Category: Rhetoric

Lloyd Bitzer explores the concept of ethics. His article examines the dilemma that is associated with ethics. It is in this dilemma that the rhetorical question arises. The effect of the rhetorical question on the audience is examined. In this case, the rhetorical question is examined in the realm of art and literature.

Bitzer suggests that the rhetorical question in the traditional sense is not a simple question with contradicting ideas, but a comprehensive speech.

On the other hand, the concept of rhetoric is applied in narrations where a character finds gets into a situation where two contradicting actions are to be done. When a speech contains rhetoric, the weight of the rhetoric comes from the situation that the speech describes (Bitzer 1).

Copyright and Fair Use

The copyright and fair use article discusses the technicalities that exist in protecting copyrighted work. Copyright laws govern the extent to which the copyright owner can restrict the original work from being accessed.

A copyright owner may give a notice to warn that his or her original work is copyrighted. Original work cannot be absolutely protected from use by a secondary party.

According to the article, one can breach copyright rules in two ways. Plagiarism is a breach of copyright ethics, while copying of original work is a crime. For the purpose of training and teaching, original work may be fairly used.

Tutors and examiners can counter plagiarism by use of penalties. On the other hand, there are legal consequences for copying original work subject to copyright protection (Forness 2).

Another article features Larry Lessig, a professor who once predicted the current problems in copyright protection. The professor foresaw the problem that sites such as YouTube and Napster would bring to the copyright industry. In addition, the professor depicts the copyright laws as traditional and obsolete in relation to the modern society (Lessig 3).

Communication and Argument

The article by Wysocki Lynch focuses on the concept of argument. An argument is a situation that arises when two or more parties hold conflicting ideas. The concept of argument is divided into two theories. In a formal argument, the parties involved in the argument hold different logical positions, while in the informal argument people have different perspectives when interpreting a certain phenomena.

According to the article, people tend to ignore the opinions of those with ideas contrary to theirs. This widens the rift between the parties in the argument. This is because of lack of effective communication.

The article continues to explain the steps that should be taken to enhance communication. This way, effective communication reduces arguments by enabling people to understand each other (Wysocki & Lynch 28)

Communication and Design

In this chapter of the book by Wysocki and lynch, a guide on how to develop a design plan is explained. The steps through which one would go through to develop a valid game for children are laid out. In the two chapters, design is a key factor on how communication is achieved especially in the education sector (Lynch 30).

According to the book, education must have a design that students will respond to positively. Thus, communication can be improved through modification of design.

Design of arguments and rhetorical situations is also explored. Importance of research is also emphasized in the book. Research begins with an idea, which is then developed into a question for which the research is done (Wysocki & Lynch 63).

Video Games Shape Our Culture

Henry Jenkins depicts video games as the art for the digital age. Computer programs that are predictable and systematic generate video games. The widespread use of computer games by children is degrading art. Some people are against adoption of computer games as a form of art. However, the computer games are getting common in everyday life.

Jenkinss article argues that art has always been treated like the computer games. After some reluctance to accept some forms of art, the society finally accepts the arts. The article postulates that computer games are the art of the future. While on one end, the computer games are being accepted as art, on another front they are regarded as results of lack of creativity in todays young generation.

Dream Machines

Will Wright pictures modern videogames as dream machines where children play games without any form of a manual. He says that the video games have substituted the real world with animated video. His article proposes that this is a new trend for human beings. We are on the course of replacing every part of our lives with electronic gadgets. The games seem contrary to this era of systematic learning.

The society sees the games as a symbol of decadence. Wright then postulates that the society chooses to see the darker side of the whole affair.

He supports the use of video games since they actively engage the player. He also says that the computer is used for social purposes rather that the traditional use in science. In the article, there is a prediction that games are going to be models of our own activity in the future.

Works Cited

Bitzer, Lloyd. Bitzers rhetorical situation: a heuristic endeavor.. Pensylvania: Pensylvania University, 1987. Print.

Forness, Megan. Copyright and Fair Use. Copyright and Fair Use. Version 1. lrs education, 6 May 2009. Web. <lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/forness/copyright.html >.

Jenkins, Henry. Culture Zone. Technology Review [Mount Morris] 1 Oct. 2000, 1 ed., sec. Technology: 117-120. Print.

Lessig, Larry. Free Sharing. Ethics of Web. Version 1. lessig.org, 5 Aug. 2011. Web. <www.lessig.org/blog/2006/10/the_ethics_of_web_20_youtube_v.html >.

Lynch, Wysocki. Designing Compositions Rhetorically. Designing Compositions Rhetorically 1.January (2004): 27-33. Print.

Wysocki, Anne Frances, and Dennis A. Lynch. Compose, design, advocate. 2nd ed. White Plains, N.Y.: Longman ;, 2011. Print.

With regard to the issue of globalization, there have been a number of metaphors that have been used to describe this important phenomenon (Adams 29-32). Thomas Friedman is probably the most popular and maybe the most authoritative author on globalization, especially with his bestselling book, The world is flat.

Thomas Friedman uses his own life experiences to try and capture the mind of the reader, and direct the reader towards understanding how recent and even past events have led to globalization.

Tabbi disagrees with Thomas Friedmans use of metaphors, although he does not really disagree with the underlying issues. These two authors while approaching a problem from different points of view, are able to communicate the same message to the reader.

Tabbi, instead of subscribing to the use of cheap metaphors, prefers to look at things from a scientific point of view. In his review of Thomas Friedmans book, he points out that the metaphors that Thomas Friedman uses, are not only inaccurate and cheap, but also backward.

He points out to the claim that the world is flat, just because it is easier for people to easily interact with each other across the planet, and argues that this is actually contradicting ones self. This is because a round (spherical) world would be more interconnected than a flat one because on a spherical world, the two furthest points from each other are the closest to each other.

Tabbi faults Thomas Friedman by saying that his use of cheap metaphors is a clear indication of the American tradition and culture of hearsay, where anyones words can be believed and his word taken at face value as long as they say it confidently enough.

This argument by Tabbi is quite true to some extent. A look into Thomas Friedmans work does reveal an easy-going way of describing things, and coming up with theories that are not well researched and backed by scientific evidence.

As Tabbi says, it is not enough to take a couple of technological and economic developments that have happened in the past and attribute them to globalization. Thomas Friedman is seen to do this in a very easy-going way, without showing any scientific proof.

Both Tabbi and Thomas Friedman are addressing the same issue, but they disagree not only on the way to discuss this, but also on how globalization arrived here. Tabbi, who doesnt shy away from using a four-letter word in his literature, argues that Thomas Friedman does not even understand what he says, and actually says that Friedman is only brilliant at being stupid.

