries were major beneficiaries of grants from kings and gifts from people who wanted religious favors. These gifts increased the wealth of individual monasteries, giving them power to rule in the political space. Through these positions, the church influenced a change education and other social activities, including observance of justice, purity, devotion, charity and other virtues that impacted their everyday security and religious activities.

Conclusion

The rise and fall of the Roman Empire and the early influence of the Catholic Church through the middle Ages are critical in understanding western civilization. The changes that happened in the society led to the development of art, culture, and enduring ideas that are prevalent in the current society. What is evident in these two discussions is the fact that powerful people and institutions have a great influence on the culture and the rise and fall of societies.

Works Cited

Santelli, Lecture notes.

Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western civilization. Cengage Learning, 2020.

Footnotes

1. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, 114.
2. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, 132.
3. Santelli, Roman Empire.
4. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, 134.
5. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, pg. 216.
6. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, pg. 215.
7. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, pg. 193.
8. Santelli, influence of church on western civilization.
9. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, pg. 193.

Introduction

Stoicism is a philosophical terminology that promotes unemotional characteristics and values. Persons who embrace stoicism are referred to as stoics. Long ago, Romans’ contributions towards writing innovative philosophical thoughts were limited. However, their ideologies were directed towards the modification of Greek philosophical ideas (Cunningham and Reich, 92).

Body

A good number of Roman emperors employed stoicism in their principles and ideologies. For instance, Marcus Aurelius, a Roman ruler, embraced stoicism since it educated him about fortitude, perseverance, and how to execute his duties effectively. Most leaders campaigned for stoicism because of its tranquil nature. Additionally, stoicism advocates for brotherly characters and that everyone was equally significant in the eyes of a sole spirit.

Roman leaders admired the idea that stoicism defended virtues; while, on the other hand, dismissed material things. Numerous persons in the recent world still embrace this philosophical principle; they include militaries and certain philosophers like Cato and Cicero.

Roman architectures have distinct features that resemble the roman culture and practices. However, some of its architectural designs were borrowed from the Greeks. Roman architecture was characterized by Vaults and arches, especially on public structures. Additionally, their structural designs were based on the domes, for instance, the Baths of Diocletian. Roman religion also played a significant role in influencing the architectural designs of the Romans.

It indicated how the roman solidly upheld and respected their culture and religion. There exist numerous current structures that were erected using the roman architectures. Some of these structures include the Supreme Court in Florida, Jefferson memorial, and national gallery, both in Washington; and London’s St. Paul’s cathedral.

According to the Romans, their emperor was founded by two individuals i.e. Remus and Romulus, based on a mythological story. Remus and Romulus were twins, the children of Rhea and Mars. Unfortunately, the children were left to drown by a relative due to political qualms. However, the kids were rescued by a wolf who breastfed them before they became adopted by a shepherd (Faustulus).

Later after growing up, they decided to build their emperors; Romulus chose palatine hill while Remus used the Aventine. At some point in time, Remus visited Romulus by jumping over his brother’s wall and then proceeded to mock him about his poorly constructed wall. Angry with his brother’s words, Romulus killed Remus since he could not tolerate anyone who mocks Rome. Later in 753 BC, Remus was made Rome’s first king.

Remus populated his emperor with stolen criminals, slaves, and fugitives from the neighboring tribe (Sabines). Following these dishonorable acts, the Sabines declared war with Rome, which was later settled by an agreement that they would merge to form a single emperor (Rome). However, Romulus would remain the emperor’s king. The myth concluded by Romulus being taken to the heavens by his parents.

Separation of power was immensely influenced by the Roman social classes. The emperor was divided into different social classes’ i.e. the poor and the wealthy. Therefore, it was necessary to employ separate bureaucrats since every class had to be protected. Check and balance appear whenever separation of power is being implemented, even though it demands the violation of the former (Jillson, 31). It posed a problem to the Romans, although separation of power worked well for them.

Conclusion

Many roman leaders practiced stoicism in their reasoning and ideological presentations. Roman’s architectural structures were designed by borrowing part of the designs from the Greeks; however, most parts bared their cultural and religious values. Romans argue that their republic developed based on a mythical story of the Romulus and Remus. The republic had to change its governance following some pressing factors.

