Category: Robots

Introduction

According to Nourbakhsh and Siegwart mobile robotics is a recent field that has combined technologies from various fields of engineering and science. The essence of mobile robotics is to provide the previously rigid parts of machines with a dexterity rivaling and even exceeding human beings through the complex combination of technologies, such as ‘electrical and electronic engineering, computer engineering and cognitive and social sciences.’[1] Nourbahksh and Siegwart go on to outline that Robots have recently found use in various sectors of the industry and are replacing human beings. They provide the example of ‘manipulators or Robots arms that have the capacity of performing complex and repetitive tasks much easier due to their speed and precision. The speed and precision are particularly mandatory characteristics for most industries that deal with the manufacture of complex and small devices such as laptops and mobile phones. [2]

However, as technological advancements took the stage it became observable that there was still a big room for improvement of the robots. These Robots were being controlled from a central position where someone was required to keep a constant look to ensure that the Robots did not overdo certain tasks. For instance, a robot that is programmed to perform spray painting would continue to spray paint even when there were no vehicles to paint unless it was shut down. This limitation was sufficient for technologists to begin thinking of an ‘intelligent Robot’ that would be fed memory and would perform tasks with the same precision and speed, but with minimum human supervision. Furthermore, it was also realized that to manipulate robots’ movements it would be imperative to first understand how they move. Human beings do not control Robots but rather use the motions by the Robots to control movements. Nourbakhsh and Siegwart outline that ‘…humans perform localization and cognitive activities, but relies on the robot control scheme to control the robot’[3]

Locomotion

A robot is a machine consisting of parts that are immobile on their own. Therefore the question that arises is how a robot achieves the capacity to move freely. Dudek and Jenkin answer this question by outlining that a robot is, a collection of subsystems’ with the capacity to move, perceive, reason, and communicate. The movement helps the robot to explore its environment, the perception helps the robot to respond to changes within its environment and communication provides and interfaces for the exchange of information between the robot and human beings. [4] Among the locomotion methods that have been studied include the wheeled and the legged locomotion methods. The methods are based on the computation of the motions observed in the surrounding fauna. [5]According to Paul Chandana, the morphology of the robot plays an important role in how easily it navigates its environment and responds to instructions. The morphology plays an important role in several factors such as how the sensory and motor aspects of the robot interrelate, the resulting changes, and the complexity of the control system that will be required. [6]Kim and Shim in their research realized that the use of an algorithm would solve the problem of driving the robot at a particular velocity as well as ensuring its stability based on the evolutionary programming. The study realized that the proposed algorithm could provide stability for the robot as evidenced by computer simulations and based on the Lyapunov theory. [7]

Locomotion also includes the dexterity achieved by the outer parts of the robots that assist not only in motion but also in how the robots manipulate the appendages to accomplish various tasks. Therefore, as the autonomous robot moves forward it will also be able to perform tasks with the arm in the same fashion it accomplishes the motions. Motions help a robot to explore its environment, but there should be a similar automated system that enables the robot to perform various tasks. [8] A method proposed by Xiang et al in optimizing the motion of an autonomous robot by reducing redundancies is known as the General Weight Least Norm Control for Redundant Manipulators. This method ensures that the efficiencies lost at the joints of the robots are greatly reduced. The inefficiencies within the joints emanate due to the inability of the various joints to move in unison and harmony. In the findings, Xian realized that the General Weight Least Norm Control for Redundant Manipulators, using a seven degree of freedom manipulators, improved the general path followed by various parts and reduced significantly the limitations presented by the joints. [9] The creation of harmony in the way the different joints move ensures that motion is optimized and that little energy is lost in the process. The other realization is that in most instances the challenges presented in the motion of the appendages of a particular robot are not only limited to the number of joints but can significantly exceed the number of joints. The advantage of the General Weight least is that it has the capacity of reducing even the additional challenges. Figure 1 shows an autonomous robot arm avoiding a cylindrical obstacle by the manipulation of the movements of joints.

Mobile Robot Kinematics

Kinematics is concerned with various aspects of velocity as a robot moves including the angular and the linear velocity of the robot. The computation of the linear and the angular velocity as the robot moves helps in determining the most applicable design for a particular environment. [1] According to Fahimi, most commercial mobile robots are based on the Hilare Model where the linear and the angular velocities are computed and resolved in coming up with a general law that guides the production of subsequent robots. [2] Mobile Kinematics constitutes and important aspects for all mobile robots as it determines the degree of stability that a particular design will be able to achieve in a specific environment. Stability even becomes much more of a prerequisite for autonomous mobile robots because they do not require supervision. Various other important aspects are put into consideration and they include the center of gravity for a particular model in resolving the angular and the linear velocity. [3] The essence is always to come up with laws governed by calculations that will be applicable for a particular design. Figure 2 adapted from NASA[4] shows the example of a robot that was used for the exploration of Mars. This autonomous mobile robot was being operated from the earth’

Perception

Perception is concerned with how the Robots sense changes in the environment and the responses that the robot undertakes. For instance, the vision of the autonomous mobile robot is very important and should therefore be accurate and full of clarity so that the robot can respond according to the memory that has been fed. Louis and Boyer explain that it is important for the robot to be able to use only the existing form of light to process images instead of requiring additional illumination. The most available form of light is generally white light. The algorithm is usually employed to resolve the distance between a particular image and the robot and the algorithm must employ is very sensitive to depth variations. This will have the effect of improving the accuracy of the image. Blur is one particular challenge that designers of mobile autonomous have to deal with. The algorithm is also used in this aspect to estimate the extent of a blur. In most instances, special optics technology is employed to resolve an image observed from different planes. According to Louis and Boyer, the essence is to, ‘find a point spread function that is convolved with the small focal gradient, and image produces a large focal gradient.’[1]

The major challenge in autonomous mobile robotics in terms of perceptions has always been to resolve the robot’s trajectory from the point of origin to a particular destination. In autonomous mobile robots, an additional challenge is presented in how to formulate a sensory strategy that will guide the robot into detecting such aspects as light and analyzing the variations. These challenges require special devices that will guarantee proper detection and response. An example of a design employed to compute the sensory problems is the Amplitude Modulated Continuous Wave (AMCW). This design makes use of a single frequency for reception. [2]Perception of a robot is comparable to the senses of human beings. This implies that after the robot has been fed with the memory of a particular object or situation, the robot will be able to perceive it and respond effectively. In this area, the algorithm method significantly solves the problem when configuring the resolution of distance by the robot. The implication is that accuracy in the determination of distance will be greatly reduced while the extent of vision blur will also be eliminated. This attribute helps the robot to effectively detect obstacles and avoid them, as well as be able to identify a particular target.

Localization and Mapping

According to Chatila Raja, localization and mapping are aspects that should be computed simultaneously so that the performance of the autonomous robot can be maximized. The ability of a robot t autonomously navigate is the essence of autonomy. The robot should have the capacity to construct a spatial representation, make decisions concerning motion, plan the motion and then finally initiate the motion. This challenge is also solved via mathematical laws and the computation of all probabilities. According to Liang et al, tracking of autonomous robots can be almost impossible without the consideration of the kinematics and dynamics because both velocities determine the relative position of the robot. However, the problem with depending on these velocities during localization is that they are subject to interference by noise. Therefore, the most effective method is to establish a method of resolving the location that is not subject to interference by noise. This can emanate ineffectiveness in terms of performance and stability.

