Global changes in peoples sexual behavior, called the sexual revolution, have been taking place in the world since the middle of the last century. In a number of countries, this process continues to the present day. The essence of the sexual revolution is a radical breakdown of traditional norms, restrictions, and prohibitions in the field of sexual relations. Giddens argued that the impact globalization has on the most intimate and personal areas of peoples lives is no less, if not even more significant, than its impact on the economic, political, and ideological spheres of society (Giddens as cited in Stumbler et al., 2018). In turn, the sexual revolution, which changed the relationship between the sexes, requires significant changes in the interpretation of many political, social, pedagogical, and legal views that have existed for a long time regulating relations sex, love, and intimacy.
Main body
Human sexuality, not reducible to the sexual instinct, has existed at all times. Liberation only allowed it to more clearly manifest its multifaceted nature, in which researchers see such aspects as intimacy, eroticism, sensuality (psycho-emotionalness), the physicality of the individual (Taormino et al., 2013). Sexuality, as a persons vitality modulated by sexual attraction, manifests itself in a wide range of forms of intimate relationships and erotic-emotional behavior, which allows speaking of it as a socio-humanitarian transformed human sexual nature (Taormino et al., 2013). The main feature of the so-called plastic, or liberated, sexuality, which has lost its former strong connection with procreation and has spread throughout the world in recent decades, is an unprecedented variety and individualization of forms of sexual self-expression (Stombler et al., 2018). This forces scientists to talk about human sexuality not in the singular, but in the plural and encourages them to consider it not globally, but in specific socio-cultural and personal contexts.
Sexuality is no longer something natural and given in its normality and definiteness of goals. It ceases to be an instinct and becomes a personal characteristic, consciously formed and inherently connected with the Self-concept of a person, with his/her self and identity. In 2016, Spa Finder published a large survey of trends in sexual wellbeing (Johnston, 2019). It noted that the wellness industry up to this point included all possible aspects: physical and mental health, spirituality, comfort in the workplace, but completely excluded the issue of sex. The authors claimed 2016 as the year when sex in the public mind finally became part of self-care (Johnston, 2019). Six futurists predict that by 2028, more than 25% of young people will have long-distance sex using gadgets, and by 2045, one in 10 will have an intimate experience with an AI-powered sex doll (Johnston, 2019). In addition, it is important to note that the widespread of homosexual contacts, which arose as a result of the transformation of societys ideas about sexuality, was the reason for changes in the regulatory documents of many countries.
Significant changes have occurred in public perception of the sex industry. Although the stigma that the profession carries, sometimes makes life difficult for sex workers. Many of the sex workers have previously worked or continue to work in health care, welfare, education, or charities (Fox, 2018). These workers themselves note that intimacy and tactile contact is a natural, biological way to feel good.
Conclusion
In this context, the need for constant sociological research of the changes that occur in the sexual culture of various socio-demographic communities is obvious. Here a huge layer of little-studied issues lies, that are interesting for sociological theorizing and empirical measurement. This implies the study of intimacy in ontogenesis and its transformation in the form of socio-cultural norms, rules, and customs. It is also of interest to study the consequences and prerequisites of shifting the boundaries of the intimate, internal and external, de-intimated, the study of the manifestation of intimacy in the public area.
References
Fox, F. (2018). A sex worker perspective. Porn Studies, 5(2), 197-199.
Johnston, C. M. (2019). On the evolution of intimacy: A brief exploration into the past, present, and future of gender and love. ICD Press.
Stombler, M., Baunach, D., Burgess, E., Simonds, W., Windsor, E. (2018). Sex matters: The sexuality and society reader. W. W. Norton & Company.
Taormino, T., Shimizu, C., Penley, C., Miller-Young, M. (2013). The feminist porn book: The politics of producing pleasure. The Feminist Press at CUNY.
Cognitive Revolution refers to the period (70,000 years ago) when Homo sapiens developed cognitive abilities that surpassed other animals during that era. The cognitive mutation enabled them to acquire better linguistic skills, making it possible to ingest, store and share information about the surrounding environment (Harari, 2015). The change in DNA also gave the Sapiens the power to imagine things they had never seen or touched.
What distinguishes human language from other animals is the ability to manipulate a limited number of sounds to produce infinite words and sentences, each with a different meaning. Other animals like the green monkeys may only use different types of calls or sounds to warn each other that a lion is in the vicinity. However, Sapiens can also imagine a lion as the guardian spirit of their tribe.