Works cited

Cunningham, Lawrence and Reich, George. Culture and Values: A Survey of the Humanities. Florence: cengage learning 2009 (7) 92.

Jillson, Cal. American government: political change and institutional development. Routledge 2007 (4) 31.

Introduction

Cornelius Tacitus was a renowned historian and senator in the ancient Roman Empire. Apparently, there are only two of his major works in the world today. These include the annals and the histories. These two major works were meant to examine the conduct of three Roman emperors: Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero. Similarly, he examined the conduct of those in the reign in 69 AD, a year that many historians refer to as the Year of Four Emperors. His works mainly reflect on the history of the Roman Empire from the death of Emperor Augustus in 14 AD to 70 AD, which was known as the Year of the Initial War between the Jews and Romans. It is worth pointing out that there also exist some gaps in Tacitus’s works, especially in the annals (Ash 12). His other works display an oratory, which is a form of speech to the entire public. These oratory statements are meant to educate, influence, and entertain the audience. This rare style of writing leaves a lot to the imagination as any reader would want to summarize the works of Tacitus. His works also cover various topics including Germania, his father-in-law’s life, and the general responsibility of Romans.

Analysis

Tacitus is one of the most coveted historians in the Roman Empire. When taking a closer look at his historical writings, he is often viewed as a pessimist. This is seen in his approach to various topics including psychology and the power of politics. Although Tacitus is pessimistic in his writing, he blends those writings with straightforward events and moral lessons at that time. He is a historian who is focused on dramatic accounts in every historical event he writes about.

Secondly, Tacitus is a historian that focused on facts in every event, unlike some other renowned historians who would sway from facts. This makes his writing interesting and real as the readers decipher what the writer has to tell (Ash 15). Tacitus exposes his facts with the brevity of description, which ensures the reader is in the plot of the story. For instance, he explains the events that took place when the Roman army was almost defeated in the war. Consequentially, his writings display utter bravery, especially when stating the events that exposed the Roman army.

Thirdly, Tacitus writes the events in a chronological order, which makes his writings easy to follow and understand. He is a writer that focused on understanding events from the reader’s perspective. As such, his approach was to organize the events while at the same time ensuring he does not bring out the bigger picture. It was his belief that the reader has to be involved in constructing the bigger picture as it occurred in the historical events. For instance, the annals display such historical writing which enhances the concentration of the reader. In the first paragraphs of the annals, he uses condensed phrases, which are used to take the reader to the ancient times where the story began.

Conclusion

Many historians existed during the reign of the Roman Empire. But Cornelius Tacitus comes out as a respected and coveted historian and author. He has only two major writings to his name. These writings expose vast ideas, events, and situations in the early times. Conversely, his writings have a lacuna that sparks the reader’s imagination.

Works Cited

Ash, Rhiannon. Tacitus. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print.

Rome has a rich historical background and civilizations related to it. The people of this region had been an existence of both the Roman Republic and Roman Empire that have certain similarities and differences. Among the similarities is the use of the same language, Latin, and the worshipping of Gods. The latter allows us to call Rome a “hotbed of religious diversity” (Brooks, 2019, p.190). While the Roman deities were revered across the Empire, the Roman aristocracy had no problems with other gods being worshiped. Many Romans, including both elites and lower classes, accepted different beliefs.

The nature of religion during this period is ambiguous. Many Roman people were drawn to mystery faiths that offered spiritual enlightenment to their adherents, which originated in Hellenistic nations (Brooks, 2019). These mysterious faiths all shared the concept that the cosmos was rich with supernatural powers that may lead to everlasting life. In many respects, they were much more akin to magical religions than ordinary religious faiths (Brooks, 2019). A believer might join many mystery cults, reciting prayers and partaking in ceremonies in order to obtain great fortune and prosperity in life and immortality after death.

As for the fundamental distinction between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire is that the republic was a functioning democracy, while a single individual ruled the empire. The Roman Republic existed from 509 BC to 27 BC, and during this period, the region was governed by a constitutional republic (Brooks, 2019). On the other hand, the dominance of the Roman Empire lasted from 27 BC to 476 AD. During their rule, the empire used the absolute monarchy style of administration (Brooks, 2019). Moreover, while the Roman Republic was smaller, the Roman empire strived for expansion and was in a constant state of war.