Liang et al provide an alternative way of realizing the location. The system introduces a method that does not include measuring dynamics and kinematics. The problem is solved by introducing the sliding observer system in conjunction with the Lyapunov analysis method. The Lyapunov system has so far demonstrated that the system for tracking the robots that are without repercussions and is based on the sliding patch concept. The primary drawback in this perspective is that most autonomous mobile robots have reduced dexterity. The current approach proposes the use of neural networks. [3] Mancha et al propose in this perspective a method that can be used to determine the position of a robot. This method uses camera space manipulation using the linear camera model. Experiments using cameras have determined that this method can reduce the degree of error during positioning significantly. [4] The system uses the basic concepts of cameras in a bid to manipulate space and therefore optimize the process of establishing the position of the robot. [5]Another method proposed by Tahri et al is the decoupling of image-based visual servoing. Figure 3 illustrates the results of this method

Figure 2 (a) represents a picture before the use of the method while figure 2(b) illustrates the same picture after using the method. This method combines the basics 3-D and making use of invariants to control the translational motions. This ensures that a robot can be effectively located. Locating a robot does not eliminate the fact that it is autonomous but ensures that at any one time the position of a robot with regard to the grid resolution can be determined. ¹An example of sliding mode control adapted from Kikuuwe is as in Figure 4

Planning and Navigation

The basis of planning and navigation of autonomous mobile robots is the avoidance of hurdles and being able to manipulate various landscapes and environments effectively. The Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver, sonar detectors, and electronic compass are required for identifying the location of the robot and scanning the landscape in front of it to control the unmanned vehicle and start the avoidance operation in case if obstacles are found on its path.

As outlined by Olunloyo and Ayomoh, various strategies are available. One is to modulate the integration between virtual obstacle concept and virtual goal concept in a method termed as a hybrid virtual force field. In their findings, Olunloyo and Ayomoh established that the hybrid virtual force field methodology was ‘versatile and robust’[1]In resolving the challenge of planning the path of unmanned, aerial vehicles, Portas et al outline that the evolutionary algorithm method provides the best solution. The calculations are based on the findings resolved from a GPS receiver. The system uses the concepts within these fields and transfers this concept to unmanned aerial vehicles. Generally, the resolved path of conventional aerial vehicles is arrived at by the consideration of the multiple co-ordinations concerning evolutionary algorithm. [2]

The coordinates of the current location of the robot are to be correlated with the coordinates of the point of destination and desired direction intending to fulfill the control function properly. Being one of the main components of the construction, the GPS receiver and embedded compass provide the robot with the relevant information concerning the actual environment and after processing this data the decisions to turn, to move forward, or to stop can be made. The operation of collision avoidance starts in case if an obstacle is scanned with a sonar detector in the desired direction. The effectiveness of the operation depends upon the accuracy of the information taken from GPS and compass. For this reason, the mechanisms of retrieving the information from each of these components and its processing are of crucial importance.

The essence of Portas’ method is that it ensures that roles such as identification of target and recognition of path are resolved using an evaluation algorithm. [3] In developing the path, Jaillet et al propose that sampling path planning is an efficient way when generating the space where the vehicle will navigate. [4] An autonomous mobile robot should have an inherent ability to explore different terrains while in the process avoiding obstacles and dangers. This capability enables the autonomous robot to operate with minimal human supervision and this constitutes the essence of autonomy. Furthermore, an autonomous robot should also be able to move from the launching point through various obstacles to arrive at the target. The robot should also be able to identify the target using a given marker that will be recognizable to the robot. Figure 5 shows a robot that is used to inspect air ducts. The camera situated at the front can detect different gradients, walls, and points of the intersection during navigation and respond appropriately. [5]

Conclusion

Some decades ago the idea of creating an autonomous mobile robot would have sounded seemed far-fetched. A combination of technologies such as the Lyapunov theories, evolution algorithm, 3-D technology, and camera-based concepts has resulted in the realization of this feat. These technologies have made it easier for robots to navigate terrains while avoiding obstacles and locating targets, perceive different objects within various environments, determine their position and provide this information to a control center and optimize the use of appendages. These basic attributes define the very essence of mobile autonomous robots.

Reference List

Adams, D. Sensor Modeling, Design and Data Processing for Autonomous Navigation. World Scientific Publishing Company, New York, 1998, p. 43.

Conrad, H. Application of Evolutionary Algorithm in Autonomous Mobile Robots. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003, p. 82

Dudek, G. and Jenkin, M. computational Principles of Mobile Robotics. Cambridge University Press, New York, 2000, p.15.

Fahimi, F. Autonomous Robots: Modeling, Path Planning and Control, Volume 740. University of Alberta, Edmonton, 2009, p.163.

Gonclaves et al. Vector Fields for Robot Navigation Along Time Varying Curves in n- Dimension. IEEE Transactions on Robotics Journals 26(4), 2010. Web.

Homeler, R. Manipulation of Autonomous Mobile Robots. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 2001, p.48.

Jailett et al. Sampling Based Path Planning on Configuration Space Cost Maps. IEEE Transactions on Robotics Journals 26(4), 2010. Web.

Kikkuuwe, R. Proxy Based Sliding Mode Control: A Safer Extension of PID Position.. IEEE Transactions on Robotics Journals 26(4), 2010. Web.

Kim, H. and Shim, S. Robust Optimal Locomotion Control Using Evolutionary Programming for Autonomous Mobile Robots.2009, Web.

Liang et al. Adaptive Task Space Tracking Control of Robots without Task Space and Joint Space Velocity Measurement. IEEE Transactions on Robotics Journals 26(4), 2010. Web.

Louis, S. and Boyer, L. Applications of AI Machine, Vision and Robotics. World Scientific Publishing Company, New York, 2005, p. 214.

Mancha et al. Robot Positioning Using Camera Space Manipulation with a Linear Camera Model.IEEE Transactions on Robotics Journals 26(4), 2010. Web.

NASA. Mobile Robot Sojourner.1997. Web.

Nourbakhsh, L. and Siegwart, L. Autonomous Mobile Robots. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 2005.

Nourbakhsh, R. and Siegwart, R. Introduction to Autonomous Mobile Robots.Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 2004.

Olunloyo, s. Ayomo, O. Autonomous Mobile Robot Navigation Using Hybrid Virtual Force Field Concept. 2009, Web.

Portas et al. Evolutionary Trajectory Planner for Multiple UAVs in Realistic Scenarios. IEEE Transactions on Robotics Journals 26(4), 2010. Web.

Ralph, M. & Medhat, A. An Integrated System for User Adaptive Robotic Grasping. IEEE Transactions on Robotics Journals 26(4), 2010. Web.

Schaal, S. From Animals to Animats: Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on the Simulation of Adaptive Behavior. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 2004, p.33.

Sedirep. A Robot Featuring Pantilt Camera. Web.

Thomas, L & Andrew, A. The Basic Concepts of Robotics. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, 2008, p.198.

Xian et al. General Weighted Least Norm Control for Redundant Manipulators.IEEE Transactions on Robotics. RetrrereJournals 26(4), 2010. Web.

Footnotes

1. Kikkuuwe, R. Proxy Based Sliding Mode Control: A Safer Extension of PID Position.. IEEE Transactions on Robotics Journals 26(4), 2010. Web.

Introduction

For a long time, many surgeons have employed their hands in carrying out surgery of their patients. However, starting from1994, enormous developments started taking place in the field of medicine, one such developments being the innovation and introduction of the first approved robotic surgical device that provided enormous help to surgery processes in hospitals after being licensed by the US Food and Drug Administration (Lowenfels Para. 1). Vijay Kumar Soni has defined a robot as a structure that is automated and has mechanical assembly that has the ability to interact with the environment (Soni Para. 1).

In medicine, robots have been utilized in surgery, more so in providing assistance to the process of surgery thereby relieving human surgeons some work. Today, the field of robot surgery is growing at a first rate due to increased innovation in science and technology. The notable advances that have taken place as far as robot surgery is concerned include “remote surgery, minimally invasive surgery and the unmanned surgery” (Soni Para. 1). Nevertheless, since the conception of robot surgery, there have been many advantages realized from the process while at the same time numerous disadvantages have also been associated with the process. Therefore, the aim of this essay paper will be to look at both the advantages and disadvantages of robot surgery before making conclusion.