The main point of conflict is that Friedman probably writes his literature to reach the layman, who may not have deeper understanding of technological and economical understanding. The question is; does Friedmans approach of cheap metaphor make his literature more understandable to anyone, let alone the layman?

Maybe yes, but Tabbi would disagree. In fact, he argues that Thomas Friedman goes on in his gloried foolishness to come up with a concoction of a mathematical formula to calculate what he (Thomas Friedman) calls the flatteners.

Tabbi argues that Thomas Friedman comes up with a mathematic formula that is neither mathematically or even theoretically correct.

BothTabbis and Friedmans literature and rhetoric have an American streak in them. In Tabbis case, the American streak that is present is that he does not shy away from stating the facts. It is not every time that a person writes such a negative article about a person whom he knows personally.

Tabbi, while writing from a spontaneous point of view without having to be too strenuous, also cares to consult with facts in the real world. This can be seen in the way he faults Friedman for talking about flatness, while roundness should be the point (scientifically speaking).

His spontaneity in writing can be seen in his ability to use the everyday language to express his opinions. His article ends with a satirical line, where he reiterates on how Friedman has talked about falling walls and opening windows. He also expresses his grief that such unintelligent literature can be talked about in a book of four hundred and seventy pages, and then asks if God does exist.

Probably, this expression is to mean that God (if he does exist) should be there to protect people from such useless and time wasting things as Friedmans book. However, all said and done, the important thing to know is that the ultimate court is the court of public opinion.

Also, given that Friedman is Americas most popular columnist and bestselling author, this could mean that he may not be as bad as Tabbi portrays him.

Friedman also minces his literature with an American can-do flavor. Americans have been portrayed as people with a can-do attitude, which is also embedded into the dynamics of the American Dream, which many, if not all Americans chase.

In his literature for instance, Friedman doesnt really care about hard facts, and his literature chooses to apply the happy-go-lucky way. This is where his views and those of Tabbi part ways, because Tabbi believes that it is unprofessional to present such information in such a way.

The question that remains is, do the two agree on the fact that globalization has changed the world? Of course! However, the two do not agree on the way in which globalization came to happen, the combination of the factors that led to its occurrence, or even how globalization will happen in the future.

Friedman is quick to run to conclusions and make up easy and cheap theories to explain phenomena such as globalization. On the other hand, Tabbi looks deeper into the issue and asks technical and critical questions.

Friedman directs his literature towards capturing the heart of the reader, to fill the reader with a euphoric air that will inflate his or her mind, as he believes that something great called globalization has occurred and that now life is or is about to be very nice and easy.

This use of rhetoric can be very useful in appealing to the reader (William 56-59). Tabbi doesnt seem to care much about this, because his interest is coming up with a scientifically verifiable theory.

Probably, Friedmans theory is what is making him a more popular writer, because people and especially Americans, are always very happy and enthusiastic about literature that will make them euphoric and hopeful, even where such hope doesnt exist.

In the paper criticizing Friedman, Tabbi does point out to this issue and says that the same attitude is what makes Americans to vote political leaders who are able to make very high promises even when all the odds show that the promises are not achievable.

He compares Friedman with former American president, George Bush, in terms of having not just a lack of intelligence, but also having a luck of intelligence in almost a genius way.

Tabbi, even as he uses four-letter words in his literature, does seem to care much more about the facts and how these facts come to be, and how they may interact or fail to interact to lead to perceivable phenomena. This is because he is trying to appeal to the mind of the reader rather than the heart.

Unlike Friedman, he does seem to understand that feel-good literature, especially when this literature is about such important issues such as national and global economic development, must not be discussed in a very casual way in a book to be read by millions of people.

This is because these people may end up being persuaded by this literature that life will be made easier, just because it is easier to go from America to India today and find a Pizza Hut restaurant on the way to a golf course. Friedman on the other hand is probably like his readers.

This is because he is a happy-go-lucky writer, and bases his rhetoric on being able to point to the reader about the changes that have happened, and just how life today is much easier than it was decades ago. Friedmans rhetoric postulates that since life is much easier today than it was yesterday, it will continue to be better tomorrow, and therefore everyone should be excited and happy.

Tabbi on the other hand seems to realize that there is more to globalization, and faults Friedman for portraying globalization as the ultimate solution to the problems that have faced men in history. They do however merge at a single point, which is the agreement that globalization is causing an impact in the world.

Works Cited

Adams, Kennedy. Globalisation and Economic development: Where is the World Headed. Journal of Economic Development 4. 5 (2009): 29-32. Print

William, Peter. Use of Rhrtoric and Figuretive Language to Take Holf of the Audience. Journal of Modern Communication 5. 3 (2009): 56-59. Print

Introduction

Rhetoric during the pre-Socratic time was seen as the art of discourse aimed at broadening speakers and writers horizons and developing their good communication skills. During that period, rhetoric provided heuristics for understanding, discovering and developing arguments as a way of winning audiences appeal.

For example, sophists created five laws to guide the study of rhetoric. These laws include invention, argument, delivery, memory and style. They were designed to persuade the audience and motivate them to listen to the speaker or to read the work of a given philosopher.

Rhetoric in Pre-Socratic period

Pre-Socratic period was marked with Hellenic rhetoric that shaped the view of philosophers in relation to the connection of the thought and expression. For instance, the communication skills used by Plato and the Socratic movement formed rhetoric as a discipline. The ancient Greeks aimed at including common sense and truth in their conversations. In this case, rhetoric as a discipline concentrated on discovering the limitations of being either subjective or objective during conversations.

During pre-Socratic period, the aim of rhetoric was to set a framework for analyzing communications. Here, rhetoric did not produce critical theories. Speakers and writers were useful for creating civic engagements in the society due to their convincing public speaking and writing. Rhetoric emphasized the importance of eloquence and wisdom during conversations.

The main personalities associated with rhetoric include Plato, Aristotle, Quintilian, Cicero, Socrates, etc. Particularly, Plato questioned the teaching practice of that time and challenged the knowledge of the teachers. For Plato, rhetoric was not an art. Aristotle, on the other hand, expanded on the ideas of Plato, his teacher, before qualifying rhetoric as an art. Remarkably, Aristotle sought to develop a scientific approach to arguments.

Cicero, who was a Roman lawyer, used the arguments developed by both Plato and Socrates before classifying rhetoric as a liberal art. Quintilian is widely known for his emphasis on teaching rhetoric to the youth in schools.

However, when the ancient period ended, there were considerable changes in the attitude towards rhetoric and the way of its teaching. St. Augustine is associated with rhetoric of the medieval age. His main contribution to its field was the fusion of classical pagan rhetoric with the aims of the Catholic Church when he worked on the art of preaching.