Hence, the Roman Republic and Roman Empire share certain similarities, such as the language and worshipping of deities. However, there are distinctions, such as the small size and democracy of the former and constant war and reign of one individual of the latter. Nevertheless, I believe that the Roman Republic can be considered more successful. The small size of the Republic was manageable and could be in control. In comparison, the bigger size and aggression of the Empire led to its tragic fall.

Reference

Brooks, C. (2019). Western civilization: A concise history. Portland Community College.

Introduction

Many events of ancient Rome have been documented in various sources. Many events are reflected from different angles and reflect society’s cultural and moral values in different ways. Among the sources of ancient Rome stand out the civil conflict between Catilina and Cicero; the depiction of everyday life and cultural values in the poems of Catullus; Caesar’s work Gallic wars; Virgil’s poem Aeneid.

Catalini vs. Cicero

Sulla’s dictatorship forced Catilina to act violently and violate moral law in many ways. The main reason is the mismatch between the vision of society and its function. Catilina could not lead people as Cicero could, and because of this, their conflict was also the result of personal resentment. I think the reasons may lie in differences in shaping one’s view of life and place in it.

Catullus’s Poems

Catullus’ You, public thief of the baths describes the lust of many ordinary citizens who are incapable of honesty. In a few lines, the poet offers a glimpse of the black side of everyday life, in which stealing is prevalent. A tavern of wickedness, you all who are there in a gathering, is a poem about the rejection of reality. Catullus describes a bar where men have forgotten about righteousness.

Caesar: About War

Caesar talks about his expectations for military uprisings in Galilee and builds up his military might. Caesar personifies himself with “leaders who are considered according to their judgment to possess the greatest influence” (Caesar, p. 110). His vision is true, but he has embellished how many people were involved: there was no such a large scale. Caesar did it to conceal information about his cruelty to embellish his greatness.

Aeneid

The Aeneid is a poem about the regime of the Roman Empire, in which nationalistic violence are iconic. It supports Augustine: “Not her own star confessed a light so clear // Great in her charms, as when on gods above” (Virgil). His characters marvel at the actions taking place in the country. They wait for new accomplishments that appear to be good but are cruel.

Conclusion

Thus, the authenticity of ancient Roman history can be found in a variety of cultural sources. Thus, the causes of the conflict between Catiline and Cicero are established, and human values are documented in the poems of Catullus. Caesar’s writings are a valuable source of knowledge about war, parties and law, and Virgil’s work is a reflection of the historical reality of the Roman Empire.

References

Caesar, J. (n.d.). Gallic wars. (W. A. McDevitte & W. S. Bohn, Trans.).

Virgil. (n.d.). The Aeneid. (J. Dryden, Trans.). Classic.

Introduction

Roman emperors had an interesting strategy for entertaining their masses. Particularly, they gave the people cheap bread and organized frequent gladiatorial game contests to distract them from their political failures. The technique was effective as people started focusing on the bread and circuses while ignoring the more pertinent issues of governance. The image excerpt (figure 1) gives a glimpse of the practices that guided the daily lives of people in ancient. The image (arena for chariot racing) is typical of those made during the ancient Roman circuses. Although the image shows many activities, the focus is on the wild and violent horse race games, which were a central social activity at the time.

Context and Historical Information

The artwork is an arena used for chariot races and contest of the Ancient Roman empire, the name of the commissioner is unknown. The image shows only what survived of the arena after the collapse of the Roman empire and the end of the games. Although it is only excerpts, its value is preserving the structure, decors and other elements of the arena. However, there are better preserved arenas such as the circus in Libya¹. The geographical context of the Greeks is that they boarded Spain in the west, Ukraine in the North, Egypt in the south, and Afghanistan in the East. Expectedly, some interactions led to the copying of culture. For instance, mosaics had a long history in Egypt and Mesopotamia before artists popularised them in Rome.