Advantages of robot surgery

Soni observes that the robot system or method of providing the key assistance to surgery has many advantages that include “precision, smaller incisions, reduced blood loss, decreased pain, and faster healing time” (Soni Para. 1).

Further, according to the author robot surgery as a new way of carrying out major surgical assignment shows the extent to which revolution has taken place in the fields of medicine and surgery where the doctors have been presented with the opportunity to provide treatment to many patients at a faster rate. On his part, Lowenfels notes that robot surgery equipment has provided surgeons with excellent opportunity to carry out the obvious technical parts of an operation, which generally include “tissue dissection, cauterization, control of bleeding and suturing and because the computer interface smoothes the surgeon’s movements, cases of surgical tremor are highly minimized” (Lowenfels Para. 2).

The advantages the author further notes include: surgery robots are designed as three-dimensional version that are composed of dual-camera photo system that has enabled highly sensitive and tiny operation to be carried out; surgery robots constitute an improved dexterity that is manifested through jointed instruments that have the ability to “simulate the finger and wrist motion” (Lowenfels Para. 8).

Second, surgery robots are effective in decreasing tumor since the computerized system has the ability of simplifying the movements of the hands. Third, the robot surgery further has been observed to increase comfort on the part of the patient as the surgery proceeds, and this results from ergonomic position that the robot assumes as the operation proceeds. Lastly, the robot surgery systems exhibit telesurgical capabilities where it is easier and faster to send instructions from the computer to the remote locations (Lowenfels Para. 8).

Furthermore, the operation carried out using robots is always conducted through small portals, an event that has capability to reduce loses of blood, pain caused by postoperative and lessen period the patient has to undergo hospitalization (Lowenfels Para. 5). Reiterating the point, the author further explains how robot surgery has become beneficial when its applications are done in various surgical fields that include general surgery, pediatric surgery, urologic surgery, and cardiac surgery (Lowenfels Para. 6-8).

Disadvantages of robot surgery

Lowenfels notes the major disadvantages of robot surgery to include” high cost, learning curve, longer operating time, rapidly changing field and loss of haptic sensation” (Lowenfels Para. 8). On their part, Lanfranco, Anthony R., et al (Para. 1) identify some of the disadvantages associated with surgery robots. To them, one disadvantage include the fact that robot surgery still remains as a relatively new field whereby there is still underutilization of technology. The authors note that although numerous studies in form of feasibilities have been carried out, the procedures largely used in the field need to undergo re-designation in order to realize efficient use of robotic arms and increase its efficiency (Lanfranco, Anthony R., et al Para. 1).

Another disadvantage is the cost, where the price for a single robot translates into millions of dollars and as a result majority of surgical operations are yet to optimize this method of surgery. Associated to cost is the expenses the hospitals have to incur in terms of repair and maintenance, as relatively larger budget has to be set aside to cater for eventual repairs and maintenance (Lanfranco, Anthony R., et al Para. 2).

The size of the robot is another limitation affecting the application of robotics. Many designs possess large footprints and unwieldy robotic arms, and considering the shrinking space in the current crowded-operating rooms, it is becoming harder for the robots to fit in the surgical rooms, at the same time putting up larger space to accommodate the systems is even more expensive (Lanfranco, Anthony R., et al Para. 3).

Lastly, there is lack of compatible instruments and other necessary equipment, a scenario that has forced over-reliance on table assistants making it illogic of what a new technology should do. In most cases a new technology should be designed to address the existing shortcomings and not compliment the existing ones (Gerhardus par.15).

Conclusion

Robot surgery presents a successful case in development of technology in medical and surgery fields. The technology is still in its infancy but the benefits are in a first pace filling the mouth of everybody. However, the perfection of the technology has not been guaranteed, with some shortcomings have been identified. Although the shortcomings may not outweigh the benefits, it is recommendable that further improvement of the technology is undertaken in order to have a more reliable and efficient technological equipment as far as the lives of individuals are concerned.

Works Cited

Gerhardus, Diana. “Robot-assisted surgery: the future is here.” Journal of Healthcare Management. 2003. Web.

Lanfranco, Anthony R., et al. Robot Surgery: A Current Perspective: Disadvantages of ROBOT-Assisted Surgery. Annals of Surgery, 2004. Web.

Lowenfels, Albert. B. Robotics. Medscape General Surgery. 2010. Web.

Soni, Vijay K. “Da Vinci Robotic Surgery: Pros and Cons.” Da Vinci Robotic Surgery: Pros and Cons 2010. Web.

Literature Review

This section focuses on the review of literature on servo motors and DC motors, in general as well as in the context of the current research project. The chapter begins with the introduction of servo and DC motors, followed by their usage in the current study. Lastly, the chapter ends with a conclusion of the use of Servo and DC motors in the current work.

Introduction

Servo motors and DC motors

Motors have been by far one of the most crucial components across the factory front. Being the largest consumers of power, the accuracy in motor control is the easiest measure of minimizing energy consumption. Electric motors are generally categorized in terms of their functions as servo meters, gear motors, and so on, as well as by their electrical specifications as Alternating current (AC) and Direct current (DC) motors. While DC motors are given more preference mainly in the variable seed applications, increasing use of AC motors is seen before enhancements in solid-state elements.

In this context, the servo motor is a mechanism that is aimed at positioning and controlling speed in the systems called closed-loop control. The current project makes use of a servo meter to turn over a wide range of speed instructions obtained from the computer. In general, DC and AC servo meters are primarily found in applications depending on their machine structure. DC servo motors have been applied in computers, robotics, numerical control machines, industrial components, speed control of vehicles and alternators, control mechanism purposes, and so forth. Further, the field of control of mechanical linkages as well as robots sees the most potential use and research works of DC motors [1].

On the other hand, servo motors are extensively equipped for applications relating to radio-controlled models, such as cars, planes, robotics, test equipment, industrial automation, etc. Although a servo is not easily defined nor is self-explanatory as its mechanism does not apply to any particular device or machine. Typically, it is a term that applies to a task or a function.

Any electric motor works on the principle of electromagnetism, as aforesaid. Any conductor that carries current creates a cloud of the uniform magnetic field. This conductor is directed at experiencing a magnetic force when it is subjected to an external magnetic field. It should be mentioned that its strength is totally dependent on the current across the conductor, as well as the magnetic power of the field. The inner composition of a simple DC motor is so designed in order to facilitate harnessing of the magnetic interaction taking place between the conductor and an outside magnetic field for developing uniform rotational motion [2] [5].

DC motors are broadly utilized in robotics due to their smaller size and greater energy output. Experts suggest that DC motors, by far, have been a better option for generating power for wheels of a robotic car as well as for other similar mechanical constructions.

DC motor speeds are easily varied hence they are commonly used in applications where there are speed control, servo control, as well as for positioning needs. A servo motor can be either AC or DC, and typically constitutes the drive section and the encoder. Moreover, a servo motor operates more smoothly relative to a stepper motor. It also has a much greater resolution with respect to position control [4].

Essentially, if the work is considered to be the control variable, servo motors are used in closed loop control systems. As shown in the schematic below, the digital servo controller dictates working of the servo motor by transmitting velocity command pulses to the amplifier that is responsible for driving the servo motor.

With this, essential feedback devices such as resolver, tachometer or encoder are either integrated in the servo motor or are placed in isolation, mainly on the external load. A major benefit of this setting is that it offers the exact position of the servo motor as well as its speed feedback compared by the controller to its coded motion profile and utilizes it for modifying its speed signal. Furthermore, servo motors are characterized by a motion profile, which is nothing but a set of instructions loaded within the controller that configures the servo motor working with respect to time period, its position and speed. Indeed, servo motor’s ability to become compatible with the dissimilarities occurring between the motion profile and feedback pulses greatly relies on the kind of controls as well as servo motors utilized [2] [5].

