Category: Rhetoric

This persuasive and rather emotional speech was delivered by sixteen-year-old Greta Thunberg, a Swedish environmental and climate activist. She is famous worldwide for calling on leaders and governments to begin taking sufficient steps to fight against climate change. This speech was given on 23 September 2019 at the United Nations Climate Action Summit in New York.

As it seems from her words, Gretas purpose was to accuse the older generations of failing the younger ones and stealing their childhood with their empty phrases (Greta Thunbergs Full Speech). What is more, she was there to make young people understand the whole horror of the situation and let them know that now it is only their task to solve the problem.

Gretas speech is a good example of adding power to words by utilizing literary strategies, including the rhetorical triangle. First, she uses logos by providing specific facts, numbers, and statistics to support her claim. For example, Thunberg notes that the popular idea of cutting our emissions in half in ten years only gives us a 50% chance of staying below 1.5 degrees, which is concrete and reliable information (Greta Thunbergs Full Speech 00:02:18-00:02:27).

Second, Greta uses pathos by making the speech quite emotional and blaming the older generations representatives for their kids and grandchildrens current and future sufferings (Greta Thunbergs Full Speech). What is more, by saying, we are in the beginning of a mass extinction, and all you can talk about is money and fairy tales of eternal economic growth, Greta also uses pathos to awaken guilt in listeners (Greta Thunbergs Full Speech 00:01:11-00:01:21). As for ethos, it appears once in the speech. After providing statistics, the speaker refers to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Greta Thunbergs Full Speech).

Another rhetorical tool efficiently used by Greta is repetition. Throughout her speech, there are four times when Thunberg repeats, How dare you! while appealing to the world leaders (Greta Thunbergs Full Speech). Such an emotional phrase said by a girl to influential people may sound rude, but it actually draws listeners attention to the level of anger of the younger generations.

It is fair to admit that this speech is quite effective because of the emotions embedded in it, as well as the proper usage of several rhetorical tools. Gretas words are filled with evidence, statistics, and proofs that cannot leave the speech inefficient and listeners indifferent, so the actions to solve the problem are likely to begin.

Work Cited

Greta Thunbergs Full Speech to World Leaders at the UN Climate Action Summit. YouTube, uploaded by PBS NewsHour. 2019. Web.

More often, people are faced with situations where they are supposed to convince others not only to listen to their ideas, but also to agree with them that what they are presenting is worthy believing in. Rhetoric, which is defined as an element of persuasion through language and a key component of philosophy, was popularized by sophists in the 5^th century.

Plato (a stuent of Socrates) argued that getting the truth was more important than presenting it. Gorgias, when interviewed by Socrates, defines rhetoric as the art of persuasion to win debates and continues to say that it is used to persuade multitudes on what is just and unjust. In his conversation with Gorgias, Socrates defines rhetoric as the art of persuasion that makes people believe in a given opinion but does not provide means of how people can comprehend the same opinion (Austin 485).

According to Plato, philosophy focuses on imparting knowledge to the audience while rhetoric focuses on gaining peoples belief instead of educating them. Those who misuse rhetoric should be held responsible for their actions, as put in Gorgias words: For he was intended by his teacher to make good use of his instructions, but he abuses them. And therefore he is the person who ought to be held in detestation, banished, and put to death, and not his instructor (Austin 486). However Plato does not agree with Gorgias and says that just like him (Plato) had immense experiences where discussions did not conclude in a mutual agreement, theirs had gone the same path. The reason for this according to Plato is Gorgias contradiction of his earlier word that everybody, including rhetoricians, should be criticized whenever they mislead people into believing anything that is a contradiction of the truth. He says, For I imagine that there is no evil which a man can endure so great as an erroneous opinion about the matters of which we are speaking: and if you claim to be one of my sort, let us have the discussion out& (Austin 487). This disagreement results from the fact that Plato believed in truth always and not only when it gives you an upper hand against your opponent.

According to Aristotle, current explanations about rhetoric are wanted in terms of constituents of the art and most theorists have chosen to dwell on some unnecessary issues. He continues to say, These writers, however, say nothing about enthymemes, which are the substance of rhetoric persuasion, but deal mainly with non-essentials (Austin 490). Aristotle criticizes the writers by saying further, The only question which these writers here deal with is how to put the judge into a given frame of mind. About the orators proper modes of persuasion they have nothing to tell us; nothing, that is, about how to gain skill in enthymemes (Austin 491).

According to Aristotle therefore, Platos perspective to the argument is not comprehensive and tends to focus on a small section of the subject and applies it in interpreting the entire subject. Aristotles position is that Plato focuses on how rhetoric could be misused to achieve selfish interest and forgets the fact that it could also be used to emphasize the truth and just. Rhetoric is less likely to be misused since most people who use it are applying it for important issues that affect their own lives. Aristotle enumerates importance of rhetoric which includes: its application to ensure truth and justice prevails in courts, convincing people to whom instructions may not be effective, its use by people to defend their opinions with use of speech and its help in demonstrating what is right and what is wrong. Rhetorics success depends on the ability of the speaker to reason logically, evoke the emotions of the audience and convince the audience about his or her credibility (Austin 493).

Aristotles arguments are more consistent than those of Plato. He begins his argument with a common principle and gives real situations as examples to back up his argument. Under his perspective, triple classifications of persuasive appeal are revealed. These are pathos, logos and ethos which are emotional appeal, appeal to logic and appeal on the basis of speakers character respectively (Austin 489). The style in which an argument is presented, the method of communication and the audience which is being addressed highly determines what will be considered relevant and what will be discarded. He emphasizes that in real situation it is always easy to prove the truth and not even rhetoric can make lies to be true.

According to Aristotle, citizens are usually concerned with politics than forensic oratory. As a result, politicians are most often keen to talk about essentials because their target i.e. the voter will make a choice on the basis of their interests. Politicians therefore do not have to prove anything as long as what they are saying is relevant to voters interests. The case in forensic oratory is different because the speaker needs to appease the listener. The judge in this case has a duty of deciding affairs of other people. Speakers in forensic oratory therefore have to stick to provable aspects of the subject (Austin 491).

Plato, on the other hand, did not believe that sophists cared about the truth of the logic they were presenting, but rather on how to convince their audience. It was Platos argument that philosophy, which rhetoric was inevitably a component, was based on use of reason and logic in building up an argument when defending a theory. He argues that the sophists rhetoric was concerned more with the methodology of presentation than the content of what was being presented (Griswold par 4). Plato agrees with Aristotle that rhetoric is important though it needs to be redefined so as to concentrate on substance first before mode of delivery of the proofs, but disputes that rhetoric can exist independent of dialect. The sentencing to death of Platos teacher, Socrates, due to the influence of sophists, is a catalyst for the negativity that Plato has towards rhetoric. In Socrates dialogue with Gorgias, Plato makes Gorgias agree that rhetoricians are concerned more about discourse. He says, am glad to hear it: answer me in like manner about rhetoric: with what is rhetoric concerned? and Gorgas answers: with discourse. This is evidence that Plato believes that Socrates was using rhetoric for selfish interests and not for the benefit of society.

On the other hand, Aristotles views as presented by Austin and Griswold are the same and both stress the fact that ethos, logos and pathos are vital for effectiveness of rhetoric. He places emphasis on both deductive and inductive reasoning in the article but focuses mainly on deductive reasoning only in the text book. On both literatures, Aristotle depicts that politics is one aspect in which rhetoric is a very important factor that determines its success.

Though Plato was right that some people may use rhetoric to put forward proofs that lack empirical evidence by persuading their audience through good and well organized speeches, it is worthless if one can have a fact but lack the language of convincing others about it. Rhetoric has been used positively in speeches and various situations to make people understand why the facts or theories being presented are true without misleading the audience, as Plato would want us to believe. Platos idea is also founded on the hatred he had towards the sponsors of the rhetoric idea, sophists, for having contributed to the sentencing of his teacher and, therefore, he lacks objectivity.