Sapiens have superior knowledge that mainly contributes to their success with other species. The author asserts that Homo Sapiens conquered the world thanks to its unique language (Harari, 22). The two central functions of language include gossiping and talking about things that do not exist. It was important for Sapiens to gossip about the individuals they thought were honest, sleeping together, or hated each other within the group. They could also use language to discuss things they had never seen before, such as gods or spirits. Such myths offered them unprecedented ability to do things collectively like to organize into groups.
Gossips and myths enable Sapiens to form two types of human communities. In this case, the maximum natural size of a group joined or bonded by gossip includes 150 people. This allows them to interact and talk about individuals they know intimately. Nothing exists beyond the stories people invent and convey to each other. However, when the group grows beyond the required threshold, it becomes impossible to gossip. Consequently, the common beliefs or myths about gods and human rights allow a large group of strangers to work together (Harari, 2015). This type of cooperation is responsible for the creation of settlements comprising thousands of inhabitants.
An Imagined Order refers to a directive that humans obey even if it is not grounded in an objective reality. It is based on stories that people invent, tell and attach meaning to (like gods) and then set rewards and punishments for obeying them. The Code of Hammurabi comprises rules used to create a social order in ancient Mesopotamia. It commanded the Mesopotamians that god Anu and Enlil (the leading deities) elected Hammurabi to stop privileged people from oppressing disadvantaged individuals and making justice prevail. One of the directives reads, If a superior man kills the daughter of another superior man, the killers daughter is executed as punishment (Harari, 106). This is a powerful intersubjectivity myth because people never questioned why the murderer should not be punished in the first place.
References
Aristotle. (2011). Nicomachean ethics. The University of Chicago
Harari, Y. N. (2015). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Harper.
The Scientific Revolution was when philosophers began to discover truths about existence and the universe through intensive research and experimentation without relying on the influence of Christian theology for solutions. Philosophers such as Galileo contributed knowledge to the Scientific Revolution through thought experiments that led to numerous discoveries (Zanatta 1). Galileo enhanced the telescope to produce magnified images of the stars and galaxies. He used the information from this study to develop his theory of gravity (Drago 35). In addition, he improved the telescope, and his findings backed his heliocentric astronomical theory. Galileo also delved into metaphysics and analyzed speed, velocity, and technology, which helped develop theoretical concepts and assertions (Zanatta 1). Therefore, Galileo is the hero of modern science after pioneering the experimental scientific method, making important astronomical discoveries, developing critical scientific theories, and displaying a resilience that influenced the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century.
In the early revolutionary years, European life was structured by the Christian perspective of the world. The church was dominant in establishing the truth about the earths existence and everything in its environment (Zanatta 1). However, the western civilization after the European conquest of the Americans was a breakthrough that sponsored new practices and systems, including education and contemporary technology (Brooks 33). This factor enabled students like Galileo to improve upon foreign concepts by improving technological devices. In 1609, Galileo, a medicine student dropout, enhanced the telescope to help observe objects at far distances (Zanatta 1). He observed the moons surface with the device and discovered four new stars within the planets (Zanatta 1). Other theologians considered the earth a perfect place, but Galileo uncovered the mysteries revolving around geocentric notions. The developments of the experimental method and the countless ways it has been applied to create new scientific findings have been significant historical milestones in the development of modern science.
Galileos astronomical approach led to various discoveries that promoted the Scientific Revolution. His development and improvement of the telescope and the new stars initiated a theory known as the heliocentric model. This theory indicated that the earth and all its planets revolved around the sun (Zanatta 1). He justified this claim by explaining that the earth is at the center and various astronomical components can be seen from its surface (Zanatta 1). This theory helped study the earth from a simple approach to a scientific model bringing new insights into the worlds perception and laying the ground for more research about the solar system.
Galileo made many contributions to science and astronomy. He was the first to describe the four largest moons of Jupiter, which are now known as the Galilean moons. He also made several groundbreaking observations of the Sun, Moon, and planets, including the observation that Venus exhibits phases like the moon (Caruana 49). This work was the most controversial, considering that it spearheaded the dialogue about the Two Chief World Systems, which argued that the Copernican model was correct and that the earth revolved around the sun. His observations helped further validate the Copernican solar system model, which stated that the planets orbit the sun rather than the earth (Zanatta 1). His book served as a scientific guide to understanding the philosophical approach to the earth without any religious influence. This courage to challenge the norm through scientific evidence laid the foundation for viable research.