Working of Servo motors

Servo motors fall under a special class of motors mainly designed for applications that involve position control, torque and velocity control. These motors specialize in techniques such as lowering mechanical time constant, lowering electrical time constant, generating permanent magnetic force of high flux density for generating the field, and support of fail-safe electro-mechanical brakes. Furthermore, for application where the load often needs to be speedily accelerated or decelerated, the motor’s mechanical and electrical time constants plays a pivotal role. In such cases, the mechanical time constants are decreased by reducing the rotor inertia.

Therefore, the rotor of such motors generally has an elongated body. Moreover, servos are controlled my transmitting them a pulse having variable width, as shown in the following schematic. As a servo is equipped with an output shaft, a coded signal is used to position it to certain angular position [1]. The servo motor and its shaft put on special angular position depends on the coded pulse greatly. As and when there is a change in the coded pulse, a similar change is detected in the angle at which the shaft is positioned. Practically, servos are seen in radio controlled cars, and robots in particular. Basically, the motors are of very small size and are usually built inside a control circuitry; however, regardless of their size, these motors provide output of tremendous power compared to the size. Hence, it can be noted that a less loaded servo motor does not use up much energy [8].

The following schematic presents the control circuitry, the motor, set of gears and the holding case. Also, 3 wires can be seen that are used for power, ground and control.

Typically, the parameters included in the coded signal are :

1. minimum pulse
2. maximum pulse
3. a repetition rate.

For a given rotation constraint provided by a servo, a neutral position is one at which the servo potentially rotates in equal modulations in the clockwise as well as in the anticlockwise direction. Here, in this context different servos are associated with different constraints across each rotation. Nonetheless, they all fall in the neutral position said to take place at approximately 1.5 milliseconds [6] [9].

The servo motor is made up of a control circuitry and a potentiometer, both connected the shaft or output device. This potentiometer is responsible for enabling the control circuitry to read and control the changing angular positions of the servo meter. When the shaft is positioned at the accurate angle the motors stops operating. In case the control circuitry detects that the angle is incorrect, it will position the motor in the accurate angle or direction. Furthermore, the output shaft of the servo motor is able to travel somewhere close to180 degrees [5]. Depending upon the manufacturer, the motion of the output shaft can be around 210 degrees.

Furthermore, a simple servo motor can be used to determine any angular motion which may usually range from 0 to 180 degrees. In addition, it is unable to mechanically move any beyond this position because of a “stop” that is mounted on top of the primary output gear. In essence, the amount of power given to the motor is directly dependent on the distance it needs to move. Hence, if the shaft tries to turn a larger distance the motor will operate at its maximum speed. However, if it needs to change the position by a smaller angle, the motor operates at a relatively slower speed. This phenomenon is known as proportional control [10].

Furthermore, the control wire is used for communicating the angular position at which servo motor is required to turn. This angle depends on pulse code modulation or pulse width modulation (PWD), which is the duration or modulation of a pulse which is applied to the control wire. As the servo anticipates seeing a pulse for every.02 seconds, the length of the pulse determines the extent to which the motor has turned.

For instance, a pulse having duration of 1.5 milliseconds is likely to make the motor change its position to a complete 90 degree position. This is typically known as neutral position, as aforementioned. Nevertheless, in case the pulse is lesser than 1.5 milliseconds, the motor is likely to turn the shaft to near 0 degrees. And if the pulse has duration greater than 1.5 milliseconds, then the shaft turns to a position much closer to 180 degrees, as mentioned previously [5] [10]. As depicted in the diagram below, one can observe that the duration of the pulse that dictates the angular position of the output shaft is indicated by the green circle with an arrow attached to it.

Working of a DC motor

A DC motor is comprised of 6 fundamental components, namely, axle, rotor, stator, field magnets, brushes and commutator. Most commonly, the external magnetic field in generated in DC motors by high intensity permanent magnets. As shown in the schematic, the stator forms the stationary part of the motor which holds the motor causing and two or more permanent magnetic poles. The stator is responsible for determining the rotation of the rotor along with the axle and the connected commutator. In addition, the rotor is made up of windings or a core, which are electrically attached to the commutator [9].

Furthermore, the geometrical arrangement of the brushes, commutator points, and the rotor armature is such that on application of power, the polarities of the core and the stator magnets will become misaligned. This in turn will enable the rotor to rotate only when it is closely aligned to the field magnets of the stator. Once the rotor is accurately aligned, the brushes will move to the next commutator points and charge the next windings, and so on.

A two-pole motor is an excellent example where the rotation alters the flow of the current to pass in the opposite direction across the rotor winding, thereby flipping the magnetic field of the rotor. This eventually produces continuous rotations. However, practically, DC motors always have poles greater than two. This is commonly chosen so in order to eliminate the creation of “dead spots” within the commutator [3] [7].

There is no better way to view how a simple DC motor is integrated by various components, than by simply opening it up. However, this being a cumbersome job requires the destruction of a good motor. The following diagram represents the interior components of a disassembled DC motor. This motor is a basic DC motor having 3 poles, together with 2 brushes and 3 commutator points. It shows the use of iron core windings which have several benefits.

Firstly, the iron core offers a powerful, rigid support for the armature and is particularly a crucial consideration for higher-torque motors. Also, the core pushes heat far from the rotor windings thereby enabling the motor to be operated at much greater efficiency and speed. Iron construction is also inexpensive in comparison to other forms of construction. However, iron core construction is also associated with several drawbacks. The iron winding has a comparatively greater inertia which tends to restrict motor acceleration. In addition, this mechanism leads to high inductances in rotor windings. This disadvantage tends to restrict the brush as well as commutator existence.

In smaller DC motors, an alternative design is used which is characterized by a “coreless” winding. Structural integrity is obtained through this design as it is highly reliant on the coil wire itself. Therefore, the windings tend to get hollow which calls for placing of the field magnet within the rotor coil. Additionally, coreless DC motors are associated with lesser degree of armature inductance as compared to iron core DC motors having more or less same size, extending brushes and commutator life span [4].

In essence, the coreless design enables manufacturers to produce smaller motors; because of the shortage of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are sensitive to overheating. Therefore, this design is usually used only smaller, low-power DC motors. Again, the inner components of a coreless motor can be said to be instructive, as shown in the figure below [6].

Brushless motors are said to resemble AC motors which also works to generate rotor motion with the help of a moving magnetic field. This can be stated as a sole reason as to why the brushless motors is usually referred to as AC brushless or DC brushless depending on the type of operation of the motor. Interestingly, major applications of brushless DC motors are seen in hard disk as well as a wide array of industrial sectors. Moreover, a brushless DC motor comprises of a rotor in the form of a permanent magnet. Again, such type of a motor features most of the properties as well as laws that are primarily equipped in a DC machine.

Conclusion

A DC motor uses a commutator built upon the shaft which automatically changes the polarity of the armature winding when the shaft rotates. This switching keeps the magnetic fields between the armature and stator in such a state that allows for continuous rotation or the armature. Without commutation the motor shaft would rotate only until the magnetic fields lined up North to South at which time the motor would stop turning. On the other hand, a Servo motor does not make use of a commutator. Instead multiple sets of field windings are located about the stator. A single pair of these field windings is energized at a time.

The shaft rotates into alignment with the energized field and stops movement. In order to make a servo motor turn the fields are energized in turn (STEPS) to make a rotating field. The armature then follows this rotating field. In essence the “Commutation” or switching On/Off of the field coils is done electronically. This can be done with a driver circuit of a micro controller. The advantage of a servo motor is precise rotational control which is based upon the number of steps/rev and any associated gearing. Very precise movements can be performed as attested to by their use in hard drives and automation [6] [7].