All this leads to the agreement that Aristotles argument is correct, since in all sectors of politics and economics one cannot disintegrate rhetoric from dialect. Given that dialect is major in determination of how research is conducted, and the common agreement between Aristotle and Plato that rhetoric and dialect are inseparable, then what can be done is to ensure fair presentation (Austin 491). For people to agree with ones point, they need to be fully convinced that the researcher can coherently defend his/her proof with facts, and this can only be done both in speech or written argument and not by merely providing the facts.

It is difficult to argue ones point without persuading ones audience to think in the same way as the presenter of the point. Aristotles idea of logos, ethos and pathos usually find their way into everyday arguments by different people, where the orators are in many instances faced with the challenge of ensuring they do not disgust their audience (Austin 492). Many of the social issues that face the world mostly require that people are persuaded to reason in a way that will bring consensus rather than widening the rift, even if it means providing probabilities as opposed to possibilities which Plato would prefer. Aristotle is, therefore, much more correct in his arguments as compared to Plato, his teacher.

In Austins Reading The World, Plato uses the conversation between Socrates and Gorgias, who represent the sophists, to depict that rhetoric does not emphasize on the origin of the facts but rather on the mode of delivery. Plato believes that rhetoric can easily be misused by evil minded people to gain favor from the public, while in real sense, the evidence they are presenting may not be true per se.

In day to day operations, it has been hard to separate rhetoric from being applied, mostly when people are addressing given audiences in various situations. In most instances, the orators will study their audiences before choosing how or what style to use in order to catch their attention. In his famous speech, I Have a Dream, Martin Luther King Jr. uses pathos in building up his speech. He starts by reminding the audience of what their forefathers wanted, and then depicts how that has not been given space to prevail. King evokes the emotions of the audience by highlighting how they have suffered because of the segregation, and how their children will suffer even more if they do not act.

He constructs his argument by involving the audience in reasoning together with him that what they were asking for was their right, the right which every American should have. In an application of logos King tells his audience: When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the constitution and the declaration of independency, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men would be guaranteed the inalienable rights of life, liberty and pursuit of happiness (Mis 16). This means that King is persuading his supporters by referring to history. He initiates thought by enabling them to think about the motivation of the law which was intended to safeguard citizens rights. By using this strategy, he educates supporters and non supporters that American fore fathers wanted a country where everyone as long as was American was to have his rights respected not only by the constitution but also in actions towards him. Such education was important because for King and his movement to make any meaningful change, the support of whites, was mandatory. This is what Aristotle would have referred to as appeal to logic and reasoning according to Aristotle.

King being a black himself uses that as a weapon to win his audience to agree with his moves of non violent revolutions. What he is presenting is not necessarily possible but he is able to persuade his audience that they can do it if they work together. By referring to history, he is trying to capture the trust of his supporters that his intention for citizens and the country in general are as good as to those who came before him. Remember, King was black and the country had not had another one like him before. He is basically trying to seal those loopholes where mistrust can enter his supporters because of his black origin. He also wants his supporters to believe in him. This is an example of how well rhetoric can be applied in real life.

His use of imagery to persuade is excellent. In his speech, he uses the bank of justice to refer to American judiciary. He observes that the bank was giving Negros an invalid check. This creates a picture in the mind of supporters that the government was willingly denying them their right. This points a finger at the divisive governance of America at that time. He appeals to his supporters emotions by declaring that they were not going to agree to such a raw deal from the government. King was very tactful and persuades his supporters to stay away from committing crime. He emphasizes that they should not be accused of wrongful doing in their pursuit of justice. He appeals to his supporters to demonstrate peacefully.

As he concludes his speech, he knew that his supporters really needed hope and assurance that something was going to change for the better. This is because a majority of them had gone through tribulations in the hands of the police and dissatisfied whites. He rhetorically calls for freedom to ring in various states of America like New Hampshire, New York etc (Mis 81).

In conclusion Aristotles perspective to rhetoric is more practical and logical than the argument put across by his teacher, Plato. He is able to give a two sided opinion of the subject and acknowledges that rhetoric is not always used for the wrong reasons (Ranney 113). He notes that rhetoric can be used to persuade people to make right decisions and actions, which most often is the case.

Works Cited

Austin, Michael. Reading the World: Ideas that Matter. New York: W.W. Norton and Company Limited, 2010.Print.

Griswold, Charles L. Plato on Rhetoric and Poetry. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edition). Ed. Edward N. Zalta. 2012. Web.

Mis, Melody S. Meet Martin Luther King Junior. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2008. Print.

Ranney, Frances J. Aristotles Ethics and Legal Rhetoric. Farnham: Ashgate publishing Ltd, 2005. Print.

Williams, James Dale. An Introduction to Classical Rhetoric: Essential Readings. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons, 2009. Print.

Author

In this work, I am going to analyze Confessions of a Female Chauvinist Sow, written by Anne Roiphe. Anne Roiphe is an American feminist author, and her work is noteworthy for its examination of the conflict between the desire for family and relationships and that for career and self-determination. This writer grew up in a real Jewish family with its rules and restrictions. Her father was an alcoholic and a kind of womanizer. Her mother had nothing to do but accept this, be ready to complete all the chores, and be abused. Anne Roiphe wanted to be a writer from her childhood, be a good mother and wife, and take into consideration all cultural norms and traditions. However, her first husband turned out to be like her own father. I once was married a man I thought was totally unlike my father, and I imagined a whole new world of freedom emerging. (Roiphe, 1982).

Audience

The main readers of Roiphes work are mainly women. Anne tries to convince her readers that women must put faith in the idea that they are equal to men, not superior. Women who want equality must be prepared to give it and believe in it. Personal anecdotes, contrast, and comparison are techniques Roiphe skillfully uses to create a strong, convincing essay. It is quite possible that ladies of different ages may use this work and learn something from it. Teenagers can see how the relations between parents may considerably influence the future of their child. Grown-ups may find out something similar to their own situations and follow the ideas Anne suggests in her work.

Text

Roiphe begins her essay with a personal anecdote describing the horrifying realization that she married a man exactly like her father. This technique immediately establishes the essay as informal and personal. It is a great way to capture the readers interest. This particular anecdote is also used as background information for the first point Roiphe makes in the following paragraph  that & people& have at one time or another been fouled up by their childhood experiences. (Roiphe, 1982) Another anecdote in the essay explains how Roiphes mother used to give Roiphe mad money before going on dates. My mother and I knew young men were apt to drink too much& mad money was for getting home on your own, no matter what form of insanity your date happened to evidence. (Roiphe, 1982). Such anecdotes are entertaining and tend to describe the mood of the essay. This essay may also help the readers to relate all events to their personal experiences. Another function of anecdotes in this essay is to substantiate and support main ideas. At the end of one paragraph, Roiphe states, The hidden anti-male feelings, a result of the old system, will foul us up if they are allowed to persist. (Roiphe, 1982) This is directly followed by the anecdote explaining the necessity for mad money  that men are untrustworthy, inconsiderate beasts. The anecdote clearly provides evidence and support for the fact that women have anti-male feelings.

Exigence

Shortly after capturing the readers interest with the introductory anecdote, Roiphe begins using contrast. The numerous examples of contrast throughout the essay portray men and women as being drastically different, especially morally. Boys are thought to be incapable of engaging in easy companionship as girls are able to do, and men are generally believed to be less moral like lots of women are. Everyone assumes a mother will not let her child starve, yet, it is necessary to legislate that a father must not do so. (Roiphe, 1982). Roiphe uses contrast to illustrate the common anti-male attitudes women have, and in doing so, makes it obvious that women feel superior over men. This exactly, Roiphe points out, is the barrier to equality between men and women. It is clear to the reader that equality between the sexes will never exist as long as women continue to feel superior to men. The contrasts also function to support points Roiphe makes later concerning the similarities between men and women.

About midway through the essay, Roiphe makes a transition from the contrast to comparison. She begins focusing on the idea that women are actually quite similar to men. She bluntly states that intellectually I know thats ridiculous to assume that women given power would not create wars. She admits that aggression is not& a male-sex-linked characteristic. (Roiphe, 1982).