Notably, sports in Rome were associated with significant commercial activities such as sports gambling, tourism accommodation, professional athletes, food vendors, and other petty business vendors². The implication is that there were often interactions with people from foreign countries who came for entertainment while bringing their merchants. The horses were important animals in the games, which also provided a means of transportation among the people. The emperors made the Colosseum with layouts that permitted them to structure the society in a way that made it easy for the state to control the mass³. In addition, the gladiatorial contests legitimized the powers of the emperor to the senate and the people.

Close Analysis of the Image

The focal point of the mosaic is arguably around the place that Limenius is riding. On his immediate left is a sword-like monument with two people tied underneath. The far left from this central point has two arrows and bows placed upright, and the furthest left shows the top section of a building with three-pointers. The kind of games the people loved was full of aggression and even oppression. Notably, wars were a common phenomenon in the region, making sense for them to be replicated in sports.

The spectacular buildings at the arena in the mosaic indicate the peculiarity of the Romans. The structure was made to offer maximum visibility for the audience. It is large and raised so that all people could easily view what was going on at the arena. The buildings have a canonical representation to show commitment to religiosity. Notably, with interactions, circuses were later established in regions such as North Africa, which later became relevant and famous for horse racing. For instance, the Lepcis Magna is one of the best preserved and fully published Roman circuses in Libya⁴. It is structured with decorations architectural finishing similar to the circus Maximus.

The other captivating aspect of the mosaic is the horses and their riders (especially their names). The horse riders include Torax, Polystef anus, Floro, and Patinicus. The mosaic’s central theme is the horse race, which can be an aggressive game where people get injured. Names are significant in portraying identity, and in this case, they show that most of the contestants show that they were from Rome. Notably, there are a set of four horses with contestants riding together followed by a similar set, indicating a pattern that is similar to a stipple chase. While in the circus, the audience had their favourite contestant. The implication is that each person had to showcase their prowess and skills in riding the horses regardless of their potential exposure.

Specific patterns in this mosaic can help viewers understand the culture and the games presented at the arena. From the right, there is a gate opening marked with two strong poles, distinct from the other smaller demarcations of the building, which served as a barrier separating the players, audience, and emperors. There are decorations at the edge of the mosaic which appear like curved leaves with an alternate white and black colour. The significance of this evidence is that it aids in understanding the communities that the Romans interacted with during the games. Other symbolic decorations like the one in the lower right corner where a woman is lying down and a man are aggressively lifting something as though to drop on her represent the cultural gender role.

The horse races were an essential activity in ancient Rome as they kept the citizens entertained while distracting them from seeing the political failures. The mosaic shows how a typical arena for violent horse races was organized. The mosaic links to the broad theme of the development of games and sports as it represents the venue for holding the events. The games were good but eventually exposed the vanity of failed leadership structure, and the horse races moved to other regions like North Africa.

Reference List

Castro, F. (2021) ‘The significance of the Colosseum to ancient Rome’, Teaching History, 55(2), pp.10-17.

Humphrey, J. H. (1986) Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.

Vamplew, W., (2022) ‘Bread and Circuses, Olive Oil and Money: Commercialized Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome’, The International Journal of the History of Sport, 35(1), pp.1-20.

Footnotes

1. Humphrey 1986.
2. Vamplew 2022.
3. Castro 2021.
4. Humphrey 1986.

Introduction

In the Roman law, the man is recognized as the head of the household owning the entire property under the family’s name. He has authority over his progeny regardless of their age in the family a provision offered by the law. In the view of Roman law, dominance of the men is conspicuously observed in the family setup living their female counterparts with minimum attention with regards to property and authority.

Women are full household members although they are considered subordinate to the men. The sole responsibility of a woman was considered to be that of bearing and raising children (Lewis and Ibbetson, p. 163). This research sets to look at the possible reasons that influenced the Roman legal authorities to allow legal redress for passed-over heirs and how they managed to balance between the testators and the heirs.

Law on heirs

In the Roman law, one was allowed to write a will indicating how he or she would wish his or her property to be inherited after his or her demise. The role of the will basically was to appoint an heir to succeed a testator after death (Frier and Thomas, p. 385). The will however was always received with some challenges owing to various decisions that prompted the need for a legal redress. This mainly happened when some beneficiaries were overlooked in the process of writing the will. The disparity surrounding the will is more intricate when it comes to defining who is a real heir and who deserves what amount of property (Frier and Thomas, p. 385).