Some of the most integral astronomical discoveries included the experiments of motion, which proved the forces on the earth. Galileos proportional compass was used to make observations and solve mathematical problems in proportion. As a mathematician, he was passionate about creating a device that would solve geographical and astronomical problems. This invention indicated a geographical touch with the environment and a deep interest in developing tools that could help sustain astronomical activities considering that they helped survey territories and undertake geometrical calculations. Consequently, the father of modern science also invented the thermoscope, which has significant viability in detecting temperature changes (Zanatta 1). The device was integral for astronomers who wanted to experiment on the difference in temperature between the earth and space. All these contributions were integral in exposing the opportunities available for contemporary science and future studies. His contributions have been integral in establishing approaches towards developing sophisticated equipment that can help understand the earth better.
For Galileo, mathematics was the universal language, and he saw arithmetic representation in nature. Also, he believed mathematics was the key to deciphering the reality of natural phenomena. Galileos contributions to physics were revolutionary because they showed how careful observation and measurement might reveal hidden causes that mathematically articulated natures underlying symmetry. As Caruana (49) mentions, Galileo preferred to be overconfident, considering that he would often produce supplementary hypotheses that bordered on the unusual to downplay the significance of evidence contradicting his findings. He delved into sophisticated research that resulted in a new theory of focus, which was instrumental in promoting a better understanding of his scientific rationales (Zanatta 1). His work in mathematics, such as his work on the infinite series, provided a foundation for calculus and advanced mathematics, which is important in current principles studies.
One of the best experiments that contributed to a Scientific Revolution focused on weight and gravity using the law of falling bodies and inertia, which helped explain the behavior of objects in motion. The famous Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment by Galileo proved that the acceleration of free fall is independent of object weight (Zanatta 1). This experiment, commonly referred to as Galileos Leaning Tower of Pisa study, directly contradicted the central tenet of Aristotles theory of gravity, which held that objects fell at speed related to their weight (Drago 35). In this experiment, Galileo simultaneously dropped two spheres of distinct weight from a tower, hitting the ground at equal intervals. This experiment demonstrated that objects fall rate is the same regardless of weight. This study paved the way for other philosophers to examine how gravity works and initiate new concepts into the study of matter and weight and their interrelationship.
The polymath was also concerned about the idea of infinity which is something no one had explored. Drago (18) mentions that this mathematical philosophy created the abstraction of infinity by normalizing it as a set of natural numbers. In this concept, Galileo introduced the idea of two infinity, including AI and PI, which have been integral in understanding physics and contributing to modern scientific discoveries. Galileo created the infinity theory after realizing that numerical values alone cannot define arithmetical operations to infinite objects. Therefore, this new approach would help formulate new laws and applications in the study of infinity (Galilei). This law was formally applied to strengthen the notion of infinity in theoretical physics, and this was a significant step in the culmination of mathematical concepts and physics. Therefore, this study led to a Scientific Revolution of critical analysis and comparison of different concepts in science.
Scientific theories pioneered by Galileo were instrumental in enhancing the Scientific Revolution and demystifying non-scientific claims. The Copernicus theory is one example of a scientific philosophy that challenged the roman religion or superstition (Galilei). After viewing the moon through the magnified telescope, he discovered that it did not have a smooth surface or structure but had ridges resembling the earth. During this discovery, The Catholic Church had so much power and authority concerning the earths geological makeup. (Drago 35). Galileo was summoned to Rome to face trial after publishing scientific journals about his astronomical findings and his justification for the heliocentric, or Sun-centered, earth. This theory has been instrumental in helping different experts, including geologists, understand the universe, with theories such as the earth being cylindrical being established.
Galileos sacrifices to modern science are unmatched, which justifies him as the greatest contributor to the Scientific Revolution. After challenging the Roman Catholic idea of the centeredness of the earth, he was accused and sanctioned for being heresy, or someone who disagreed with the traditions of the church, in the beginning, and the penalty sometimes was death. Although Galileos charges were withdrawn, he was instructed to stop sharing his findings about the earths centeredness or revolving properties with the masses (Drago 35). Galileo deepened his understanding of astronomy and grew more and more certain that the sun was the center of the solar system. He published a work in 1632 that, among other things, argued in favor of Copernicus heliocentric theory. Galileo was brought before the inquisition once more and was found guilty of defying Roman principles (Drago 35). Galileo was given a life sentence in prison and placed under house detention, where he passed away. His contributions are undeniable and impactful in studying the moon and the stars, which has become an integral philosophy.