Comparisons like these smoothly lead Roiphe into making one of her strongest comparisons. Us laughing at them, us feeling superior to them, us ridiculing them behind their backs is inescapably female chauvinist sowness. (Roiphe, 1982). Such comparisons, particularly the last one, are shocking and cause the reader to reflect on previous ideas in the essay. What they have done to us, and of course they have, and they did and they are  this is one of Roiphes statements, which momentarily make readers believe that men are mainly to blame for the inequality between the sexes. However, through effective comparison, Roiphe leads her readers to infer that women must also be responsible for the inequality between men and women. It then becomes clear to the reader that the secret sense of superiority women feel is what makes them equally as chauvinistic as men.

Constraints

The thing that is more important than the functions of the techniques she uses independently is how Roiphe uses them together. For example, she bluntly states in her essay that women are female chauvinist sows, without preceding it with contrast; a quite different effect would have been created. Her readers, particularly the women, would have undoubtedly been offended. This approach would certainly have prevented the essay from being convincing. It is obvious that Roiphe purposely used the techniques in a planned way. This allowed her to create a specifically designed essay that turned out to be beneficial and helped the writer present her ideas comprehensibly.

Timing

One of the most peculiar features of this essay is its timing limitations. We cannot say for sure what concrete time will be appropriate for a clear understanding of the message. It was written in 1982, the time when people could not protect their rights completely and had to fight for personal desires and dreams against the existed moral norms. Of course, nowadays, women have much more rights and can easily decide what they should and should not do, whom they can live, and who will be the father of their future children. The work by Anne Roiphe underlines the problems which women had some time ago. Lots of Jewish women still face the same troubles, and Anne says one simple truth that should inspire any woman hard as it is for many of us to believe, women are not really superior to men in intelligence or humanity  they are only equal. (Roiphe, 1982). Is it possible to say something more? Hardly, if only our society does not decide to degrade and return to the norms, we have already lived.

Introduction

When I was a child, I loved sweets very much. My main goal of getting out of bed was to eat candy, always waiting for me on the table in the kitchen, which my parents carefully left for me every morning. Furthermore, one day, Dad came home with a box of cakes, which he asked me not to eat but to wait for Mom and try them all together. However, I only heard cakes and try. After a few minutes, I finished the penultimate sweet and was very happy. However, after the euphoria passed, I realized I would have problems. Dad was going out to the garage, and I heard his footsteps coming back to my crime scene. Moreover, I could not think of anything better than to blame my dog. Dad listened to me patiently and then took me to the bathroom to wash the cake cream off my face. From that time, I have believed that it is essential to be honest, not be afraid of making mistakes, and learn from them. Furthermore, wiping your mouth with a napkin is necessary after cream cakes.

Importance of Making Mistakes

It is a normal phenomenon that every person makes mistakes in their life. After all, only those who do nothing and do not make decisions on their own never make mistakes. Failures are significant in our lives; they give a person a specific experience that allows them to adjust their actions in the future and take a wiser and more balanced approach to decision-making. It makes people grow as a person. You can learn from other peoples mistakes, but your mistakes are remembered better and allow you to remember once and for all how not to act and what not to do. I am also pleased that I already have the first mistakes. My mistakes suggest that I can make decisions on my own and look for a way out of this situation. Furthermore, a mistake allows you to act more wisely and deliberately next time.

At any age, whether a person is thirty or six, he will approach the committed offense with equal responsibility. However, in each period, the reaction will change accordingly with age. The experience that a person receives throughout his life can be both sad and vice versa, positive. Nevertheless, even the most bitter experience brings new abilities to the personality. Yes, some life cases are tough to bear mentally, but they are worth enduring. But next time, in a similar situation, you will need to remember what happened before and not make such mistakes. Do not be afraid to make a mistake because it will be excruciating to experience what happened. Its better to take a risk and get burned at the beginning than to do it later.

My Recent Lessons

The history of great discoveries knows many examples of when mistakes led to the accumulation of experience and then to a positive result. Failures are always filled with wisdom from which we can learn a lesson. Mistakes are not a dead end; and they are just a door. How people approach their failures and deal with them allows them to grow. Although I do not allow myself to turn a blind eye to them, I do not leave them unnoticed. I do not see the point in dwelling on failures and, even more so, allowing them to shake my self-confidence. It hurts to make mistakes and fall, but if you constantly think about this unpleasant situation, it can have a devastating effect. It is essential to see everything as an opportunity for yourself and to draw motivation for development from failures.

Based on my recent failures, I have learned two lessons for myself. Firstly, it is essential to always adhere to higher standards. Based on my recent failures, I have learned two lessons for myself. It is essential to go beyond the expectations of others and approach tasks in a non-standard way. Our every day is the consequence of the previous elections. All we have now is the result of the decisions we make day in and day out. These decisions will determine the direction of our lives and whether our lives will be meaningful or a waste of time. In addition, the second lesson is that it is crucial to clarify information if I do not know how to complete a particular task. Moreover, if clarification is unavailable, I need to do everything possible that goes beyond the established standard.

Conclusion

Learning something new always goes through mistakes because this is a normal phenomenon. There are two possible outcomes: give up and give up, or gain experience and move on. I sincerely agree with General George S. Patton when he said, I measure a persons success not by how high he rises, but by how high he jumps when he reaches the bottom (Daniel, 2020). Learn from mistakes, be honest and eat sweets!

Reference

Daniel, J. F. (2020). Patton: Battling with history. University of Missouri Press.

Alan Moores comic book Watchmen was a phenomenal breakthrough in the production of the comic. It was unexpected but a negative story about superheroes who, at the same time, reject the typical superhero canons and touch readers hearts. Many critics rightly consider Watchmen as an independent graphic novel, not a full-fledged comic strip in the ordinary sense. Despite conflicting reviews from critics, sales and enduring interest in the story show that the author has managed to reach strong emotions in readers. It is primarily due to stylistic features and the artistic work of Dave Gibbons, who managed to convey in colors the atmosphere of a city mired in crime.

The authors worked hard on the cover and character design so that every detail, whenever possible, depicts a particular symbol. Even then, the surface with the inscription on the left stood out from some other comic book covers for teens and young people. Still, many years after the comics release in 1986, many literary critics and cultural analysts agree that the stylistic features of the novel have had a significant impact on most peoples perception of it. Nowadays, critics highlight specific gothic elements, emphasized in artistic performance by Dave Gibbons, when considering Alan Moores writing style and the rhetorical symbols of the Watchmen. In addition, critics have repeatedly noted the unique style of the remarks of Doctor Manhattan, Rorschach, descriptions of the day-to-day urban life, and its ethics.

Gothic Elements

Without going directly to the main characters and their cues, it is crucial to note the general atmosphere of the comic that envelops each story. A notable feature is the negative urban space saturated with dark colors. Such a stylistic move strangely hints that superheroes should not save this city; this city did not deserve it. The novel is full of gothic elements in the description of buildings, weather, and the main characters often express a pessimistic attitude towards what is happening (Wu). The reader rightly associates these gothic elements with burden, murder, crime, and, in general, death as a huge existential problem. The reader realizes over time that, immersed in history, thanks to such stylistic constructs, they acquire a melancholic mood.

This gothic atmosphere does not take readers into the fantasy world of superheroes and their magical abilities. Through such descriptions, readers understand that they are left alone with the reality they usually do not make films or write books. The novel is filled with impartial reports of the main characters actions; thus, Watchmen presents an uncomfortable scenario, a too-real reflection (Abad-Santos para 1). It remains a mystery why people needed, important and exciting to read such unpleasant and even vile details. Typically, literature, especially mass literature, is focused on relaxation, spending time, and disconnecting from reality by going into dreams, nostalgia, memories, or other moments that have nothing to do with reality.