Likewise, DC motors provide torque. A high torque DC motor like a car starter is series wound. Other DC motors like shunt wound are used in automation. The advantage with the use of a DC motor is easy speed control by easily varying the voltage applied to the motor. Rotational control of either may be done with some form of feedback. The feedback is used as a signal to a motor controller which will stop the rotation of the shaft with the help of a control of the particular motor in use.

One may also consider using the same motor you currently have and consider providing some means to control the motor controller which drives the motor, such as 4-20 ma input to a motor controller which is designed to drive either a DC motor or Servo motor. Only the existing motor and the mechanical setup need to be retained while the existing manual motor controller can be changed to a type that will interface to your application [9].

Servo motors are extensively used in the field of robotics. It should be mentioned that the size of servos is small. Nevertheless, this ;does not prevent them to show extreme power. Controlled by an in-built circuitry, a servo motor model Futuba S-48 has been exceptionally used as a standard servo for building robotic machineries. As aforementioned, a servo motor derives power in proportion to the applied load. The power may be derived to the mechanical load.

Known for their energy conversion mechanisms, servo motors are made up of a set of tools. These tools are of two kinds, a control circuitry and a case covering to hold these equipments. One can state that the working mechanism of servos is very easy. The shaft or the output device connects the control circuitry within the servo, and the potentiometer. The angular position of this shaft is controlled by the pot by using the coded pulses coming from the control circuitry. In addition, the shaft is positioned between angles o and 180 degrees, typically [10].

References

1. M. Akar and I. Temiz, “MOTION CONTROLLER DESIGN FOR THE SPEED CONTROL OF DC SERVO MOTOR,” INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS AND INFORMATICS, vol. 1, (4), pp. 131-137, 2007.
2. E. Seale, “DC Motors,” 2003. Web.
3. R. Bickle, “C MOTOR CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR ROBOT APPLICATIONS”, 2003. Web.
4. M. Brain, “How Electric Motors Work,” 2010. Web.
5. J. Davis, “Servo Motors and Controllers,”. Web.
6. J. Mazurkiewicz, “AC vs DC Brushless Servo Motor,” Baldor Electric. Web.
7. Eli, Neil and Paul, “The fastest rc cars in the world!,” 2008. Web.
8. Logo Robots, “Motors,” 1998. Web.
9. The Handy Board, “What is the difference between a DC motor and servo motor?,” 2010. Web.
10. Baldor, “Servo Control Facts,” pp. 3-23. Web.

Introduction

It is a well-known fact that nowadays the defense agencies all over the world invest a lot of money in improving the security level of their countries. For instance, millions of dollars are put into the development of various robots. Today the robots have different technical characteristics and therefore can be used with different purposes. Some of them contain video cameras and are used in observations, others are armed and can be used directly in the battle field.

It is hard, however, to catch up with all the modifications and improvements in the sphere of robot design and construction. For instance, only a month ago a world known Polish robot producing company Przemyslowy Instytut Automatyki i Pomiarow (PIAP) introduced their version of a tactical throwable robot (TRM). The main purpose of this device is teleobservation, which is often used by military services, and “counter-terrorist operation support” (Berg, 1). However, this institution was not the first who invented the general model of this robot. Tactical throwable robots are being developed by a multitude of companies for several decades already, but lately the popularity of this kind of robot increased significantly.

Technical characteristics

During the years of the machine’s development, there has been set a standard construction for the tactical throwable robots. Specifically, due to its main functions, such as reconnaissance, the tactical throwable robot as a rule contains a videocamera and a microphone mounted inside it. One of the most important features of the robot is its small size and high portability, which can be controlled on distance. The main technical characteristics of the machine are given below in the table offered by Czupryniak Rafal and Trojnazki Maziej in their article “Throwable tactical robot – description of construction and performed tests” (Czupryniak, 29).

The new tactical throwing robot offered by the PIAP has similar characteristics. To be specific, its weight is 1,3 kg, and its maximum speed is 3, 3 km/hr. As we can see, most parameters are at their maximal possible level, such as range inside the building and range in open space, which are, correspondingly, 120 and 150 m (Williams, 1).

Construction

A tactical throwing robot presented by the company looks like this (Czupryniak, 29):

In order to understand its construction better, it will be rational to analyze it from inside. The first throwable robot, developed by the TMR, looked like the following picture (Barnes, 4):

Of course its moving capability was rather limited (Barnes, 5). The modern version of the robot body offered by PIAP has an improved construction. It has a cylindrical form and all the other details are mounted into it (Czupryniak, 29).

The cylinder inside has not a smooth but a ribbed surface, which prevents the machine from deformation and serves as a basis for other details. For instance, the electronic plates are fixed inside the body (Czupryniak, 29):

In addition, the battery is mounted on the other side of the cylinder (Czupryniak, 29):

The engine of the TTR is situated outside the cylinder. In addition, the bearings connect the wheel rims with the robot body.

Interestingly, the mechanism of turning the robot on is unlike the conventional ones. Once the wheel is turned, the machine automatically starts to move. In order to turn it off, however, one needs to use the remote control.

As one of the earlier developers of the throwable robots noted, it “can function in loose soil with small obstacles but is most effective on relatively flat surfaces like streets and sidewalks, making it ideal for an urban, desert environment” (Moreau, 1). However, another specialist in the field states that the tactical throwable robots have to be able to show their best in such conditions as “mud bogs, water obstacles, steep culverts, rock beds, and a series of movable ramps covered with sand, gravel, and loose pipes” (Behar, 1). Sure enough, the PIAP robot can withstand all of the named conditions.

Electrical part

As for the electronic construction of the robot, Czupryniak states that such sectors can be named: “supply module, micro controller with peripheries managing the model’s functions, engine drive programmer, vision transmitter, telemetry receiver, interface scheduling CAN BUS” (Czupryniak, 29).

Control panel

Another important constituent of the tactical throwable robot is the control panel. Its general look is illustrated by the photo below (Czupryniak, 30).

This panel weights up to 7 kg. The properties of the material used for producing the control panel are rather impressive; they include resistance to water, high and low temperatures, chemical reactions, etc. Besides the monitor and loudspeakers in the upper part of the box, there is also a small antenna that improves the quality of the signal. What is more, the innovations offered by PIAP include using the TFT matrix rather than the LCD one for the monitor. This solution allows both obtaining a picture of better quality and preserving the energy use. Needless to say, all the data received from the tactical throwable robot can be recorded with the help of the control panel.

On the lower part of the box, we can see a control column and a number of buttons, each of which is used to stimulate a certain function performance in the robot. What is more, the control panel box contains an exchangeable battery, or, to be more specific, with an “eight-cell lithium-polymer battery package” (Czupryniak, 30). The properties of this kind of battery perfectly fit the needs of the device with all its peculiarities, such as portability and extreme conditions of work.

As we could see in the table given earlier, the maximal number of controlled devices is 3. This number means that with the help of one control panel the operator will be able to work with three tactical throwable robots at a time. In addition, not only the connection between each robot and the panel is set; the robots can also contact with each other.

Comparison with other throwable robot

In order to have something to compare the PIAP model with, it is enough to look at a throwable robot offered earlier by Recon Scout. Its general characteristics and outlook are the following (Klobucar, 2):

Conclusion

Taking into consideration all the mentioned technical characteristics of the PIAP robot, it can be stated that the model can become a significant improvement in the defense services of different nations. It can save a lot of time, and, which is most important, protect the lives of real soldiers.

Works Cited

Barnes, Mitch, Everett, H. ThrowBot: Design Considerations for a Man-portable Throwable Robot. San Diego: IRobot, Inc, 2004.

Behar, Michael. The New Mobile Infantry. Wired, 2009. Web.

Berg, John. Intelligent robots have shown what they can do. MSPO, 2010. Web.