Rhetoric during the Renaissance

Among the personalities associated with rhetoric during the age of reformation, it is necessary to note Erasmus. In his book, Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style, he treated rhetoric as the least comprehensive work of antiquity and added to it a traditional treatment of matter and form.

For Erasmus, the subject matter of rhetoric was to discover variety in discourse. For him, rhetoric was concerned with the quality of either a speech or a written work, given the fact that there existed many versions of writing and delivering speeches. Julian Luis Vivas is another well pronounced personality associated with rhetoric during reformation.

During that period, rhetoric was characterized by the conversion of teachings from Greek to vernacular. This can be attributed to the strong orientation of rhetoric towards Latin and Greek during pre-Socratic time. This period was also characterized by various reorganizations in the school systems that eventually led to rhetoric loosing its central position.

For instance, the five laws of rhetoric as indicated earlier in this paper were dropped. In place of these laws, new inventions and dispositions were included under the name of dialectic. During that period, rhetoric was defined by style of delivering messages during conversations and the ability to memorize philosophical thoughts.

During that time, religion was the dominant subject of discussion with Christianity playing a leading role. In this case, rhetoric concentrated more on gaining religious truths than ordinary knowledge. To be a Christian was the main focus of rhetoric. The main Christian doctrine was the establishment of a personal relationship with the divine.

This relationship was personal and opposed to proportional. Discovering the emotive experiences first, before focusing on logic, was, therefore, the main subject matter of rhetoric. It is worth noting that Christianity was not the only religious belief held by people during this time. Christians used rhetoric to prove that Christianity was the only true religion.

A case in point that demonstrates the subject matter of rhetoric during reformation is the encounter with the divine. Rhetoric of that time stated that it was normal to have a personal experience with the love of the savior.

The main concern of rhetoric was on how this personal encounter could be used to make an individual to be a Christian, especially a non believer. This was particularly so because of the existence of many religious believes in the world. Rhetoric was, therefore, concerned with differentiating Christian experiences from the ones of other religions.

During the reformation, rhetoric had the role of establishing a guideline for judging different experiences with the aim of determining whether they were Christian experiences or not. Sophists proposed the use of logic and the Bible as a guideline for judging different experiences.

Logic referred to the application of reason in analyzing the arguments of people claiming to have a divine experience. For example, if a person claimed to receive a divine command from God to burn the Bible, rhetoric would dismiss such an experience.

That is why, during reformation, the art of rhetoric required individuals to apply logical reasoning in differentiating experiences like the one indicated above. Logic stated in such a case that God could not command an individual to burn the Bible, which is His own holy word. The above argument, therefore, contradicts with the nature of God and thus can not be from God.

Existentialism as a part of the subject matter of rhetoric was focused on the need to have a personal relationship with God during the reformation. It based its argument on the teachings of Christ, especially on His emphasis on love. This art also emphasized on the necessity to follow a practical Christian lifestyle.

Rhetoric in the 20^th century

This refers to the study of rhetoric during the 20^th century. This period is characterized by the establishment of departments of rhetoric and speech in institutions. National and international professional organizations became famous during this time. With increased mediation in the 20^th century, the study of rhetoric as an art was restructured to emphasize language and persuasion.

The effects of globalization led to increased advertisements and mass media coverage of information all over the world, thus making rhetoric an important part of peoples life. With these changes, the meaning of rhetoric as an art in the 20^th century is more associated with the mass media than language as it was the case during the pre-Socratic period.

For instance, visual rhetoric is a common vocabulary in the modern world associated with the mass media that analyzes the persuasions done by non-verbal communication. The importance of visual rhetoric is realized in advertisements whereby pictures are designed in an appealing way to attract consumers to buy the product.

The personalities associated with rhetoric of the 20^th century include Chaim Perelman, Kenneth Burke, I.A. Richards, and Stephen Toulmin among the others. Chaim Perelman brought rhetoric to the centre of argumentative theories. He significantly influenced the concepts of dissociation, quasi-audience and presence. Kenneth Burke, on the other hand, brought the concepts of identification and dramatic pentad into the modern rhetoric.

For him, rhetoric referred to the use of language to induce cooperation in being. I.A. Richards considered rhetoric to be a study of misunderstandings and the ways how it can be prevented. He brought the concept of comparison to provide a critique to rhetoric. Stephen Toulmin introduced the argumentation theory to the study of rhetoric.

Modern rhetoric is characterized by lack of a conventionally recognized method of study. In the modern society, the study of rhetoric is considered to originate from reality. Nowadays, the main object of the study of rhetoric is discourse, thus making it difficult to differentiate rhetorical and discourse analyses.

It makes us use such mediation and ethos as concepts to describe the social and epistemological functions of the study. Rhetoric differs significantly from the discourse by extend of analysis, especially when discoursing similar items, such as speech or a poem. In this case, rhetoric does not only look at the argumentative claims advanced by the work, but goes ahead to identify the specific strategies employed by the writer to persuade his targeted audience.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the above discussion indicates the extent to which rhetoric can be taken as an art with its own subject matter. It does so by considering how this issue was approached in different times in history. From the discussion, it is clear that rhetoric as an art originated from the Greeks and Romans, with Plato and Socrates being the major personalities behind the study of this subject.

During that period, the subject matter was discovering, developing and understanding arguments. The aim of rhetoric as an art then was to produce individuals with good communication skills, both written and spoken.

During the reformation, the subject matter of rhetoric was to understand the religious theories. The min focus of this subject was to judge arguments by individuals concerning their personal experiences with the divine. Here, rhetoric emphasized the use of logic and the Bible to discern experiences.

Finally, this paper looked at rhetoric as an art during the 20^th century, a period during which rhetoric shifted its focus to the mass media. Rhetoric of that period is an impotent subject in the life of people as indicated in the paper. In the 20^th century, the main concern for rhetoric is to discover the role played by the work of art in pursuing the targeted auditory. From the above discussion, rhetoric qualifies as a genuine work of art with the subject matter rightly on its own.

Introduction

Some individuals believe that free speech is the ultimate representation of liberty. They argue that more speech is better than no speech at all irrespective of its manner of expression. However, these analysts forget that political rhetoric in the US has consequences and that sometimes it can go overboard.

The explosive climate

The American political climate is characterised by the demonization of politicians opponents. Although this is nothing new in politics, one must take caution when the habit becomes inaccurate and juvenile (Hunt 13). Words, in todays political scene, are not used to achieve precise aims but to ruin everything that can possibly be damaged.