However, not everything is so simple, and the psychological aspects of art can tell the readers peculiarities. Indeed, the atmosphere of the described city looks like darkness and total hell, and what is happening in the city is terrifying and reminiscent of bullying, perversion, and sadism. An essential aspect of a famous work of art is associating with the main characters or attracting stories. The complicated plot and descriptions fade into the background, and attractive characters with a fascinating past and exciting motivation appear on the stage. Readers want to associate or compare such heroes with themselves, asking themselves difficult ethical questions. Interesting stylistic constructs are hidden in the speech of these heroes, which makes it possible to understand their true motives and essence.

Doctor Manhattans Personality

Doctor Manhattan is controversial among some but has generally received a one-sided review in his address at one time or another. Critics and viewers unequivocally noted the atmosphere of his remarks, the unusualness of his past. His ethical paradigm took a special place in the audiences hearts (Abad-Santos). In the center of his ethics are the rule of the majority and their happiness.

A Sense of Time

Doctor Manhattan is an unusual person destined to come to this world twice. It was the first time it was expected, but the second time after the experiments, it recreated his body from particles. It reminds readers, perhaps, of how artisans assemble furniture or create other objects. Therefore, Doctor Manhattan was precisely designed in the truest sense of the word. Maybe this explains the unusual perception of time in this superhero.

Alan Moores stylistic feature is non-timeline storytelling; comics are constructed from gluing; no straightforward linear plot logically and stepwise explains what is happening. What happened in the present time is easily intertwined with what happened, for example, 20 years ago. Such rhetorical techniques allow Alan Moore to emotionally and vividly explain the characters motivation, referring to their childhood (recreating explicit scenes) or youth. These scenes raise issues of childhood cruelty, first love, and parenting.

The remarks and statements of Doctor Manhattan are demonstratively devoid of past and present verbs. Usually, people use them in everyday speech; this allows them to quickly express a thought without additional expressions. It is the structure and even the habit of the English language, but Alan Moore breaks it. Doctor Manhattan directly uses nouns those name periods: the future and the past to tell time. In addition, he specifies the date of the event up to a month, Its February, 1960, and everything is frozen. I am starting to accept that I shall never feel cold or warm again. For him, every possibility exists here and now; he remembers it and does not let go of the past. It is also impossible not to notice that such rhetorical techniques make it easier for readers to perceive a complex world. Sometimes, suppose the authors do not deliberately use explanations in the absence of a logical timeline. In that case, it is easy for readers to get confused about which events preceded others. Due to the constant reminder from Doctor Manhattan, readers clearly understand what events preceded the present situations, can trace their influence on the characters.

People can quickly put themselves in their place by understanding the characters motivation and sympathizing with them. Unsurprisingly, in some way, Doctor Manhattan is a powerful fatalist throughout the story. He already knows the past, the present, and the future; as it were, he has a whole picture of what is happening; therefore, he can only state the facts. He does not attach his attitude, hopes, or aspirations to these facts.

Divine Powerlessness

Doctor Manhattan is presented as the most powerful superhero with divine powers. Many critics note this paradox, but possessing such strength, almost not being human, this character shows indifference, fatalism, and apathy (Wu). Doctor Manhattan is constantly skeptical of himself and his powers, even though other superheroes see his skills, fear, and respect. The statements of Doctor Manhattan are filled with regrets; he uses derogatory words concerning people and himself: dolls, puppets, strings. This rhetoric demonstrates that even the most influential people know their helplessness in certain situations. They tend to consider themselves helpless in the face of danger; they are sometimes afraid and do not want to take risks.

Perhaps Doctor Manhattan likes to feel like a puppet for the American government. This kind of pleasure is hidden in the masochistic psyche. Despite his lethargy, in the end, Doctor Manhattan is willing to take risks to save the world from destructive war and the use of nuclear weapons. He attacks pride and honor, realizing that ordinary people, billions of ordinary people, did not deserve a vicious battle. This vital decision shows that in his role as a puppet, Doctor Manhattan is most likely consciously and happily acting by the rules of the game.

Rorschachs Personality

Rorschach grabbed a lot of attention from the comic book audience and got critics to analyze his motivation actively. Cold, cruel, cynical  he was never in love; he did not know mothers love from childhood and lived in an atmosphere of filth. He started fighting early and tried to show strength; he did not fit social norms; in some cases, his essence is similar to Joker. However, Rorschach is deprived of such a bright development as an independent character.

Feral Gut and Cruelty

Alan Moore departs from the sterile superhero model when describing Rorschachs actions. Rorschach pours boiling oil on enemies, bites them, scratches them. It is not a blow from Superman, in which cruelty is expressed as if it is absent, but there is only its surrogate, the lowest part necessary to defeat evil. Rorschach, through his statements, manifests itself as a disgusting and selfish nihilist (Abad-Santos). Rorschach constantly puts himself above the law, above tradition, and established norms. He and the reader have the impression that this is necessary to maintain the unique justice in the world.

Through the fragmentation of Rorschachs lines, Alan Moore deprives him of his humanity. Rorschach, speaking abruptly, is like a beast since he does not use human English, First visit of evening fruitless. Nobody knew anything. Feel slightly depressed. He does not seek to make his speech understandable; he shoots with emotions and the most superficial sensations: frustration, resentment, anger. Nevertheless, some readers rightly believe that Rorschachs cruelty and anger, which is taken out in sadistic and perverse forms, should be perceived not through the prism of aggression but the prism of sympathy. Perhaps this is precisely what Alan Moore sought, creating Rorschach and other characters.

Psychopathy

On the other hand, the fragmentation of Rorschachs lines is not like an animal rudiment of speech but a demonstration of psychopathy. Wu assumes that Rorschachs short, concise train of thought, hardly legible and without pronouns, provides deep insight into the true motives behind his actions (Abad-Santos para 2). Rorschach often manifests himself as a paranoid and sadist at the level of pathology and not at the level of ordinary dirty tricks. He behaves like an unworthy extremist but interests people; he is a pervert whose possible illnesses would fit well into the modern concept of dissocial personality disorder.

That is why his speech is so illogical and abrupt; it catches the eyes of readers who seem to be listening to the address of an unhealthy person. He is drowning in his thoughts and feelings, which revolve in his head like chaos. He tries to think and sputter because he constantly feels in danger and does not trust anyone. Rorschachs speech seemed to be squeezed out of his throat but in no way sounded at his request.

Urban Everyday Life

The distinctive feature of Alan Moores writing was a non-linear story. His story relied on extensive world  building and flashbacks to flesh out its cast as well as the topics that it addressed head-on (Lab para 7). This plot is a bizarre gluing of events broken up in time and space. They are not logically connected between characters but give a complete picture of their motivation and past. This splicing in an exciting way reflects, interspersed with superhero plots, absolutely ordinary city life. There are children, ordinary workers, dirty bums, and criminals in this city life, At the end of each issue are several pages dedicated to extraneous materials (Lab para 8). Robbery, disputes, quarrels also fill the world, saying that superheroes live in just such an everyday world.

Alan Moore, through this technique, debunked the myth of the noble origin of superheroes. In this context, some critics state that the point is not that superheroes can be human, but that humans can be superheroes (Wu para 4). They are not intellectuals, not a higher caste, nor do they live in a world of complex laws and exceptionally lofty problems. Alan Moore competently mixes these plots, not allowing readers to get away from reality but insisting that it is in this reality that Rorschach and Doctor Manhattan arrange their showdowns.

Ethical Issues and Deep Meanings

The above clarifies that they are facing a work of fiction, competently filled with complex ethical problems. These problems can be seen through and through in Rorschachs remarks: cruelty in the name of justice, the uniqueness of the choice of moral norms, revenge, social problems. Wu states, that Throughout its story, Watchmen presents several takes on the morality of murder, the ultimate judgment of death, and its implications in the grand scheme of the world (para 4). In addition, Doctor Manhattan, in his remarks, reveals a number of his ethical issues: fatalism, indifference to the future, the death of a minority for the happiness of the majority, powerlessness before the face of death.

Alan Moore demonstrates the ethical aspects of cruelty and insanity with the help of rhetorical methods of fragmentation of the text. With gluing plots, readers are thrown into the everyday life of a dirty city. They must realize that it is against the background of dust, dirt, and crime that a large-scale superhero war is unfolding, in which there will be victims in the end. The ethical issues raised differ from canon superheroes and speak more of powerlessness and weakness than strength.