Czupryniak, Rafal, Trojnazki, Maziej. Throwable tactical robot – description of construction and performed tests. Journal of Automation, Mobile Robotics & Intelligent Systems, 4(4), 2010: pp. 26-32.

Klobucar, Jack. Mission-critical Reconnaissance from a Miniature, Mobile Throwable Robot. Toronto: Recon Robotics, Inc, 2009.

Moreau, Dave. Remote-Controlled Throwable Robot Sent To Iraq For Testing. Space Daily, 2004. Web.

Williams, Herbert. PIAP displays latest UGV developments. Jane’s International Defence Review, 43, 2010: p14-14.

Studying particular information has a tendency to develop and change our views. In this case, the lecture, which was focusing on the flow of robotics’ development, influenced my perception about the future, robotics’ impact on our lives, and the ability of robots to destroy the humanity. In my opinion, despite having good intentions, advancement and innovation in the robotics sphere might be dangerous for the humanity, as the robots are senseless instruments.

The lecture represents the idea that people always wanted to improve the living conditions and standards. The development of mechanisms began in 1400 BC, as Babylonians seek for the helpful instrument to measure time. It is evident that this invention was a start of the robotic era, as people tend to ease their lives with the various machines and instruments. In my opinion, the progress is impressive, as the complexity of the modern machines cannot be compared with the early innovations.

People were able to introduce a sophisticated and complex mechanism, which can act autonomously in the particular scenarios. Nonetheless, soon the robots became an essential part of our everyday routines, for instance, every child had a Furby as a companion. In this case, a robot is the representation of friendliness and kindness. Nowadays, robots are utilized for the military purposes, medical assistance, and manufacturing. Nonetheless, are they really helpful and harmless?

It could be said that the primary purpose of the lecture is to make a student think whether the innovation is the positive phenomenon in the society. In my opinion, the presentation reflects that the humans are not able to stop the innovation process since the dangerous robotics such as nanorobotics are being developed. It is apparent that the autonomy of nanorobotics might be a cause of the disaster.

Additionally, the usage of the robots in the military purposes increases the number of deaths during the armed conflicts. In my opinion, the intense focus on the development of the artificial intelligence might result in the development of autonomy and loss of the control over the machines. It is apparent that despite having positive intentions such as the expansion of the working length and the abilities of the robots, the autonomy might result in the negative consequences of the existence of humanity since the robots are not able to reflect their feelings sufficiently.

The laws of robotics were introduced to assure the survival of mankind and protect the human race from the extinction. Nonetheless, it is hard to control this process, as it seems that the ‘rise of the machines’ has started. For instance, it was emphasized in the lecture that the robot on the Volkswagen plant killed the employee.

In conclusion, it could be said that now it is questionable whether the robots are beneficial for the humanity, or they might conquer the world and make the humankind extinct. Despite introducing the cyber laws, the development of the artificial intelligence continues its advancement, and computers and robots become essentialities of our lives. It is unclear whether the initial positive intentions might turn into the catastrophe and result in the disappearance of the humankind. In my opinion, people should be in control of the process and pose the particular restrictions to the usage of the robotics for the military purposes. Otherwise, the scenes from Terminator might become reality.

People used to hunt and gather to survive, however, being smart and lazy, they invent various tools to make work easier. In the present day, in agriculture, there is almost no one needed to make food. For thousands of years, people are inventing tools to ease labor in all spheres of life. Mechanical muscles are more strong and reliable than humans, and the replacement of people by mechanisms in physical work allows society to specialize in intellectual work, develop economics and raise the standards of living.

The modern level of robotic automation is immeasurably high, and the new kind of general-purpose robots is already created. Baxter is a robot that does not have a set of specific commands to execute; it has vision and can repeat any process after a human (“Humans need not apply,” 2014). Self-riding cars that do not need any human assistance are designed to be better than humans and decrease the number of road accidents. Mechanical minds are cost-effective, fast, and accurate. In the near future robots may replace people doing low-skill jobs, like cashiers in supermarkets and baristas.

As economics is interested entirely in profits, mechanical minds may replace people, like horses were replaced by mechanical muscles in the past. Not only low-skill workers but intellectual and creative professionals may be gradually substituted by bots as well. Bots, artificial programs, are currently able to teach themselves, they do not make human mistakes, accurately analyze large amounts of information in a short time, or write music. They may substitute such significant professions as lawyers and doctors.

People have experienced technological revolutions in the past, however, the modern robot revolution will result in the extinguishment of many jobs performed by people. Progress is inevitable, and society should focus on the problem of a significant number of unemployed people in the future.

Reference

CGP Grey. (2014). Humans need not apply [Video file]. Web.

Overview

A Mobile Robotic Project was created to improve operational efficiency in hospitals, The Ohio State University Medical Center (OSUMC) has successful developed the ATS (Automated Transport System) to help hospitals in their activities. The Automated Transport System includes robotic “vehicle” to move meals, linens, medical supplies and trash throughout the 1,000 bed healthcare facility. This project came at a time when there was a decline in revenue and rising costs at the hospital.

The hospital formed a steering committee that comprised of consultants, IT, vendor and other hospital departments and was responsible for the success of this project. The medical staffs at the hospital was convinced with the project because it greatly improved patient care and working conditions (Gomersall, 2003). The robots that are used at the hospital are guided by a wireless infra-red network from Cisco Systems.

The whole network for the project is found along the hospital corridor walls and the lifts have been designed for the robots’ use. The network has been integrated with three Windows servers which help the system to maintain traffic patterns and a database of robot jobs (Gomersall, 2003).

Key Issues

Like any other technology, small hitch may exist, causing the vehicles (robots) to lose connection with the wireless network (LAN network). These are the results of failure of the hospital to provide complete coverage within the healthcare facility environment (primary due to steel construction and RF hostile concrete.

Additionally, constant movement many people within the hospital (such as doctors, medical students and visitors) will provide varying attenuation that will result in unpredictable or erratic coverage at the healthcare facility. When people are connected to a network through a wireless LAN communication, they adapt to coverage holes within the network by moving to places that have stronger signals (Kachroo, 2007).

For example, if a mobile phone doesn’t have a stronger signal at a particular area, a person using the mobile phone will move to a place which has a stronger signal. Similarly, a transponder that is found in the vehicle (robot) will allow the vehicle to continue three or four moves along the network if the robot loses connectivity. This distance is approximately 7 feet and amounts for about 14 seconds, and is based on the speed of the vehicle or robot.

The biggest challenge in implementing the Automated Transport System (ATS) was the development of “mistake-proof” software. “Mistake-proof” software requires from the creator of the program to consider all the actions that can be made by the transponder or operator, and to eliminate these mistakes with additional processes and verifications.

At the hospital, there is a total of 46 robots and this has not been easy to coordinate. Thus, “mistake-proof software” has created a system that is less susceptible to network or system instability, as well as creating a safe environment at the hospital.

Non-technical problems or challenges that affected the project were space recovery and many operational changes that were involved in the project implementation. For many years, many departments at the hospital have managed to utilize space available on various floors and elevators. This was a challenge since many departments were involved and many people in these departments were against the implementation of the project (Kachroo, 2007).

Alternative solution

Naturally, making changes at the hospital and making employees at the hospital accept the idea of having vehicles (or robots) is a labor-intensive efforts. This is because the project is going to replace those tasks which were performed by humans; it goes against human nature. Therefore, the management at the hospital should consider educating its employees so that it can prepare the employees to accept the new changes brought at the hospital.

Evaluation of alternatives

In order for the project to be successful there must be a one-to-one contact between those implementing the project and the staff at the hospital. The I & E approach will help the hospital to accept the project, thus help increase the participations of staff at the hospital. Information about the project will be successfully transmitted to staff at the hospital by trusted staffs of the hospital. Participation will increase if some of the staffs are employed as I & E specialists (Ouma, 2008).