Galileos life and work were a major influence on the development of the Scientific Revolution. His observations and experiments helped disprove many of the assumptions held by the church and gave rise to a new field of scientific inquiry. His work in mathematics, physics, and astronomy laid the foundations of modern science. His courage in adversity set a powerful example of the importance of free scientific inquiry. Galileos work in astronomy, mathematics, and physics profoundly impacted the Scientific Revolution, and his contributions are still felt today. He improved the telescope to make groundbreaking magnified observations of the moon and the planets, disproving the idea that the earth was the center of the universe. He believed that observations and experiments should be used to test theories rather than relying solely on faith or tradition. His famous experiments with inclined planes and pendulums helped demonstrate the power of the scientific method, which established the scientific inquiry revolution.
Works Cited
Brooks, Christopher David. Western Civilization: A Concise History. Portland Community College, 2019.
In the 21 century, internet technology gave entrance to various internet tools. These tools have incorporated in bringing the world together through fast and efficient global communication. Acuff provides that the creation of internet tools such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube made information distribution from one to many, many to nationality; hence, global sharing (221). Over the decade, the internet has been used by several activists in achieving their revolution goals. Social media has been able to stimulate and unite people in fighting for liberty and democracy, thus, destroying dictatorial leadership. This paper discusses the roles, which Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube have played in speeding up activists activities on the world stage in the past years, such as 2011 Arab spring revolution, which led to Egypt Facebook revolution of January 2011 and 2009 Twitter uprising in Iran.
Social Media and Uprising of Activism and Revolution in the Middle East
El-Mahdi provides that the 2009 survey of 16 Arab countries, showed a tremendous increase in internet use over the last decades reaching to more than 40 million users, thus, encouraging the activists works (87). Social media played an innovative role in the 2011 Arab spring revolution, which took place throughout the Middle East and North Africa. The social media chatting started before the beginning of the real revolution (El-Mahdi 89). It was through social media that people shared their stories about the revolution, thus, encouraging neighboring countries. The activists were able to reach a large population through messages, encouraging them to keep fighting for their democracy.
Facebook and YouTube on Activism and Revolution in Egypt
In 2011, the Egyptians began their historic revolution which was named the Facebook revolution. During this time, large groups of people met at the streets campaigning and demanding for integrity, end of corruption, and freedom. The movement tried its best to make sure the President did not remain in power. This was made possible by serious demonstration throughout the city center, hence reaching to the governors offices. The increase in demonstration made the President send the army in the streets to silence demonstrators. Therefore, activists came up with other strategies of organizing their plans of action through social media. According to El-Mahdi, almost 5 million Egyptians are members of the social networking sites, which is about seven percent of the entire Egyptian population (102). With the available numbers of the Egyptians on Facebook, the activists managed to use it to send messages to various groups of people informing them about street meeting points. It was also through YouTube, the activists created We Are All Khaled Said Facebook page which exposed corruption among police forces. This page became the most liked, thus, facilitating the movement against the pitiless police.
Twitter and YouTube on Activism and Revolution in Iran
In 2009, Twitter uprising revolution in Iran happened when the presidential election results were announced leaving most of the people unsatisfied. This led to demonstration demanding for democracy, claiming that the election was fraudulent. Acuff argued that people joined in street protests throughout Iranian cities such as Shiraz and Isfahan, refusing the elected president. Even with the official veto on political activism, people went ahead fearlessly to demonstrate seeking their right (221). However, through social media such as Twitter and YouTube activists could easily progress their protests. Social media were used to display the police actions on the streets. Images and videos of the police shooting and beating people in the streets were shown to people by use of YouTube. These images facilitated the fight against the government as most of the activists became angrier with its leadership.
It was through social media that the activists worked together by exchanging views on how to advance their protests. The protest died along the way before achieving the revolution; It lasted with the elected president ruling the country (Ghannam 58). However, the fast development of the internet in Iran played a big role in uniting activists during the protests. Although the Iranians use Yahoo and Google, Twitter played immense covering during the 2009 protests. Most of the twitter hashtags such as Iran Election became trendy among Twitter users outside Iran. The simplicity, flexibility, and openness of Twitter made it possible for the hash tags to circulate without being noticed by the government. This made the commentators name the protests a Twitter Revolution even though they did not win in bringing the full revolution.