As such, clearer thoughts and fully-developed ideas get drowned in national conversations. American political rhetoric has reached overdrive levels and thus, made it much easier for politicians to practice partisan politics, or say things that they may not really mean. They reassure listeners that their opponents are much worse and this distorts reality.

A case in point was the distortion of Barrack Obamas background. Political rhetoric led to misinformation about his religion and his citizenship. Some individuals alluded that he was a Muslim and was not patriotic to the nation. Such half-truths breed an atmosphere of accusation and disengagement, which counteract the very principles that make this nation so strong.

A number of Americans are highly distressed by angry politics in the land. Approximately seventy percent of Americans believe that the negative political atmosphere in the country is detrimental to democracy. Many peoples political expectations are diminishing owing to this state of affairs and the country appears to be heading in the wrong direction (Lawler and Schaefer 94).

A number of observations have also indicated that it is not just the political and social well being of society that will be affected by excessive political rhetoric but the physical well being as well. Political rhetoric can reach levels that manifest as violent behaviour. One such case was the shooting of Gabrielle Gifford, a representative of Arizona. The latter leader was shot and injured adversely during an interactive session with her electorate at a grocery store.

The attacker fired at twenty people, including Gifford, after the representative had tweeted that she was at that location. While investigations are yet to establish whether the shootings were inspired by the assailants psychological state or deeper political issues, it is still imperative to remember the latter option is quite probable. The sharp, antagonistic language aimed at government has increased the likelihood of violent incidents.

Most politicians employ radio talk shows, internet blogs, social networking websites like Twitter, television shows and many more to disseminate vicious rhetoric. In the case of Gabrielle Gifford, the state of Arizona had become highly polarised before her attack (Kaplan 22). Many residents in this state mistrusted government and were paranoid about their healthcare laws. This daily exposure to destructive rhetoric through various media outlets may have had a violent impact on the people of the state.

It was especially probable among unstable individuals than well-balanced ones. Increasing verbal attacks in certain political debates has heightened security concerns. Many protests have turned violent during public meetings. One such instance was the healthcare debate that took place in 2010. Even death threats against congressmen were not uncommon.

Conclusion

The use of political rhetoric for selfish gains among politicians has bred an atmosphere of divisive and violent politics. This has been manifested through disengagement and violent confrontations against political leaders.

Works Cited

Hunt, Geoffrey. We need more political rhetoric, not less. 2011. Web.

Kaplan, Marty. The lock and load rhetoric of American politics isnt just a metaphor. The Huffington Post. 2011: 22. Print.

Lawler, Peter and Robert Schaefer. American political rhetoric. NY: Rowman and Littlefield publishers, 2000. Print.

Social movements are usually unofficial or unsanctioned joint efforts of individuals or citizens aiming to bring a difference in their world. Countries and indeed the whole world is somehow better off today because social movements have shaped our culture, politics, economies, and many other sectors which are critical for development. National and world history has been crucially shaped through the efforts of social movements. This paper critically reviews the literature on the Black Panthers social movement formed in October 1966 in the United States of America by Bobbie Seale and Huey Newton who were both activists at Merritt Junior College in Oakland California (Ogba, 77). The party was inspired and mainly influenced by the teachings of Malcolm X and the black power movement (Jones, 27). The original ideas of the party were; self-defense, protecting the community against police brutality, restructuring American society to attain social, political, and economic equality concerning the principles of socialism. It analyzes the forms of public address and popular resistance associated with the social movement, specifies the formal nature of the organization, and gives an analysis of the effectiveness of the official means of public communication.

Forms of Public address

The Black Panther party applied various forms of public address among them; use of speeches, civil protests, and theatre. In light of the above mentioned, speeches played a significant role in passing the message and ideologies of the movement (Jones, 212). While the activists were on the platform they talked about the following issues; Freedom of the black community from racism and self-determination, provision of full employment for the black people, restitution for slave labor provided by the black people and murder inflicted on them, decent and affordable houses, education that gave the black people full knowledge of their history, exclusion of black men from the military services, an instant end to police brutality, and immediate release of all black men from prison because they were not subjected to fair trials among other issues (Reed, 41).

Civil protests were also used as an important form of addressing the public applied by the Black Panther Party. Through the protests, they were able to put across their dissatisfaction with the racial and selective application of law and against police brutality. They carried guns to show that the intimidation meted on them by the police can be challenged by the black defense. The Black Panthers bold actions inspired and encouraged many people who felt oppressed by white authorities.

Theatre, a vital form of public address was used by the Black Panthers in their bid to pass across their message. The leaders of the movement took an active role in plays that were conducted at the State Capitol Building in Sacramento. The plays were used to pass across the Partys ideologies on their cry for equality justice and freedom to be brought to the streets of most cities of the United States.

Resistance Associated with the Black Panthers

The Black Panthers movement was lead by Bobbie Seale, Huey Newton, and other top members constituting the committee with each having a designated responsibility. It is this Committee that spoke on behalf of the movement as they were elites and needed to enlighten the community of the oppression they are undergoing. The Black Panthers movement was embraced by most of the people who felt oppressed such as the Blacks and the Puerto Rican young men and even the white revolutions which were against racial discrimination and in need to reform the American society. However, the movement was strongly resisted by the government and its agencies such as the police and the FBI who brutally abused the Panthers and mercilessly killed them (Reed, 57). The Police brutality was extreme that, the whole group was to be completely wiped out. The FBI achieved its goal by infiltrating the Movement through informants and using propaganda as a tool to cause division among the groups leadership (Armstrong, 2002).

The Panthers had several issues they wanted to be addressed. Among these issues were popularly known as the ten points and were as follows; Freedom from oppression for black people and oppressed communities, full employment of black people, or at least provide guaranteed income. Restitution of slave labor provided by the black people and massacres inflicted on them, decent and affordable housing fit to be inhabited by human beings, Education that give the black people full knowledge of their history and their true role in the American society, free health care capable of providing preventive medical programs, an immediate end of police brutality against blacks and other oppressed people of color, end of all acts of aggression since all stem from the ruling circle, the release of all black political prisoners because they never received an impartial trial, lastly, land, bread, housing, education, clothing, justice and peace to be a major political objective.

The black panthers rallied on the concept that black people had a right to defend themselves against the racist government by any means deemed necessary including violence (Ogba, p.69). This ideology made them be in constant log heads with the police and at the same time be an alternative to the moderate civil rights activists of the time.

The Panthers reacted to critics by strengthening their support among the oppressed and hence gained more popularity. In addition, the movement was not intimidated by police guns or the FBI but put up a strong fight on behalf of the people. However, the group did not anticipate informants to be within it (Lazerow, 80).