Recommendation

In order for the potential of ATS (Automated Transport System) to be realized, there must be an increase in sensitization (public awareness) of the project and this can be done through educating people (Ouma, 2008).

Secondly, similar projects should be implemented in other health facilities since it has the potential of reducing cost and time as seen at the hospital. Lastly, the hospital should be encouraged to seek financial support that will help them to mitigate risks as a result of project like ATS (Automated Transport System) at the hospital (Wedemeyer, 2011).

Possible result and obstacles to implementation

One result of this system is that it has a well structured Security Model will give organizations a way to study, implement and maintain network security that can be used in the organization network. In an organization, Security Model can be used to ensure that the organization does not miss any important security details when a network is designed (Wedemeyer, 2011).

Existing network Security Model will be used to develop lifecycles for the security and maintenance schedules of the existing network. In other words, Security Model will be used to detect where breaches has occurred in the organization network so that the organization can mitigate the attack. This means that “mistake-proof” software will not allow the system to be hacked on.

Another advantage of this technology is that it has improved communication and saves time at the hospital. The time spends in the movement to take drugs or checking on the patients has been reduced since the doctor is able to monitor his/her patient remotely.

The barriers of the project are as follows: the ATS project has changed the traditional way of transportation in the hospital to a full intelligent and automated transportation network. The main problem of this project is not technological limits, but conceptual, cultural, emotional, social, economical and political hurdles.

The barriers and inhibitions that are preventing innovative ground for the system are very complex, and this includes employees at the hospital who may be afraid of losing their jobs. Another barrier involves the initial cost of implementing this project which is expensive for the hospital (Wedemeyer, 2011).

Conclusion

This project shows that robots are suitable to be used as a delivery mechanism in hospitals. The success of this project is due to the fact that there was adequate training and acceptance of the project by the hospital staff. As with automation project in health facilities, management issues should be given a priority at the time of the implementation of the project so that the benefit of the project is realized.

References

Gomersall, A. (2003). Robotics: an international bibliography with abstracts. New York: IFS Publisher.

Kachroo, P. (2007). Mobile robots XI and automated vehicle control systems: 20-21 November, 1996, Boston, Massachusetts. New York: SPIE Publisher.

Ouma, S. (2008). Assessing Technology for Rural Hospitals. New York: Tshwane University of Technology

Wedemeyer, D. (2011). Pacific Telecommunications Conference: papers and proceedings of a conference held January 12-14, 1981, at the Ilikai Hotel, Honolulu, Hawaii. Cornell University: Pacific Telecommunications Council.

Military robots are devices that are operated remotely in the battlefield. The 20th Century gave rise to this technological advancement that changed the face of the society. Discovery of Robotics is one of the new things that came into being. They have been used in warfare whereby unmanned robots are used to fight the enemy. This has brought about both ethical and logistical issues despite the fact that this innovation has been of great help in military campaigns.

Strategies and tactics used by these robots in warfare have brought “revolutions in military affairs” because of the advantage they give those using them (Singer, 181). The military budget has risen over the years to fund more unmanned robots over the enemy territories and to fight war against terrorism.

Terrorism has led to rise of robot technology and is equated as the answer to suicide bombing (Singer, 61). Use of Robots in war has lead to speculations on whether human beings will be replaced by these machines in military operations. Humans who will monitor and control robots in war will find it difficult keeping pace with them because they are fast, complex, numerous and small hence will reduce the level of performance by human beings (Singer, 126).

The military advancement in the use of robots in warfare will at long last essentially drastically reduce the role of human beings in war. Use of this technology will affect the traditional role of the soldier by limiting interactions between soldiers and cohesion in military units. It will therefore be difficult to establish and develop psychological and emotional bonds. The army generals who normally have control of soldiers in the battlefield will see their command limited (Singer, 348-352).

Despite not being on the battle field, the operators of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) live a double life. At the end of the day they retire home to their families but they also experience the same emotional and psychological effect like the pilots who are in the battleground and work the same number of hours protecting their compatriots in the battlefields.

The grueling hours are tiring and stressful because they are required to save lives and they take responsibility incase anything goes wrong. The use of high resolution cameras by these UAV pilots bring to them intricate details of their targets while remotely attacking enemies. These images are grimly and affect most of them. Some have even developed Post Traumatic Disorder.

Even though not being physically on the battleground reduces cost and risk of losing life, this disassociation in effect removes the ideals in which war is founded on since time immemorial – Direct combat. The perfection of the art of war by the use of robots brought the terminology to a whole new meaning as it is viewed by singer.

Singer suggests that in the process of opting for war in the resolution of conflicts, many soldiers die and causes unnecessary damage (Singer, 312). This view elaborates the psychological and demoralizing effect robots can have on the enemy. It is demoralizing to a soldier who is on the battlefield to be injured or killed by a remotely controlled object.

The use of robots in warfare can inevitably portray a country as cowardly and weak because it does want to involve itself in direct combat with the enemy. The increased use of robots in the battlefield needs countries to amend the international law. The international community should make a decision on whether to outlaw them or accept them as necessary evil.

Unfortunately, it will only take a catastrophe to force the international community to act. This delay would end up having serious consequences when it comes to making a decision on how to deal with the highly sophisticated robots in war.

Work Cited

Singer, P.W. Wired for War. London: Penguin Books. 2009. Print

Introduction

As the world continues to experience natural and artificial disasters of enormous scales rescue robots are increasingly becoming an essential part of search and rescue efforts. A case in point being the September 11 terrorist attack in New York where rescue robots were very instrumental in searching for survivors and victims (Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence, 2011, 1). In such complex rescue missions, rescue robots aid human rescuers through providing them with real-time intelligence on the situation as it is in places where it is impossible and potentially dangerous for the human rescuers to traverse (Scheiber, 2003, 12). The intelligence provided by the rescue robots is critical in devising and planning successful rescue efforts.

Another benefit of rescue robots is that they reduce significantly the personnel needed to carry out a rescue mission and therefore reducing the overall cost of the exercise. Another benefit of rescue robots is that they enable human rescuers to avoid unnecessary work that will otherwise cause fatigue, which eventually slows down the rescue operation. Rescue missions that mostly necessitate the need for rescue robots are those that arise from mining accidents, urban disasters, explosions, and hostage situations. Roboticists in the physical design of rescue robots ensure that the robots can traverse places that are physically unreachable to human rescuers and additionally equip them with a variety of distributed technology that enable them to gather the desired intelligence and transmit it to the rescue command station where the human rescuers and rescue efforts are coordinated.

Discussion

The head part of the rescue robot is designed to comprise a number of features, namely, two cameras, two motion sensors, two heat sensors, LED lights, and antenna. The two cameras are for providing real-time video footage of the places that the robot is traversing. The video footage is viewed and analyzed by the human rescuers so that they can safely and speedily implement a rescue operation. They are a lot of dynamics at play that dictate how to undertake rescue missions, video footage is essential in ensuring that all these dynamics are taken into account. The 2 motion sensors will be used to detect motion in the immediate surroundings of the rescue robots. In search and rescue missions motion can be an indicator of a number of things which can alter the direction and speed of the rescue mission. Motion can indicate life (e.g. the presence of a survivor) or danger (e.g. further crumbling of debris), which changes the priorities of the rescue mission.

The 2 heat sensors are technologies employed to detect heat in the immediate surroundings of the rescue robot. As with motion, the presence of heat in the surroundings of a rescue robot can be an indicator of life or danger, which again has the potential to change the priorities of the rescue mission. The LED lights fixed on the head of the rescue robot both at the back and front are a source of light. Typically rescue efforts are done in the dark since when disasters strike power is cut off and in some cases turning it back on might be dangerous. The two cameras above need lighting so that whatever they capture is visible to the human rescuers. Taking these factors into account the LED lights are the suitable source of lighting for the rescue robot. The antenna is another vital component of the head of the rescue robot. The antenna facilitates the transmission of the intelligence gathered by the rescue robot. This intelligence is embodied on video, motion and heat data gathered by the robot on the surroundings on which it traverses.