The “actio communi dividundo” Roman law, recognizes any lawsuit filed by a co-owner or heir of a common property. It allows for legal redress to challenge the division of property when a testator is seen to have acted unfairly towards a close member of the family. Legal authorities, having considered the natural shortcomings involving the division of property, had to allow and provide for legal solution on such circumstances. Land is a good example for such disparities.

Disputes

It is impossible when dividing a portion of land among the heirs to receive portions of equal value as inheritance. This is a question that has in the past caused dissatisfaction and can never be put to rest unless a legal solution is realized. Roman authorities knew this and they had to come up with a way to deal with such complains. Off course using the above example land may not attract the same value when allocated to different heirs. Consequently, some may feel like they were treated unfairly regarding the will (Frier and Thomas, p. 386).

In such a case, the legal decision is to have the beneficiary with the piece that has more value to pay a certain amount to the one whose piece is of lower value. This makes the division equal to both parties. Another situation that would cause a dispute is when co-heirs are dissatisfied with the distribution of property. Co-heirs can choose to agree on not to divide their property to share control. However, one heir can insist for division of the property and the court will oblige.

Balancing the interests of the testator and the (potential) heirs

In the event where the testator passes-on without leaving a will more often than not there will be some level of disputes within the family. This is mainly in regards to inheritance and distribution of the fortune left behind by the testator. Dealing with such a matter requires careful attention to strike a balance between the two parties that is the testator and the possible heir (Frier and Thomas, p. 386). The Roman law provides that every potential heir receives as much property as stipulated in the content of the will.

Nonetheless, in the absence of a written will to divide property the law declares equal benefits to all the heirs. This is the most reasonable way to avoid disputes in such a sensitive situation. This strikes the balance since there is no will therefore no possibility to disobey the wishes of a testator.

Conclusion

Albeit the Roman law is currently not fully in use it is the foundational idea upon which most principles of law are founded. Nonetheless, these have had tremendous transformation over the years. Initially holding women as of insignificant importance, things have changed with recognition of women on the rise. Heirs to property however are close existing relatives only that can claim or file a lawsuit if they feel like they were unfairly left out in the will process.

The major cause of disputes is ownership of property and the legitimacy for the same. Land is one of the main causes of differences in inheritance. In addition to that, it is the most complex and difficult property to equally share and have all the parties satisfied with their portions. This is mainly because land is a complex asset and can not accrue a standard value. This varies from place to place and from time to time hence the sensitivity in cases involving land.

Works Cited

Frier, Bruce and Thomas Macginn. A casebook on Roman family law United Kingdom UK: Oxford University Press, 2004. Print.

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The Senate was the governing body of the Roman Republic. After the plebeians fought for a voice in the government, legislative bodies were created to plan war, elect magistrates, and handle foreign relations. As the territory and power of Rome grew, families and citizens began to struggle for power, and internal conflicts started. Senators voted to pass laws that would allow them to remain in power. Patricians held most of the government positions and were in favor of slicing up the huge estates. The Senators collaborated with the plebeians to overthrow the patricians.

Julius Caesar was a prominent general who gained power during the civil war in 59 B.C.E. Before that, the roman republic had 300 years of peace. However, after the first political murder of Tiberius Gracchus, a revolution started. Political factions began killing their enemies and stealing their land. Non-violent radical dysfunctions also emerged. For instance, some senators unnecessarily delayed the passing of legislation they did not favor for years.

Augustus’ need to build an empire also resulted in its downfall. He expanded the territory into Europe and took North African colonies. However, maintaining the vast empire became too dangerous and expensive for the political administration and the treasury. Attempted internal reforms resulted in a revolution between the western and eastern halves guaranteeing a total collapse of the republic in 27 B.C.E. Sallust was a Roman historian who existed during Caesar’s reign. He believed that righteousness, justice, and close unity were the virtues that made Rome great. However, the state’s corrupt morals, selfishness, extravagance, and destructive vices ruined it.

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