Conclusion

Alan Moores writing style has captured the attention of readers for years. In Watchmen, bizarrely, he described an industrial citys interestingly gothic and gloomy atmosphere. Alan Moore filled the Doctor of Manhattan with the most complex ethical constructs through his lines. Rorschach reflects the social and ethical issues of insanity, cruelty, and justice. In addition, in Watchmen, the author contrasts a superhero story with an urban hell of crime, dirt, and routine. It is pertinent to say that it was precise with their complex ethical issues that Watchmen were able to attract the attention of the masses of readers and remain to this day literary classics.

Works Cited

Abad-Santos, Alex. Watchmens Enduring Appeal, Explained. Vox, 2019, Web.

Lab, Jesse. Deep Analysis: Watchmen. Destructoid, 2018, Web.

Wu, Jeffrey. The Greater Good: Analyzing Morality in Watchmen | Writing Program. © 2021 Boston University, 2021, Web.

In his commencement speech presented to the Stanford graduates of 2005, Steve Jobs provides the audience with parallels regarding the college setting and his own education and career path. Rhetorically, the speech is structured in a way that persuades the viewer to respect and trust. Steve Jobs. He is able to establish a reliable relationship with the viewer which, in turn, provides him with credibility. By evoking respect, he effectively presents the audience with an encouragement to choose the profession they love and have passion for. Therefore, the speech is inspiring for college graduates because it successfully incorporates the use of structural devices and rhetorical elements.

The speech is structured in five parts  the introduction, the three stories within the body, and the concluding paragraph. Jobs starts his speech by stating that he is honored to be presenting at the Stanford commencement. In this way, Jobs is paying respect to the audience for being invited. Thus, he creates a trusting relationship with his viewers by respecting them. Heracleous and Klaering (2017) suggest that the opening paragraph helps Jobs establish an affinity with the audience which, in turn, allows them to identify with the admired personality. Therefore, the beginning of the speech is focused on creating a trusting relationship between the speaker and the listener.

Then, Jobs states that he has never graduated from college, which is appropriate in the setting of a university. According to Heracleous and Klaering (2017), here Jobs displays humility which acts as an additional means of identification. Using humor, Jobs accentuates his own story and how the failure to receive a college diploma has not stopped him from achieving great success in the business of technological advancements.

It may be argued that the inclusion of a personal background of not completing college is not appropriate for the particular setting. Jobs highlights that dropping out of university was one of the best decisions of his life. The inclusion of this fact raises the question of the appropriateness of the given information to students who just recently graduated from one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Jobs undermines the importance of receiving a degree, which might not be relevant in the context of a commencement speech. It is unlikely that the fact that Jobs does not consider college diplomas to be useful is what Stanford graduates need to hear at their commencement.

Therefore, after hearing the speech, the audience might start questioning the purpose of their degree. Clearly, they are graduating from a renowned institution and career pathways are wide open to them. Yet, many young adults experience issues of self-identification, especially in terms of their future lives. Learning from Steve Jobs that college is, in fact, not that important might lead to further concerns regarding their chosen career paths. However, the juxtaposition between the speech of a college dropout at a commencement ceremony raises the emotional engagement of the viewer (Heracleous and Klaering, 2017). The created tension between the students and Jobs realities further increases the viewers interest.

The body of the speech consists of the three personal stories which Jobs experienced in the past. The three narrations are given memorable names  a story about connecting the dots, a story about love and loss, and a story about death. All three stories operate on the relationship between the past and the present. By connecting the dots, Jobs encourages graduates to understand that some aspects of the past might prove important in the future (Sarpong et al., 2018). He talks about the doubts that many graduates might have about the relevance of the classes they had taken in college.

The speaker illustrates his own example of studying calligraphy which at the time did not seem to him as a skill that would ever prove useful to him in life. Yet, specifically, this course helped him with designing the fonts for the Macintosh. Mirza (2019) states that many college students are worried about taking courses that might not immediately seem as relevant for their chosen career paths. Therefore, Jobs addresses the anxieties that students commonly experience associated with the usefulness of the classes they had taken, which is specifically important to hear for the graduates.

Furthermore, in terms of exigence, Jobss speech might be a fitting statement in the given circumstances. Jobs reassures his audience that it is impossible to achieve great success without experiencing certain failures. He prepares his listeners to be ready to make mistakes because they form the necessary basis for learning from ones own experience. By highlighting his own ups and downs, Jobs suggests that he, similarly to other people, had obstacles on his path. In this way, Jobs further strengthens his bonds with the audience. Providing specific examples of personal failures, the speaker creates a connection to the audience and, therefore, engages them to carefully listen to and respect him.

Jobs famously states that humans should be passionate about their chosen careers. He encourages college graduates to take on careers that they love following the path of passion. However, Stebleton (2019) argues that finding ones passion and working hard does not mean immediate success. The accomplishment of ones goals might largely depend on such contextual factors as their socioeconomic background or immigrant status (Stebleton, 2019). Therefore, offering career advice in the form of suggesting finding a passion for a specific occupation might not be highly relevant because particular aspects of the individual students are not taken into consideration.

Additionally, the commencement speech can be evaluated in terms of the three rhetorical appeals of persuasion  ethos, pathos, and logos. Jobs convince the audience of his credibility using ethos when displaying his achievements and success, being the co-founder of major worldwide corporations. Similarly, he is credible in his contemplations on death because being a cancer survivor he was once close to experiencing it. The speaker incorporates the appeal to emotions, or pathos, specifically when illustrating his personal background. He evokes in the viewer feelings of sympathy and curiosity (Sakdiset, 2018). Jobs conveys his story of being adopted and being diagnosed with cancer which are two cases of emotionally rich experiences. The final paragraph contains logos, presenting the audience with the logical conclusion to the speech.

Evidently, Jobss speech is successful in persuading his audience to trust and listen to him as he is a figure of admiration for the college graduates. Rhetorically structuring his narration, Jobs is able to engage his listeners and act as a reliable and respected speaker. Highlighting the importance of being doubtful and making mistakes, he actively creates trusting relationships with the audience, which is why they find it easy to be intrigued by his account. Moreover, even though the personal background of never graduating from university might not seem relevant in a college setting, Jobs uses his account to further engage the viewers. Finally, the devices of ethos, pathos, and logos are also used by the speaker as tools of persuasion and producing interest in the viewers.

References

Heracleous, L., & Klaering, L. A. (2017). The circle of life: Rhetoric of identification in Steve Jobs Stanford speech. Journal of Business Research, 79, 3140. Web.

Mirza, Y. Y. (2019). Doubt as an integral part of calling: The Quranic story of Joseph. In D. S. Cunningham (Ed.), Hearing vocation differently: Meaning, purpose, and identity in the multi-faith academy (pp. 93-110). Oxford University Press. Web.

Sakdiset, M. (2018). A neo-Aristotelian critique of the rhetoric used by college dropouts in university commencement addresses. Journal of Southern Technology, 11(2), 211-219. Web.

Sarpong, D., Eyres, E., & Batsakis, G. (2019). Narrating the future: A distentive capability approach to strategic foresight. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 140, 105114. Web.

Stebleton, M. J. (2019). Moving beyond passion: Why do what you love advice for college students needs reexamination. Journal of College and Character, 20(2), 163171. Web.

Songs, as one of the forms of human expression, can be interpreted differently. According to a persons experiences, feelings, current problems, he gets the sense of the song through a lens of personal intussusceptions. The latter cannot be perceived as either good or bad because music, poems, and other creative works tingle through everyones souls differently. People try to analyze pieces of art according to various standards, and this is how they can approximately judge them and share opinions. Generally, we have to admit that various masterpieces became popular not because of these judgments but because of the feelings, the majority of us have towards these works.

However, rhetorical analysis helps people to abstract from subjectivity and try to comprehend the purposes of the song and the manner of the creator. It is also important to separate personal interpretations and involve critical thinking in the evaluation. In this assignment, I want to implement rhetorical analysis to the song Permanent by David Cook and disclose the major aspects brought up in it.