For mobility (walking) the rescue robot uses ASIMO (Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility) technology. The ASIMO technology is fully embodied in the ASIMO humanoid robot, which is a creation of the Japanese company, Honda. ASIMO is designed to be people-friendly and in addition, its size allows it to freely operate in environments where humans are present (Honda Motor Co., 2011, 1). ASIMO is designed to walk as well as run at an estimated speed of up to 6 Km/h, which is equivalent to 3 mph. This implies that the rescue robot will be able to walk and if needed run at humanly set speeds. ASIMO can walk continuously and change directions at the same time and in addition to these respond with great stability to sudden movements. To achieve this, ASIMO uses i-Walk technology which has two underlying control concepts, the first is floor reaction control and the second is zero moment control (Honda Motor Co., 2011, 2). These same characteristics are going to be reflected in the rescue robot since the same technology and concepts are going to be used in its creation. Figure 1 shows a picture of ASIMO.

Conclusion

The technology used in creating the rescue robot enables it to carry out its function well, which is aiding human rescuers in search and rescue missions. The rescue robot is able to gather different data and transmit it to the control center, which as discussed above is critical in devising and planning rescue operations. The ASIMO technology used in the robot enables it to have flexible and advanced mobility, which is essential in helping it carry out its work. It is important that as technology advances the rescue robot is continuously improved so as to maintain and ensure high levels of efficiency.

Reference List

Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence. (2011). In the aftermath of September 11 what roboticists learned from the search and rescue efforts. Web.

Honda Motor Co. (2011). Design concept technology. Web.

Honda Motor Co. (2011). Walking technology. Web.

Scheiber, D. (2003) Robots to the rescue. St. Petersburg Times. Web.

Introduction

For the past several decades, humanity has drastically boosted the development of technologies. One of the newest inventions is robotic process automation (RPA), a technology that is based on robots and AI, which gradually replace people and do repetitive work for them. The tax system is not an exception: big companies such as Deloitte, PwC, EY, and KPMG integrate these innovations into their businesses. Robotics in the tax system is a highly rational, reasonable, and beneficial idea that will help improve the service and make any process more accessible.

Processes Robotics Can Do for Taxing

The first operation robotics can do for tax is to automate repetitive tasks. Many processes consume a tremendous amount of time for the workers, do not require any creativity, and can be automized for the work to be more productive. This will allow employees to focus on more intellectual problems and chores (Joshi, 2020). The second operation that can be implemented with robotics is to extract key data from tax documents. AI can range documents and extract valuable and fundamental data from them (Joshi, 2020). The third process robotics can do is identify tax evasion. Its absence may expose big organizations to danger and hold a county’s development in some instances. Fourthly, AI can scan tax reports for people who travel and need to record their current location to pay taxes properly. It is complicated and time-consuming; however, AI would manage to do such a job perfectly. Finally, RPA can make predictions and forecasts by collecting the previous data and analyzing it. Its algorithms could forecast tax burdens and detect sales trends accurately (Joshi, 2020). Thus, integrating robotics into the tax system will improve the service and help any company.

RPA in Companies

Deloitte, a multinational professional network company, has already deployed robotics in equivalents of the work of 100 people (Deloitte, 2022). Due to implementing RPA, the company uses software that helps it perform repetitive, inclined-to-error, rules-based, and time-critical tasks in working with its clients and supporting its internal processes. The company states that “we have found it useful to consider robotics (and related cognitive tools) in terms of what they can do for a business” (Deloitte, 2022, para 4). The company can perform tax processes faster, its throughput is more accurate now, and employees can concentrate on more crucial tasks (Deloitte Belgium, 2017). Thus, this innovation benefited the company and made small but fundamental processes more convenient, and due to its fast and accessible services, it received 3 points.

PwC is a company of problem-solvers who combine their work with human creativity and the newest technologies to receive the best outcome. It has integrated into its work RPA to boost its productivity. According to PwC (2022), “the company reduced the time spent on the process of taxing from 200 hours to 20 hours” (PwC, 2022, para. 2). Some part of the employees was replaced by AI, which works faster and more efficiently. PwC aims to automate as many processes as it can. Due to implementing RPA, PwC can perform repetitive tasks and analytics ten times faster, and the company made its services as convenient as possible for its clients. The company benefited from the innovation only in reducing the process’s time, which is why it is evaluated in 2 points.

Ernst & Young Global Limited (EY) invested considerable time, resources, and effort into developing new software. The company states that RPA is like a virtual human that will bring value and benefit people’s lives and prepare unnecessary tasks instead of them (EY, 2022). It aimed to make taxation as clear as possible, which is why it developed RPA that helps its customers and brings value to the company. It created “a robot, which sits on the user’s screen” and can follow their steps and adjust to them (UiPath, 2019). EY uses new technology to collect data and assist customers, making the work more productive and efficient. Thus, it was a rational idea to integrate such an electronic assistant for customers that now makes all the processes of taxation more accessible. This company is evaluated in 4 points due to the convenience of using its cutting-edge technology.

Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler (KPMG), by implementing RPA, made its taxing processes faster, more efficient, and more accurate. The technology appeared to be time-saving for this company, leading to new opportunities. All predictable work in this company is replaced with technology (KPMG, 2022). However, KPMG is concerned that replacing many human jobs with robotics will lead to a high level of unemployment in Japan. That is why the company is careful with implementing RPA fully. It did not make drastic changes in its process of working using RPA due to its worries about the further economic situation in the country; for this reason, KPMG has received 1 point.

Recommendation

Based on the current research, the top robotics firm is EY due to its cutting-edge innovation of developing an AI that constantly assists users. The company achieved success and has already “reached 100,000 attended bots and 2,000 unattended bots installed globally” (UiPath, 2019). The technology has improved the company’s working processes and already helps its customers. EY has saved time and money due to implementing RPA and achieved a higher level of efficiency and productivity. Furthermore, the best RPA software to use in taxing is UiPath which cooperates with EY due to its effectiveness, level of trust, and success in its work. In terms of software, there are currently four options available from these companies, which are E-file Bot, Tax Adjustment Loader, Tax Portal & Smartview, and Form 8805 (Deloitte US, 2017a; Deloitte US, 2017b; Deloitte US, 2017c). Out of these, I would select the E-file bot because it is essential software that helps automate the process of loading tax-related documentation, storing, and reviewing it for further use. Hence, this software would be used the most frequently.

Conclusion

In conclusion, robotics in the tax system is a highly rational, reasonable, and beneficial idea that will help improve the service and make any process more accessible. It makes work more time-saving and productive, replacing humans with repetitive tasks. Replaced workers can

focus on more creative and intellectual work that AI cannot prepare. Implementing it rationally will bring value to every person and change the economy worldwide.

References

Deloitte US. (2017a). E-file bot [Youtube]. Web.

Deloitte US. (2017b). Tax adjustment loader [Youtube]. Web.

Deloitte US. (2017c). Tax Portal and Smartview[Youtube]. Web.

Deloitte. (2022). “Robotic process automation” Web.

Deloitte Belgium. (2017). Deloitte robotic process automation services. Web.

EY. (2022). “Robotic process automation (RPA)” Web.

Joshi, N. (2020). “How AI and robotics can change taxation.” Forbes. Web.

KPMG. (2022). “Robotic process automation (RPA)” Web.

PwC. (2022). “Creating the tax function of the future: efficient, automated and agile” Web.

UiPath. (2019). “Efficiency without limits: UiPath and EY’s ambitious RPA implementation.” Web.