The Formal Nature of the Black Panthers

Newton and Seale chose a military form of organization with a clear chain of command and an established hierarchy with a central committee made up of various ministers (Reed, 57). They were driven by the feeling they held black people on the streets and therefore needed discipline. This structure emphasized military training in the arm and official marching. The leaders believed that to achieve radical change enlightened elites needed to push for it (Lazerow, 28).

During its formation, the party was intended for the local people but it later established alliances with other groups and acquired an international outfit. The group formed alliances with revolution groups in Cuba, Middle East, South East Asia, and Africa. Within America, it is affiliated with groups such as; The Puerto Rican young lords, The American Indian movement among others (Reed, 57).

The Black Panthers had a membership of over, 2000. Many of the group members were killed by police during raids and others were subjected to imprisonment including Newton Huey, the groups minister of defense who was charged with manslaughter after a shootout at Oakland with the police. The leaders relationship with the membership was cordial this is seen by Hamptons ability to persuade street gangs to stop fighting each other and in 1969 he announced a nonaggression pact and later formed the rainbow alliance which encompassed the blacks Puerto Rican and poor youth.

The membership of the group has since changed due to several reasons; first, most of the founder members were killed including Fred Hampton and Mark Clerk, and others were imprisoned. Moreover, others left voluntarily while others were expelled Second, the group changed its course after Newtons release, it became more involved with social programs such as free breakfast for children, free medical clinics, it also gave away free clothing, food and established more control of schools and police, in addition, they campaigned against drug abuse and crime. Lastly, in the mid-1970s, the party declined as a political force due to internal divisions, constant attacks, and legal barriers.

The official Means of Public Communication

The Panthers used several means of public communication and they included newspapers since the party had one (Jones, 420). At the partys disposal were also pamphlets which were published by Newton in 1970 and were later re-issued in 1972 as a collection of his essays and speeches. Mostly used by the group were rallies which lastly, television played a major role as a means of communication as it enabled the group to reach their supporters who were far and could not attend rallies. All the means applied were effective and achieved the purpose of the group. They reached well to the intended audience and relayed the message as intended (Theoharis, 13).

Works Cited

Reed t. Vernon. The Art of Protest: Culture of Activism from Civil Rights Movement to the Streets of Seattle. Minnesota: Minnesota Press. 2005.

Ogba J. Black Power: Radical Politics and African Americans Identity. JHU Press. 2005.

Jones C. The Black Panther Party (Reconsidered): Reflections and Scholarship. Black Classics. 1998.

Lazerow J., Yohuru W. In Search of the Black Panther Party: New Perspectives and Revolutionary Movements. Duke University Press. 2006

Theoharis J, Woodard K, Payne C. Ground Work: Local Black Freedom Movement in America. New York: NYU Press. 2005.

Armstrong B. Teaching the Civil Rights Movements in America: New York: Routledge. 2002.

Persuading people effectively on personal arguments with the power of the techniques of rhetoric has been one of the most venerated human communication skills since man recognised the significance of the art of rhetoric. Rhetoric can be best understood as the art of speaking or writing effectively, and there are several elements that make effective rhetoric possible. First of all, it needs to be comprehended that the art of rhetoric means the art of persuasion and the effectiveness of this art depends greatly on techniques of the art employed. It is of great value to understand the various techniques of persuasion in order to be an effective writer or communicator. According to Aristotle, rhetoric is the ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion. He described three main forms of rhetoric: Ethos, Logos, and Pathos& Ethos is appeal based on the character of the speaker. An ethos-driven document relies on the reputation of the author& Logos is appeal based on logic or reason. Documents distributed by companies or corporations are logos-driven. Scholarly documents are also often logos-driven&Pathos is appeal based on emotion. Advertisements tend to be pathos-driven. (The Art of Rhetoric: Learning How to Use the Three Main Rhetorical Styles).

Therefore, it is on the basis of these pertinent concepts of rhetoric that the effectiveness of the art of persuasion is usually evaluated. In this paper, a critical analysis of two articles on the question of abortion is undertaken, and the articles are Four Basic Facts about Abortion by Julian Burnside, QC, and How Could Anyone Look at This Photo and Deny Its Time to Cut the Abortion Limit? by Amanda Platell. Thus, the paper involves evaluating how ethos, pathos and logos are employed in these articles and an in-depth examination of the fallacies as evident in the articles. Such an evaluation of the articles as to bring about the arguments and fallacies has great significance in the understanding of the pertinent aspects of the art of rhetoric, identifying the persuasive techniques and rhetorical proofs.

A critical analysis of the article Four Basic Facts about Abortion by Julian Burnside suggests some of the prominent aspects of good and effective rhetorical writing as well as some of the major fallacies in persuasive writing. To begin with, it is pertinent to understand that the article is concerned with the aspects of rhetoric such as ethos, pathos and logos and they are employed in varying amounts in writing. These aspects are very much evident in the article, and the article sounds very accurate in the title itself as the title clearly suggests that the article deals with the four basic facts about abortion. However, only a profound analysis of the article can throw light on whether the article has credibility or ethical appeal, which is the kind of appeal that the article arouses in the emotions of the readers and if the article is effective in persuading through the efficient use of reasoning or logic. The article opens with a seemingly clear exposition of the issue, presenting it in a very interesting manner stating the current value of the issue under discussion and identifying the topic with an emotional subject. The issue of abortion law reform is on the political agenda in Victoria again. It is an emotional subject. Some people oppose abortion; others support it. It is important to recognise that the question is whether a woman has a right to have an abortion, not whether she must have one. The debate should start with four basic facts. (Four Basic Facts about Abortion, by Julian Burnside). Thus, the article presents the four basic facts about abortion, and it must be remembered that effective and persuasive rhetoric in writing essentially includes a captivating opening in which the style of presentation matters greatly. Thus evaluated the article seemingly presents the issue effectively.

The credibility or the ethical appeal of the article depends on various aspects, and the authors style of narration has great relevance in this regard. Towards the second half of the article, the author tries to suggest certain capturing details about the issue and the opinions of people, which may be regarded as essential to the question in consideration. Thus, it is evident that the author attempts to influence the reader with his personal reflection based on his factual data. I do know from women I have spoken to that it is a profoundly difficult decision for them. It is a decision not taken lightly. It is a decision for a womans own conscience, which she should be able to make free from the imposition of others religious views and without the threat of prosecution. An overwhelming majority of women approve of legalising abortion. Many people disapprove of abortion. Those who disapprove, including many men, are very passionate in their opposition. (Four Basic Facts about Abortion, by Julian Burnside). Here, the writer tries to add credibility to the writing and thus persuade the reader to believe in the narration and its facts. However, the effect of such an attempt is not clear, and the reliability of the writers idea seems to be very vague and unclear. It is evident that the article lacks the ethos of rhetoric.