Conclusion
As indicated by Ghannam, internet tools such as Twitter and Facebook were of great use during Middle East political protest, but social media should not be taken as the cause of starting political revolutions (51). It is important to note that social media can possibly put efforts towards political revolutions, but only under firm conditions. For activists to succeed in social media there must be a connection of events, forces, and people to facilitate in bringing a successful political revolution.
Works Cited
Acuff, Jonathan. Social Networking Media and the Revolution that Wasnt. InMedia, Power, and Politics in the Digital Age: The 2009 Presidential Election Uprising in Iran. Ed. Y. Kamalipour, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefied Publishers, Inc, 2010. Print.
El-Mahdi, Rabab. The Democracy Movement: Cycles of Protest. In Egypt: The Moment of Change. Eds. R. El-Mahdi and P. Marfleet, London: Zed Books, 2009. Print.
Ghannam, Jeffrey. Social Media in the Arab World: Leading Up to the Uprisings of 2011. A Report to the Center for International Media Assistance, 2011. Washington, D.C, 2011. Print.
The Arab spring refers to the uprisings that took place in North Africa and the Middle East in the early 2010s. The revolution in Egypt took place in 2011 and led to the fall of the regime of President Hosni Mubarak (Alexander and Aouragh 891). Alalawi stresses that the major goals of the Egyptian uprising were the resignation of Mubarak and the fight against poverty, corruption, accuracy, especially in food, unemployment and police brutality (132). It is necessary to note that media played a certain role in the development of the revolutionary movement, but different types of media were used differently. This paper focuses on different roles print media, news agencies and social media played in the Egyptian revolution of 2011.
It is possible to start with the analysis of print media that could be divided into three major types such as local pro-governmental, local independent and international newspapers. The messages were created and communicated by professionals whose opinions were often rather biased (Elmasry et al. 1633). As for the pro-governmental newspapers, they claimed that the revolution was a threat to the order and the overall well-being of the nation (Hamdy and Gomaa 197). They tried to make people less willing to participate in the uprising. At the same time, independent sources tried to be more objective, at least, at the beginning of the revolution. However, they soon started revealing their support of the protestors views and actions. Hamdy and Gomaa emphasize that independent newspapers had a more people-oriented perspective as compared to state-owned sources as the former focused on such aspects as social justice and peoples well-being rather than economic or political outcomes (201).
International news agencies also tried to remain objective, but this goal was rarely achieved. Alalawi considers the way FOX News highlighted the events and states that the channel was rather biased, and it distorted certain events as well as shaped the public opinion concerning some of the major stakeholders (133). It is necessary to note that FOX News can be regarded as one of the most influential sources in the USA (and is viewed by a large international audience). However, the reporters of this news agency often associated the Muslim Brotherhood (which was one of the important forces in the revolutionary movement) with Islamic extremism and terrorism, a fanatical and radical organization that was menace against democracy in Egypt (Alalawi 136). It is noteworthy that the most influential local news agency, Al Jazeera, was also rather biased, but it revealed another opinion on the matter. This news agency revealed its support of protestors and is even regarded as an important force that contributed to the resignation of Mubarak (Alalawi 137). It is necessary to add that local people watched Al Jazeera while people across the globe learned about the situation in Egypt from FOX News reports.
Social media have also played a certain role in the uprising. They were used by protestors who highlighted events and informed about the locations for certain actions (Aouragh and Alexander 1354). Importantly, social media were not used by workers who are regarded as one of the major forces that contributed to the fall of the regime (Aouragh and Alexander 1353). Researchers note that this fact can be explained by a considerable attention (of police, for example) paid to unions and certain workers activities. Nevertheless, workers still managed to hold numerous acts of social unrest, protests and so on even though they did not use any type of media mentioned above. Social media are also regarded as two-sided as they could help protestors communicate and plan their activities while they could also be used as a surveillance tool detecting the most active people (Aouragh and Alexander 1353).