The first time I heard the song was in 2009 in the TV show American Idol. When David was singing it live, everyone in the audience was crying because of the strong emotional message the song had. The prehistory of its creation says that Davids brother, Adam, was sick with brain cancer, and after long struggles with the disease, he died. David sang the song live on the show eighteen days after his brother deceased. However, the lyrics do not straightly point to Davids brother or death which I found the most attractive when choosing a song for analysis. David Cook, in one of the interviews, also states that the lyrics were written in a way that people can take what they want from it. Someone can think about death, the other will associate the song with love, someone else will consider it is about his character and struggles in life.

The author of the song first shared his creating with the audience of the TV show American Idol in 2009. After the episode was released, the song became popular among the young generation, the users of YouTube, the Internet, and television in general. The songs rhetorical objective is to share with the audience what the author felt after losing a close and dear relative. David Cook tries to live through the pain, sorrow, and the feeling of lacking his brother. Thus, we can conclude the author of the song wanted to share with the young generation his pain and loss via this tune.

The strategies the author of the song uses to achieve the goal of transmitting his feelings to the audience are various and will be disclosed below. All the strategies can be gathered in the type of rhetorical device called pathos because David Cook invokes various feelings and emotions in the listener. The songs melody is slow with piano as the leading instrument that plays similar repetitive accords, called in music language a sequence. The minor key united with previously mentioned factors automatically brings a feeling of sorrow and sadness. In the beginning, violin in the background accompanies the piano with long sounds associating with quiet crying.

Gradually the melody and singers voice become louder with the culmination at the words Im permane-e-ent. All the words and phrases are united, they sound linked to each other, and the loudness of the sounds increase smoothly which can be described in music language as legato and crescendo. These technical moments remind the listener of a scream but not full of angry, but a scream full of pain and loss.

The lyrics of the song do not tell a particular story. It is presented to the audience as a conversation with the second person indirectly pointing at his struggles. The open questions prove that which is especially seen in these lines: Will you think that youre all alone / When no ones there to hold your hand? (Em Di 0:42-0:50). The author also uses a rhetorical device called anaphora which is the repetition of certain phrases and sentences.

The beginning of the first verse is also the ending of the song that seems to be remained without an ending, with an open question, with an unsolved problem. This device can be interpreted variously: the loss of a brother might lead to repetitive thoughts to the author of the song, he might say similar phrases trying to talk to the brother. David Cook might also want to leave the opportunity to the audience to come to their conclusions by listening to an open ending. Anaphora is oftentimes used in music, and the initial purposes of it vary depending on the creators intention.

Another anaphora is the phrase Im permanent that goes through all the lyrics and reflects in the songs name. It is more likely that David Cook wants to claim he is forever here for his brother, ready to help, be nearby, and support him despite his decease. Another possible explanation of this repetitive phrase is that authors brother will permanently stay in his heart and mind as not always anaphora has a direct meaning. We can only assume the exact meaning of this phrase to the author and the purpose of its repetitive usage. However, the phrase goes through the song and plays a central role in its lyrics.

The song by David Cook Permanent is mostly organized in the pathos category as it is influencing the emotions and feelings of listeners. The logos category is not central because the author of the song does not use logic to convince the audience in the way he feels. On the contrary, the one who is in pain partly loses logic and talks with feelings, not facts. At the same time, logos does not play a significant role to the listener because he is influenced only by pathos. That is why assessing the song from a logos perspective is hardly manageable. The ethos category is also not meaningful in this emotional song as the authors credibility does not have to be proven to achieve the audiences trust and to convince listeners.

Consequently, pathos is a leading category of the song Permanent and fully defines the perception of a listener. The way the song impacts another person will depend on his current condition, experience, and type of character. Regarding Kairos, it is essential to say that the song raises the topic of pain and loss of someone dear and close, and this theme will remain up to date in any period of time. Peoples feelings and emotions will stay important as long as humanity exists, and the song might always tingle through humans souls in various decades.

Work Cited

Permanent by David Cook (Live from American Idol Grand Finale). YouTube, uploaded by Em Di, 2009. Web.

Representation as Colonial Rhetoric: the image of the Native and the habitant in the formation of colonial identities in early nineteenth-century Lower Canada by Gillian Poulter

The article by Gillian Poulter argues that painting was used by the British and French as a means of creating, developing, and maintaining an identity. The formation of these colonial identities resulted in natives being portrayed as merely historical figures in northern America. Poulter, however, argues that there is no clear indication of a double image being created by art where the natives were portrayed more positively. He states that art was not able to be done without creating a conflict within the art images being done or within the artistic and literary community¹.

Poulter suggests that the years between 1820 and 1850, saw art being used as a breeding ground for common practices that offered a channel of communication for the colonialists. This made it possible for the designing of culture and developing it according to their needs and desires. The colony (natives) could now be molded according to what the colonialists wanted. Poulter further argues that Joseph Legares artistic representations of the natives were purposely a counter of the re-representations of British painter².

There was an attitude to try and preserve the historical picture but for Legare, his main aim was an attempt to preserve the history and culture of particularly the French-Canadians. This was referred to as a counter-narrative. The method and notion behind the representations of the natives and the French-Canadian people greatly contributed to the social construction of the reality that witnessed especially in post-conquest Quebec. Poulter states that this precipitated the creation of the British and French colonial identity³.

The drawing, sketches, or watercolor representations were done in a very different way to depict the different groups (the wealthy and the natives). The images all seemed to codify the position held by the wealthy in the community and that of the natives.

Poulter states that examination of such representations of art shows there is an evident underlying structural pattern that is repetitive. Organizational territorial representation was constantly apparent and was used to depict the inhabitants in oppositional zones of occupation. Professional artists usually published their sketches in lithographic form unaccompanied by text but able to create a narrative. A manipulated form of picturesque painting popularized by William Gilpin was also used especially in creating the contrast between two objects⁴.

This form was based on variety and contrast. Poulter quotes Gilpin as saying that to make an object in a peculiar manner picturesque, there must be a notion of roughness to it. The creation of opposition to the object results in the object becoming simply beautiful. This formed the basis of the representations of the natives as a historical figure so that the French and British colonialist image could be developed.

At first, this was used to show the Canadian landscape which had rocks and broken ground, hovels and shacks, gypsies, and beggars. To most artists, this acted as a primary source of characteristics for their picturesque paintings/work of arts. With time they started applying this contrast in social as well as visual experiences. To explain this well, Emerson commented that the steep contrasts of condition create the picturesque in society⁵.

Molinari and the Science of Color and Line by Robert Welsh

Whilst the article, Representation as a colonial rhetoric: the image of the native and the habitant in the formation of colonial identities in early nineteenth-century Lower Canada by Gillian Poulter talks about art and its social impact on the natives, Robert Welsh in his article, Molinari and the Science of Colour and Line focus on Guido Molinaris form of art. Welshs argument is that Molinaris thirty years of a professional painting generated several underlying paradoxes that fueled and sustained his creativeness⁶.

Welsh affirms that Molinari wholly based his works, ideas, and notions on the art of Piet Mondrian. This created the paradigm that is the progressive spirit in the art world. Mondrians attempt to destroy remnants of three-dimensional space but found cubism and his accurate analysis of locks contribution to the art world played a very vital role in Molinaris further development in art. Welsh argues that Molinari had a sense of indebtedness towards Mondrian.

However, art critics have described Mondrian as a permanent revolt against his own style albeit being among those worthy of mention in the art world. Molinari also falls in this category as he has been inclined from time to time to seek style renewal which started when he came into contact with Mondrian art in 1951⁷.

Welsh unlike Poulter, focuses on the basis and reason for his subjects form of art. He focuses extensively on Mondrian and gives reference to Molinari from time to time. This is done to try and explain how Molinari came about his style of art. Poulter, on the other hand, gives a wider explanation by not focusing entirely on one particular background but offering an explanation for the portrayal of natives from a wide range of sources. Poulter does not focus on a person who used a certain form but rather on the form of art itself. Similarly, both writers are trying to explain the art and the forms of art particularly employed in the early 1800s⁸.