When it comes to the question of logos and pathos, it becomes evident that there are conscious attempts on the part of the author to affect these aspects of rhetoric. Thus, it is clear that the author is effective in presenting the various factors regarding the in a logical sequence. The four basic facts of abortion as they need to be emphasised are presented in the order of relevance. Therefore, it can be noted that the article states that the debate concerning whether to support or oppose abortion should start with four basic facts and these are presented in logical order. First of all, the author suggests that women have the intellectual and moral capacity to make decisions about their own fertility and reproduction. To augment this view, he adds that the right to reproductive freedom is recognised in international conventions. Next, the writer recognises that freedom of religious belief is a basic right but explains that personal religious beliefs should not govern public policy. Fourth and finally, the author presents that the law must be made clear, and the writer comes to the ultimate conclusion that, in the Australian background, there is imminence for clearly defined laws dealing with the issue. Thus, the article enjoys logos. The attempts to relate to the emotional realms of the readers also need to be considered in this regard. The article also presents certain cause and effect arguments in which the statements are clarified with the help of specified reasons are explanations. However, the article fails to persuade the readers completely due, mainly to the false dilemma and popular appeal. Even while it tries to be logical in the approach, the article often fails to expatiate the statements with logical arguments and convincing examples. Thus, the article becomes clearly a flaw in several aspects of the art of rhetoric.

Another considerable article on the same topic, How Could Anyone Look at This Photo and Deny Its Time to Cut the Abortion Limit? by Amanda Platell, also has great relevance in an understanding of the basic aspects of the art of rhetoric in writing. In fact, this article provides a better example of a good piece of writing based on the norms of persuasive writing such as ethos, pathos, and logos. The author is effective in attaining the confidence of the readers, and the several figures and facts presented throughout the article suggest the strength of the piece as they all contribute to the logos, as evident in the article. In fact, the article has been effective from the opening of it, where it arouses the attention of the readers by presenting a relatable photograph and presents the gravity of the matter through the illustrative example at the beginning of the article. The style of writing, as well as the strategy adopted in introducing the pertinent issue of abortion, wins readers. The ethos of the writing is ensured by the explication of the topic on the basis of the illustrations from the lives of the people such as Tory MP Nadine Dorries, Tory leader David Cameron and the poll results of ComRes etc. The article definitely has been effective in appealing to the reader based on the character of the speaker. The reputation of the author, as well as the reputation of the people and events exemplified in the article, clearly suggests the strength of the article. The various aspects of the issue suggested, as well as the illustrations made use of in the article, clearly point to the most pertinent aspect of the issue the author tries to convey. This is not a straight choice between the pro-lifers and the pro-abortionists. It is simply that people increasingly feel abortion is being treated too casually, in some cases as a form of birth control. (How Could Anyone Look at This Photo and Deny Its Time to Cut the Abortion Limit? by Amanda Platell). Therefore, it is evident that the article very intelligently makes use of the various aspects of persuasive writing to catch the attention of the reader and thus it is noted for its logos.

In the article, the author is very much concerned about arousing the emotional interest of the reader and the picture of the worlds most premature living baby Amillia who was born in October 2006 at just 21 weeks, serves as a good tool in this attempt. The picture also has great relevance in capturing the attention of the reader and introducing the issue straightaway in an effective way. A ten-ounce marvel with the most extraordinary fighting spirit, her tiny feet poke through the doctors fingers. As the worlds most premature living baby, Amillia was born in October 2006 at just 21 weeks. And this remarkable child not only confounded medical expectation but her very existence poses a conundrum for all of society. (How Could Anyone Look at This Photo and Deny Its Time to Cut the Abortion Limit? by Amanda Platell). There is an emotional appeal created by the various attempts by the author which contribute to the quality of the persuasive techniques of the article.

The style of narration of the events, the presentation of the arguments, the way of reinforcing the ideas, the clear presentation of the examples, the type of conclusion arrived at etc., suggest the grade of the article in persuading the readers. Thus the author makes use of updated figures and comes to pertinent conclusions based on these. A recent poll by ComRes revealed two-thirds of people want the limit reduced from 24 weeks. Perhaps more surprisingly, three-quarters of women also want it cut& There is deep disquiet in society today about the fact that more than 200,000 abortions are performed each year in this country  that is a staggering 550 terminations a day. Let me repeat that. Is it any wonder so few UK graduates are willing to perform abortions beyond 16 weeks, and that most late abortions in the UK are carried out not in hospitals but in NHS-affiliated clinics, and are performed by foreign doctors? Ive seen Professor Anand talk, Ive looked at his research. Its this kind of evidence that has shifted the mood in this country about abortion. Public opinion is changing, and changing fast. Amillia is now home with her parents. Her early health difficulties  the result of her desperately premature birth  are not expected to leave her with any long-term problems. (How Could Anyone Look at This Photo and Deny Its Time to Cut the Abortion Limit? by Amanda Platell). These are some of the examples from the article which suggest the clear and evident success that the author achieves in persuading the readers with his style of writing. There is great logical development evident in the article. However, the explanations about the various arguments are not organised effectively, and there is some vagueness about the ultimate aim of this persuasive writing. Thus, the articles under discussion have great validity in comprehending the persuasive techniques, rhetorical tools and effectiveness of the arguments while also comprehending the fallacies in the art of rhetoric.

Bibliography

The Art of Rhetoric: Learning How to Use the Three Main Rhetorical Styles. Web.

Four Basic Facts about Abortion, by Julian Burnside. Web.

How Could Anyone Look at This Photo and Deny Its Time to Cut the Abortion Limit? by Amanda Platell. Web.

In order to craft a compelling argument and introduce it to the target audience in a convincing way, a set of rhetorical strategies needs to be considered. In his article Marxism, morality, and human nature, Phil Gasper demonstrates the use of several effective rhetorical strategies as the means of enhancing the argument. Although the rhetorical devices such as hypophora are quite effective, several logical fallacies, such as the appeal to authority, weaken Gaspers argument. Gaspers article features quite a number of rhetorical devices, hypophora being one of the most noticeable. Defined as a question that is immediately answered by the author, the specified device is expected to draw the audiences attention to a specific issue.

In Gaspers essay, hypophora is used twice: Where, though, do our ideas of morality come from? and SO HOW does this relate to morality? (Gasper par. 4; par. 18). As a result, the author marks the key points in his argumentation, drawing the readers attention to them successfully.