It is necessary to note that the peculiarities of each type of media affected the way they contributed to the uprising. There are different views on the actual impact of social media as some believe that they played the central role while others stress that these tools can also be used to suppress uprisings and shape the public opinion (Comunello and Anzera 464). Many young people and some scholars stress that social media can be seen as some of the primary tools of the revolution. However, this effect was rather specific. For instance, Aouragh and Alexander note that social media could not cause the revolution as it was a result of various social and political movements and actions that had taken place before the 2010s (1353). At the same time, the attempts to shut down cell phone connection and social media were an important impetus that pushed even apolitical people to take action (Comunello and Anzera 465). It is also noteworthy that the outcomes of the use of social media were far-reaching as the news (or rather messages and images) were made known to the public across the globe. This wide coverage could also contribute to the fall of Mubarak through the attention other countries paid to the conflict.
As for the role of newspapers and news agencies, these media can be regarded as major sources of information for many people and a tool to shape peoples perspectives. Elmasry et al. stress that Egyptian journalists and media tend to lack objectivity due to the long history of oppression that has characterized the development of media in the country (1633). Although Egyptians were aware of this flaw, they still used newspapers as the major source of knowledge especially when there were problems with the Internet and mobile connection (Hamdy and Gomaa 208). When it comes to TV news channels, their role was rather confined to highlighting events from a particular perspective, which was also noticed by Egyptians as well as people across the world (Alalawi 138). Therefore, these media were regarded as some sources of information that communicated particular messages to the target audience.
In conclusion, it is difficult to identify the most influential media that contributed greatly to the success of the revolution in Egypt. It is necessary to consider all the types of media mentioned above as different facets of a concept that played an important role in the uprising. At that, media did not cause the revolution. It is impossible to note that media were central forces that helped people overthrow the regime. However, they still played an important role as they highlighted different perspectives. Sometimes social media are regarded as the central tool used by protestors to arrange various venues. However, this role was largely overestimated. This brief analysis of the role of media shows that media can shape the public opinion, they can be used as the tool of unification of anti-regime forces or the oppression tool. These characteristics should be taken into account when analyzing protests or organizing them.
Works Cited
Alalawi, Noura. How Media Covered Arab Spring Movement: Comparison Between the American Fox News and the Middle Eastern Al Jazeera. Journal of Mass Communication & Journalism, vol. 5, no. 11, 2015, pp. 131-140.
Alexander, Anne, and Miriyam Aouragh. Egypts Unfinished Revolution: The Role of the Media Revisited. International Journal of Communication, vol. 8, 2014, pp. 890-915.
Aouragh, Miriyam, and Anne Alexander. The Egyptian Experience: Sense and Nonsense of the Internet Revolution. International Journal of Communication, vol. 5, 2011, pp. 1344-1358.
Comunello, Francesca, and Giuseppe Anzera. Will the Revolution Be Tweeted? A Conceptual Framework for Understanding the Social Media and the Arab Spring. Islam and ChristianMuslim Relations, vol. 23, no. 4, 2012, pp. 453-470.
Elmasry, Mohamad Hamas, Dina Mohamed Basiony, and Sara Farag Elkamel. Egyptian Journalistic Professionalism in the Context of Revolution: Comparing Survey Results from Before and After the January 25, 2011 Uprising. International Journal of Communication, vol. 8, 2014, pp. 1615-1637.
Hamdy, Naila, and Ehab H. Gomaa. Framing the Egyptian Uprising in Arabic Language Newspapers and Social Media. Journal of Communication, vol. 62, no. 2, 2012, pp. 195-211.
Georges Seurat is recognized as the pioneer of the Neo-Impressionist strategy, generally known as Divisionism, or Pointillism, an approach related to a flashing surface of little specks or strokes of color shades (Clancy 19). The works of Seurat include Bathers at Asnieres, Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grand Jatte, La Seine à la Grande-Jatte, Young Woman Powdering Herself, Circus Sideshow, and The Circus.
His developments were based on the new semi-logical philosophies about shading and expression. Consequently, the effortless magnificence of his work is explained by the impact of different sources. Georges Seurat suggested that modern art would indicate contemporary life like the traditional artisanship, with the exception it would utilize advanced procedures. Seurats interest in Gothic artistry and color expression made his work the first modern art to combine shades and unusual fonts of appearance.
His prosperity immediately moved him to the vanguard of the Parisian league. However, Seurat died at the early age of 31, leaving behind his innovations to the imagination of many artists. His advancement would be exceptionally powerful, forming a blueprint for artisans. Based on this premise, Georges Seurat became the pioneer of the Neo-Impressionist method of color shades.