Bibliography

Poulter, Gillian. Representation as Colonial Rhetoric. The image of the Native and the habitant in the formation of colonial identities in early nineteenth-century Lower Canada. Journal of Canadian Art History XVI, no 4 (1994): 10-29.

Welsh, Robert. Molinari and the Science of Colour and Line RACAR V no 1, (1978): 3-20.

Footnotes

1. Gillian, Poulter. Representation as Colonial Rhetoric. The image of the Native and the habitant in the formation of colonial identities in early nineteenth-century Lower Canada. Journal of Canadian Art History XVI, no 4 (1994): 10-29.
2. Gillian, Poulter. Representation as Colonial Rhetoric. The image of the Native and the habitant in the formation of colonial identities in early nineteenth-century Lower Canada. Journal of Canadian Art History XVI, no 4 (1994): 10-29.
3. Gillian, Poulter. Representation as Colonial Rhetoric. The image of the Native and the habitant in the formation of colonial identities in early nineteenth-century Lower Canada. Journal of Canadian Art History XVI, no 4 (1994): 10-29.
4. Gillian, Poulter. Representation as Colonial Rhetoric. The image of the Native and the habitant in the formation of colonial identities in early nineteenth-century Lower Canada. Journal of Canadian Art History XVI, no 4 (1994): 10-29.
5. Robert, Welsh. Molinari and the Science of Color and Line RACAR V no 1, (1978): 3-20.
6. Robert, Welsh. Molinari and the Science of Color and Line RACAR V no 1, (1978): 3-20.
7. Robert, Welsh. Molinari and the Science of Color and Line RACAR V no 1, (1978): 3-20.
8. Robert, Welsh. Molinari and the Science of Color and Line RACAR V no 1, (1978): 3-20..

The ultimate goal of rhetoric is to persuade a general audience, but do artists ever consider human perception? Artists are not just those who paint, speak, photograph, write, design, and produce, but those who convey an important message to their audience. Every human has a different brain, which means that every human perceives what they see in a unique way. Each of these unique perceptions provides a challenge to the artist. To create effective visual rhetoric, an artist must acknowledge the process in which the human body sees, the complex concept of perception and how specific visual aspects impact their work.

Sight is the most important sense and is the way that humans begin to interact with the surrounding world. The objects that the human eye sees are mirror images of the light reflected off of those specific objects. The reflections of light enter through the cornea, where the cornea then refracts the waves that will eventually enter the pupil (American Optometric Association). Since every human is unique, each and every cornea is unique, which means that no two people see an object in the exact same way. After traveling through the cornea, the light then travels further through the eye until it reaches the retina, which is full of nerve cells that detect specific amounts of light. The American Optometric Association explains that when light reaches the nerve cells within the retina, it is converted into electrical impulses that eventually reach the brain via the optic nerve. Detecting light is just the first stage in the path to fully seeing and comprehending the surrounding world.

Sight does not end in the eyes but instead continues to the brain. An important part of sight is being able to identify the object. According to the American Association of Neurological Surgeons, the area of the brain where light is converted to a visual image is the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe plays a role in visual memory. The brain allows humans to pull from their visual memory to form connections between the current object they are viewing and past objects they have seen and recognized. If humans were not able to store visual information, they would have to relearn the identities of objects, including other humans, every time those objects entered the visual field. The process in which the brain recognizes visual stimuli and the process of perception are similar.

Perception is the process of becoming aware of a concept through the senses. This process depends on both social and biological factors. Socially, our perception depends on our past experiences, peer groups, interests, languages, and expectations. Biologically, perception is influenced by our heredity and our drive to satisfy our inner human needs. One example of a type of perception that is impacted by a social factor is color. Benson said that even language has a small, but important impact on the perception of color (28). This would be due to the fact that not all languages have a complex array of names for colors that are blended hues, such as blue-green. The same article gives an example wherein those who spoke a New Guinean language only associated color with two words, one for cold colors and one for warm colors (Benson 28). It is important to recognize that perception is driven by a combination of any of these factors at any given moment. People have been trained to associate certain colors and symbols with specific meanings and connotations. One of the most complex topics when it comes to perception and visual rhetoric is color.

Color allows humans to see the world in many dimensions. John K. Courtis says, “Colour is fundamental to sight, identification, interpretation, perceptions, and senses” (265). Specific colors can bring out emotions and remind humans of past experiences. For instance, yellow can be reminiscent of the sun and its radiant rays, but it can also be a sign of caution. The same logic would also apply for symbols and objects. A common example would be a thumbs up gesture. Most people perceive this as “yes” while in many other cultures this sign is seen as an insult. When it comes to artists sharing their ideas, they must take into consideration how people may view a certain color or symbol.

There are many ways that color is used in visual rhetoric within modern society. One example would be in business flyers and presentations. Courtis explains that many businesses use color in yearly statements, to either draw attention to the positives or to stress a needed change because of a downfall (270). Now, take a moment and think, what if not all colors were necessarily helpful to the persuasion of a piece? Although it may seem appealing for an artist to add color to their work, it might cause confusion and act as a distraction. Courtis wanted to determine if color played a role in the way the profit trended for a certain company. He conducted a study and found that out of 88 companies, only 14 who increased their color application also increased in profitability, whereas 38 companies who increased their color application decreased in profitability (Courtis 275). Courtis’ study shows that adding extra color does not always provide a benefit, as sometimes too many colors are a distraction. Color can greatly impact an artist’s piece, but it is not the only factor to consider.

There are many other aspects that play a part in successful visual rhetoric. Thinking back to around the middle school age, students often demonstrate their rhetoric through posters, at events such as a science fair. Diane L. Matthews said, “In any visual display of information, the arrangement of elements, typography, design, and color all contribute to the visual appeal and the effectiveness with which poster information is communicated” (230). In classes, students learn how to effectively place pictures, graphics, and words to create a visual masterpiece. For instance, students may use a graph or a chart to communicate data instead of writing a paragraph about the data, as most people would be motivated to look at a picture rather than read a paragraph. When students do not use the correct arrangement of visuals, their presentations do not capture their audience or convey their intended message. This enforces the claim that there are many aspects other than color that an artist should take into consideration when using visual rhetoric.

One way that an artist can determine what visual aspects they should add to their work is by determining the purpose of their message. The message an artist is trying to communicate is the most important part of their piece. By understanding their purpose at a deeper level, artists can more adequately use visuals that will not be as affected by changes in human perception. According to Manning and Amare, there are three types of visual rhetoric goals as determined by C.S. Peirce, which are decoratives, indicatives, and informatives (195, 200-201). Artists that use all three strategies are able to manipulate human perception for their own benefit.

Decoratives help artists evoke feelings in the audience, but human perception is going to be crucial in an artist’s success. For example, a church may want to inform an audience about an upcoming barbeque available to the whole town. If someone who was not a churchgoer saw the sign decorated with a bunch of religious symbols, they might become skeptical and not be as inclined to go if they feel that the event is going to be very religious. To avoid this perception, the church might want to refrain from overpowering the flyer with religious signs, but still include a symbol that informs the audience that it is a church hosting the barbeque. This would alleviate people’s worries about being pushed into religion and would encourage the general public to attend.

Indicatives have the goal of provoking action. For instance, a teacher sharing a lesson with students may have a slide that includes instructions. If the slide includes a paragraph full of long sentences, the students may perceive the task as a drawn-out activity and will be inclined to just skim through the paragraph, possibly missing directions, instead of completely reading the paragraph. Teachers could avoid this negative perception by putting the task steps into short, clear bulleted points. Students would perceive bullet points as high-priority and would be more likely to read all of the instructions and successfully complete the task.