However, afterward, Gasper introduces an obvious appeal to authority as a means of supporting his statement. Namely, he alludes to the assertions made by one of the scholars as the unquestionable truth: As the anthropologist R. Brian Ferguson points out (Gasper par. 11). Therefore, the overall argument is slightly weakened, even though Gasper introduces rather sensible ideas in his statement. Despite the positive impact that the use of hypophora as a rhetorical device has on Gaspers argument in Marxism, morality, and human nature, the logical fallacy of the appeal to authority reduces the extent of his statements credibility. Overall, the rhetorical strategy that Gasper uses in his article can be considered passable since it encourages an active discussion and introduces a new an insightful idea to the discourse. Nonetheless, the argument could be improved by addressing the fallacy in question.

Work Cited

Gasper, Phil. Marxism, Morality, and Human Nature. International Socialist Review, n.d. Web.

In The Advertised Infant: Ivans Adventures in Babyland, Carole Corbeil discusses how parents use baby products to assist them in raising their children. In the text, the author tries to present the consequences of delegating parental roles to baby products. Although Corbeil has attempted to argue against baby products using rhetorical strategies and devices to drive the points, more research is needed to uncover the consequences of these products on children before making a convincing case.

The text clearly shows that the author has used three rhetorical strategies: pathos, ethos, and logos. In demonstrating pathos, the author develops a brief but well-thought-out thesis statement. The thesis sets the foundation and can be used to determine the focus of the essay. The thesis statement is the artificial heartbeat did, theres no getting around it, reminding Ivan of better times (Corbeil 146). The author supports the thesis by providing in-depth reasons and credible evidence on how parents have neglected their children to pursue their dreams. Corbeil uses reason to show that parents want to be at two places simultaneously; thus, they purchase the advertised baby products that can distract the children. The author presents the argument logically and in an understandable order.

Ethos, which is the appeal to credibility, is demonstrated in various ways. First, the author is qualified as she was an arts writer and critic of This Magazine, Saturday Night, Canadian Art, and The Globe and Mail. She won the City of Toronto Book Ward in 1993 using her novel Voice-Over published in 1993 (Corbeil 146). She has published other works, some of which have been adapted into theater plays. Moreover, the author respects multiple viewpoints by using other sources to cement her points. She uses quotation marks for information extracted from other sources, such as the nursery listening system for parents peace of mind (Corbeil 146). This information was drawn from an advertisement for the product. She uses appropriate diction for the target audience, and the text is presented in a professional design.

Lastly, the author uses pathos, which is the appeal to emotions. Clear examples have been used to probe the readers imagination. For instance, throughout the text, the author uses the life of a baby named Ivan. She describes how Ivans parents have purchased numerous products, so their child can be less of a burden. The products include the voice-activated crib mobile, orthodontic pacifier, activity center, glow-worm, and many others (Corbeil 146-147). These examples appeal to the emotions and beliefs of the readers; thus, they are relatable.

Besides rhetorical strategies, Corbeil applies various rhetorical devices to illustrate her point. Personification is seen throughout the text through the story of Ivan. Ivans parents used baby products to act as human substitutes for their childs comfort. For instance, the author describes the nursery listening system for parents which has two ears; one in the babys room and one in the parents current position (Corbeil 146). The devices act as human ears, monitoring the baby. The product has been given a human function; listening to the baby and conveying the information to the parent. The author has also used irony to cement her argument.

She writes that the Big Ones agenda is vastly more important than ones own (Corbeil 151). This statement implies that parents value their interests, such as careers, more than they value their children. This is ironic since people should focus more on their offspring than anything else. Baby products have made parents less bothered to care about their responsibilities of raising their children. Also, instances of metaphor are seen in the text. For example, the author writes, the Big One takes an eternity to come and see him (Corbeil 147). The term eternity has been used to emphasize that the parents take a long time before going to see their baby. The metaphor is used to emphasize the point.

Though Corbeil makes a solid argument, there are instances of fallacies in the text. The author uses a slippery slope in pointing out the consequences of using baby products instead of parental presence. The author argues that later in life, Ivan will want to sleep with a walkman, suck on artificial heart valves, physical and metaphorical doors will give him anxiety, and he will prefer to be restrained during sex (Corbeil 148). These arguments are slippery and do not have a credible backup. The author should have taken a lifetime study of Ivan instead of predicting outcomes without supporting evidence for the occurrence of these events.

Hasty generalization is observed when the author assumes that the childs future will be messed up entirely based on the baby products. The author argues that Babyland separates the baby from the rest of the world, thus, they will not learn their culture (Corbeil 148). This is a hasty generalization since only one aspect of the childs growth has been considered. This conclusion does not consider other elements contributing to the babys growth and development, such as religion, language, education, and other interactions.

In conclusion, the author has presented a reasonable argument; however, more research is needed to establish this perspective. The ethos, pathos, and logos are well presented, elaborating the authors views. Also, the author uses rhetorical devices such as irony, metaphors, and personification to illustrate the points vividly. However, instances of hasty generalization and slippery slope fallacies are evident. For example, the author uses a small portion of the babys growth, the use of baby products, to build up the childs future. Other growth and development perspectives, such as education, religion, language, and others, should be integrated to make this argument sound.

Work Cited

Corbeil, Carole. The Advertised Infant: Ivans Adventures in Babyland. 1987. 146-151.

PayPals online payment commercial intends to make life easy for the audience. It was made on the belief that every day should be simple. The commercials primary target is millennials old enough to enter into a legal contract. Therefore, it targets the various segments for anyone above 18 years. I consider this commercial to be effective in reaching its target audience because the solution it presents of making it simple to buy, sell, and send money anywhere with a simple click while observing its clients privacy meets the needs of millennials directly. They constantly shop online and want everything simplified to avoid the hustle of physically booking tickets, buying goods, and enjoying easy checkouts. This essay will examine how ethos, logos, and kairos are utilized in PayPals online commercial to show how the company makes life simple.

Ethos is a technique of appealing to ethics and is used to depict the credibility of content or the persuader (Brinks). An example from the commercial is the list of popular brands that accept PayPal payments, such as Uber, Airbnb, TypeTees, Jane, and StubHub (PayPal 01:08-01:15). PayPal attempts to convince its audience that they are correct by using words that have weight which can evoke the audience to take them seriously. For instance, PayPal uses the visual aid of a guy that calls for a ride using its online payment module (PayPal 0:20-0:26). The combination of the Uber logo and the visual aid helps link the compatibility of PayPals online payment services with the transport services, which boosts the companys credibility.