Informatives have the goal of advocating an understanding of a topic through visuals. An example of this would be a mosquito net company creating a graphic that claims mosquitos are the deadliest animal in the world. This could lead to the company being perceived as biased and greedy, which would not inform the audience of the dangers of mosquitos, but instead persuade them to avoid buying mosquito repelling supplies from the company. To avoid this possible negative perception, the mosquito net company should back up their claims with research so that they are more believable and their graphics are perceived in a way that allows people to understand more about mosquito dangers.

Artists must not only take into account human perception but also ethics when it comes to using rhetoric. Sharing media that may be slightly unethical is a danger that is faced in today’s society as the country is becoming more diverse culturally, politically and religiously. Rivera explains Aristotle’s golden mean as a center point between overload and absence (79). This could also be described as reaching a happy medium. Although Rivera’s article is based on discovering the golden mean in social justice and academic excellence, the golden mean can definitely be applied to visual rhetoric. It has started to become a common theme for a person or group to use visual rhetoric to paint a painfully negative image of their enemy or competitor. Although there is a strategy for making the competitor look inferior, such as in election races, a group must work to criticize the actions and policies of the person instead of ridiculing the person themselves. Artists must be committed to producing images that bring together the country instead of tearing it apart.

Acknowledging the many critical visual aspects, the process of human sight and the intricate concept of perception allows artists to be successful in using visual rhetoric. Visual perception is the most significant aspect that artists need to recognize because this impacts how the audience perceives their message. Sharing the same ideas with all people is a very difficult task as every human brain is unique. Artists who are passionate about persuading an audience will accurately determine the effects of human perception and use it to their advantage.

Works Cited

1. American Association of Neurological Surgeons. “Anatomy of the Brain.” American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 2019, www.aans.org/Patients/Neurosurgical-Conditions-and-Treatments/Anatomy-of-the-Brain.
2. Benson, Etienne. “Different Shades of Perception.” Monitor on Psychology, vol. 33, no. 11, Dec. 2002, p. 28., www.apa.org/monitor/dec02/perception.
3. Courtis, John K. “Colour as Visual Rhetoric in Financial Reporting.” Accounting Forum, vol. 28, no. 3, Sept. 2004, pp. 265–281., doi:10.1016/j.accfor.2004.07.003.
4. American Optometric Association. “How Your Eyes Work.” American Optometric Association, 2019, www.aoa.org/patients-and-public/resources-for-teachers/how-your-eyes-work.
5. Manning, Alan, and Nicole Amare. “Visual-Rhetoric Ethics: Beyond Accuracy and Injury .” Technical Communication, vol. 53, no. 2, May 2006, pp. 195–211., www.jstor.org/stable/43090716?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents.
6. Matthews, Diane L. “The Scientific Poster: Guidelines for Effective Visual Communication.” Technical Communication, vol. 37, no. 3, Aug. 1990, pp. 225–232., www.jstor.org/stable/43094875?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents.
7. Rivera, John. “Finding Aristotle’s Golden Mean: Social Justice and Academic Excellence.” Journal of Education, vol. 186, no. 1, 1 Jan. 2006, pp. 79–85., journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002205740618600108.

Whether it is the ringing of your alarm clock waking you up in the morning or a suggestive description of boiling lentils, Heinrichs insists that the elements of argument are all around us. He elucidates that the difference between an argument and a fight however, is the outcome. One fights to win, but one argues to achieve agreement. Heinrichs suggests that an argument should revolve around one of the three core issues: blame, values, or choice, and further stresses the importance of using either the past, present, or future tenses respectively in order to maintain control of an audience’s response. Another important rhetorical distinction of argument is Aristotle’s Big Three: logos, argument by logic, ethos, argument of character, and pathos, argument of emotion. Ethos, described as the most important appeal by Aristotle himself, embodies the element of decorum, or the “art of fitting in” among the expectations and beliefs of your audience. Additionally, a persuasive ethos should establish virtue, practical wisdom, and selflessness to underpin the credibility of a speaker. Heinrichs also explains how pathos appeals to an audience’s beliefs by stimulating emotions through methods of storytelling, volume control, and simple speech to create ones of anger, patriotism, and emulation. Furthermore, logos uses the audience’s point of view to the arguer’s advantage through the technique of commonplace, a viewpoint the audience knows or believes. Logos is reinforced with deductive logic, applying that commonplace to a particular situation to prove your conclusion, and inductive logic, the use of facts, comparisons, and stories to form a belief.

Defense

Heinrichs continues by examining the common logical fallacies that occur in everyday life, such as in the cunning tactics employed by politicians, salesmen, or even doctors, that often mislead an audience. Heinrichs assures that by mastering these fallacies, one can spot this “bad logic” as one of the seven logical sins, either by recognizing a bad proof, the wrong number of choices, or disconnect between proof and conclusion. However, Heinrichs explains that simply pointing out the use of a logical fallacy does not make a good rhetorician, but instead proposes that one should instead expose the fallacy in order to gain the upperhand. The only reason to “call a foul,” according to Heinrichs, is if the argument breaks the one rule of rhetoric: arguing the inarguable. Breaking this rule often involves the use of the wrong tense, an inflexible hold onto values, humiliation or innuendo, threats, or utter stupidity. Heinrichs also goes beyond challenging logos by demonstrating how to evaluate one’s ethos through its basic principles of disinterest, virtue, and practical wisdom. By comparing the needs of the persuader to your own needs and looking for the disconnects, you can identify whether the persuader has disinterest. A persuader who also tries to prevent a choice lacks rhetorical virtue. Checking where one lies in a mean helps avoid extremists. Heinrichs also stresses the importance to seek those with phronesis, the ability to find the sweet spot in between your personal needs and problems because only then can you confirm their qualities of disinterest, virtue, and practical wisdom.

Advance Offense

According to Heinrichs, the secret to fitting in involves the identity strategy. This method brings the audience together as a cohesive group and establishes the speaker as the ideal leader. This method causes the audience to consider the speaker’s choices as an expression of the group. Heinrichs illustrates a successful example with America’s forty-third president, George W. Bush, who possessed a distinct talent for code grooming. Bush utilized multiple codes with precise common places and diction based on each of his audiences. For example, Christian code focuses on starting his sentences with the word “and” to replicate the Bible. Identity strategy helps influence an audience to identify with you due to the use of language that resonates specifically with them. Another aspect of this strategy involves figures of speech, which range from the teenager’s dialogue to a sports announcer’s multiple yoking or to the well-known idiom. These rhetorical tricks and techniques can help spice up one’s arguments. However, all is lost when the wrong thing is done at the wrong time, or in other words, when one does not master the art of kairos. A good rhetorician will be able to recognize changing circumstances or moods for a persuasive moment. Understanding kairos also helps the speaker use the right medium based on the timing, the kind of appeal desired, and the certain gestures you want to make. Heinrichs suggest that each medium requires a different rhetorical technique, and when used correctly, can be the make or break of a situation.

Advanced Agreement

In a world infested with destructive hatred and high tensions, people tend to resort to the act of brash fighting instead of arguing. Our culture and politics have grown more and more polarized, and consequently, hinders the prospects of effective change. However, Heinrichs proposes a simple solution: reinstituting rhetoric into our society. In the last section of the book, Heinrichs hopes to guide the reader to implement rhetoric in everyday speech in order to create more productive arguments. In his hypothetical speech about fighting noise pollution, Heinrichs introduces Cicero’s five canons of persuasion: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Under the arrangement, Heinrichs outlines the six-step plan that consists of exordium, narration, division, proof, refutation, and conclusion, putting ethos first, then logos, and lastly pathos. Alongside the virtues of proper language, clarity, vividness, decorum, and ornament, this basic rule of thumb crafts an argument that retains the audience’s attention and allows us to fit in. Furthermore, Heinrichs emphasizes that in order to know when to use the right tools, we must observe other arguments through the lens of goals, ethos, pathos, logos, and kairos. As arguers, Heinrichs advises that we adapt to a situation with the appropriate methods, but to also concede when in doubt. Arguments have the potential to truly create progress but cannot succeed if rhetoric remains misused. We must teach others the art of persuasion, just as Heinrichs taught his son and daughter, and as rhetorically trained citizens, help find more common ground to reduce the division in our society.