Additionally, the commercial utilizes kairos which promotes the idea that the time for a particular action or thought has come (Brinks). The commercial uses two concepts to persuade its audience using the technique. First, PayPal says, To pay without giving out credit card numbers or personal information (PayPal 0:37-0:41). Data protection and privacy are a concern to individuals worldwide. The commercial assures its clients of privacy which is a tactical use of the rhetorical appeal that contributes to the commercials persuasive nature. Secondly, the claim that we believe every day should be simple gets supported through the commercials use of kairos (PayPal 0:00-0:03). The commercial utilizes visual aid to show how PayPal makes life simple. For example, a father pays fees for his daughter and friends that split the cheque (PayPal 0:27-0:36). Millennials want their lives to be simple, where they can sell or buy items from anywhere they want.

Furthermore, the claim that PayPal is the most trusted way that millions of people buy, sell and send anywhere they want gets supported through the commercials use of logos (PayPal 0:41-0:47). Therefore, the commercial uses statistics to seek to persuade and convince its listeners. An example is the use of a persuasive tone bucked up with visual aids of individuals from different races and ethnic backgrounds to support the millions of users concept. The visual aspect is an impetus that may attract individuals of various races and ethnic origins to sign up for the companys services. Moreover, it uses specific language to tempt viewers to consider PayPal for its services. The commercial utilizes the data to persuade viewers into signing up for the organization.

PayPal is a popular online service platform for millennials that calls on the world to embrace its ability to simplify their lives. The company offers a simple method for the purchase, sale, and transfer of funds in addition to privacy for its clients. Such elements have allowed PayPal to engage its target audience while delivering the message of the simplicity of life. The logic behind this is that the target audience could see one click on the commercial and live simple lives as it appears in the commercial.

References

Brinks, Melissa. Ethos, Pathos, Logos, Kairos: The Modes of Persuasion and How to Use Them. Prepscholar.com, 2019, Web.

PayPal. Online Payments  PayPal Commercial. YouTube, 2015, Web.

Introduction

Pity for those who spend thousands of dollars on a college degree and do not even learn to distinguish fact from fiction. Sam Wineburg and Nadav Ziv think American university students cannot consistently identify misinformation online. They cite a study, conducted by themselves, that shows the ineffectiveness of modern online credibility guidelines. The authors blame the students failures in detecting misinformation on the CRAAP test, a reliability test employed by major universities. Wineburg and Ziv exploit the research finding to promote the idea that educational institutions must provide up-to-date training in online credibility assessment that would substitute archaic and subpar standards proposed in 1998.

Authors, Audience, and Purpose

Sam Wineburg, a professor of American Studies at Stanford University, and Nadav Ziv, a then-junior student of international relations author of the article. Wineburg is the head of the History Education Group at Stanford, an awarded Liberal Arts educator, and a widely published scholar. Nadav Ziv is a research assistant at Stanford History Education Group and a remarkable columnist. The articles primary audiences are students and educators. The text infers that students must be scrutinous while assessing the reliability of online sources, as the digitalized age provides plentiful instruments for purposeful deception. The authors urge for a drastic change in the national approach to credibility education, which is evident from the appeal to public endangerment at the very end of the editorial.

Rhetorical Analysis

The article reveals itself as a rhetorical piece if examined through the Aristotelian lens. Rhetoric aims to persuade and transform opinions according to a rhetors desired outcome. From an Aristotelian perspective, a rhetorical message consists of 3 elements: ethos, pathos, and logos. It is not necessary, however, for a rhetor to appeal to all three constituents, as some can be more or less prevalent. Nevertheless, the article by Wineburg and Ziv encapsulates all elements of Aristotles model but does not employ them evenly.

Ethos

Ethos is best understood as an appeal to authorial credibility, character, and ethics. This element, depending on perspective, is the least represented in the text. It is seen in the tone and assertive tone utilized by the authors. Wineburg and Ziv clearly argue from the point of expertise, having conducted the referenced study themselves. They thoroughly discredit the CRAAP assessment, proposing possible solutions to the misinformation problem afterward. Wineburgs proficiency in education is radiant in this piece. He offers insight on the subject regularly, abstaining from mere criticism. For example, when he addresses the fact that undergraduates evaluate sites credibility based on the contents of About pages, he instantly suggests educating students about curated portraits of how people and organizations want to be perceived (Wineburg and Ziv, para. 8). Ethos, the argument from expertise, is reflected primarily through frequent suggestions and educational insight.

Logos

Logos can be defined as simple as an appeal to logic and rational inference. Logical conclusions in the works of rhetoric usually derive from carefully constructed arguments supported by evidence. The primary source used by the authors is their own study on student credibility evaluation. The key findings of the study are cited throughout the paper. For instance, the editorial directly cites the number of subjects examined and summarizes the outcome as follows: most of the 263 college students we tested floundered when trying to discern fact from fiction (Wineburg and Ziv, para. 3). Based on the research outcomes, Wineburg and Ziv construct a logical argument that outdated resources are not effective in application to the modern realities. Per contra, it can be argued that authors fail to distinguish between the gross efficacy of the CRAAP approach, questionable implementation thereof in educational institutions, and students lack of effortful learning. The CRAAP approach might not be as abysmal as the authors describe, especially if amended to adhere to current standards of online reliability. The issue might lie in the educators or students lack of engagement, understanding, and interest in addressing the notion of credibility.

Pathos

Finally, pathos is usually described as an appeal to emotion. Pathos can manifest in formal argumentation aiming to elicit a desired emotional response or through symbols throughout the text. In the editorial, Wineburg and Ziv exploit both permutations of emotional appeal. The direct formal argument towards emotion can be seen, for example, at the end of the paper, where the authors conclude by appealing to public jeopardy: because when anti-vaccine content goes mainstream, when Holocaust deniers peddle digital pseudo-histories, and when issues such as gerrymandering and police brutality are litigated online, no one can afford to shelter in place (Wineburg and Ziv, para. 16). The statement targets sensitive hot topics and vulnerable and formerly marginalized communities, immediately provoking a strong negative feeling towards the advocates of dangerous and obscure beliefs. The choice of words in this statement is deliberate, and the connection to the articles subject is crystal clear.

Conclusion

In summary, Wineburg and Ziv construct a persuasive case for educational adjustments, marking present instruments for credibility evaluation obsolete. If analyzed through the Aristotelian lens, their article appears to be a work of rhetoric employing ethos, pathos, and logos to construct the core argument. The editorial exploits authorial credibility, logical inferences, statistical evidence, and emotional appeals to persuade the intended audiences  students and educators. The text transcends empty criticism and suggests numerous changes to educational policies that would address current issues with credibility assessment.

Work Cited

Wineburg, Sam and Ziv, Nadav. Op-Ed: Why cant a generation that grew up online spot the misinformation in front of them? Los Angeles Times, Web.