Georges Ideology
The ideas of Georges Seurat revolutionized the impressionist era. Seurat was disturbed to relinquish Impressionisms distraction with what he viewed as the fundamental thought of everyday life. Based on this drive, Seurat acquired a large number of his methodologies from Impressionism, his affection for modern art, scenes of urban relaxation, the neighborhood, or obvious shade of delineated items, and attempt to catch the colors that cooperated to create their appearance (Hayes 13).
Seurat was preoccupied with a scope of logical thoughts regarding shades, form, and expression. He emphasized that line patterns and color dots of warmth could have expressive impacts. Seurat believed that colors could optically blend to yield a fine appearance. He developed a pattern called chromo-luminism, which describes the strategy for isolating shades into partitioned specks. This technique of color development was generally accepted as Divisionism, he also developed another pattern called Pointillism, which describes the strokes of paint that were vital to accomplish the glimmering impacts of his surfaces.
Seurats underlying senses were moderate and classical in style. He saw himself in the custom of awesome Salon painters and developed figures in his artworks as though they were figures in vast conventional paint. Seurats paintings are characterized by the quiet, stately elegance of early pictures like Bathers at Asnières and spearheaded a more powerful and adapted approach. For example, cartoons and posters conveyed a deep sense of mastery in color expression, little specks, and forms. The story of Georges Seurat cannot be complete without mentioning analyzing his paints.
Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grand Jatte
Seurats Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grand Jatte was a standout among his works in the Impressionist presentation in 1884. The photo took Seurat two years to finish, and he invested energy outlining in the recreation center in readiness. As a result, the art piece became the most celebrated photo of the 1880s. The size of the photo is equivalent to the measurements and the desire of real Salon pictures.
Consequently, the picture site was done on the Seine in northwest Paris. Seurats procedure was comparable, utilizing small dabs of multi-shaded paint that enables the admirers eye to mix hues optically, instead of having the hues mixed on the canvas or pre-mixed as a material color (Johnson 80). Seurat revealed his aspiration to influence individuals in their fundamental characteristics and place them on canvases sorted out by harmonies. However, the style of the Bathers at Asnières was removed in the La Grand Jatte. Consequently, the scene has a bustling vitality, and portions of the figures are delineated at frictional scales. It denoted the start of another primitivism in Seurats work that was motivated by the Neo-Impressionist technique (Potter 520).
Bathers at Asnières
Seurats first vital canvas, the Bathers, is his underlying endeavor at integrating elegance with modern art, logical techniques to shades and form. It shows a zone on the Seine, Paris, near the industrial facilities of Clichy. The Bathers at Asnières is Impressionist in its brilliance, and the approach conveys a style of love expression. The scene colors revealed Seurats enthusiasm in shades of a solitary tone. It is important to note the class figures in the scenes displayed a sharp disparity with the leisured bourgeois.
Young Woman Powdering Herself
The art is a picture of Seurats special woman Madeleine Knobloch. The Young woman powdering herself is a revering resemblance that differentiates classical arts of figures against the shaky Rococo paltriness. The art piece was characterized by cartoons and color symbolism.
In summary, the artworks summarized in this paper describe Seurats innovations in monumental paintings. He created a new technique in surface appearance, color dots, and decorative effects. As a result, the Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grand Jatte was celebrated as the masterpiece of his collections. Until his death, Seurat produced hundreds of artworks that displayed color theory and surface quality. By extension, Georges Seurat became the pioneer of the Neo-Impressionist method of color shades.
Works Cited
Clancy, John, editor. Impressionism: Historical Overview and Bibliography. Nova Science, 2003.
Hayes, John. Interpersonal Skills at Work. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2002.
Johnson, Cathy. Painting Nature in Watercolor with Cathy Johnson: 37 Step-by-step Demonstrations Using Watercolor Pencil and Paint. North Light Books, 2014.
Potter, Polyxeni. Optics and Biologic Connectedness. Emerging infectious Diseases, vol. 11, no. 3, 2005, pp. 512513.
Revolutions are not a new phenomenon, by any means, nor are they rare. Some of the earliest notable revolutions occurred during the Age of Revolution of 1774 to 1849, which saw an extraordinary surge in the number of significant revolutionary movements occurring in many parts of Europe and the Americas. Since then the idea and memories of revolutions have been omnipresent in the modern world, in part contributing to the creation of new ideas and ideologies. For example, much of the ideology of Conservatism is a testament to the impacts of the Revolution. Edmund Burke’s opposition to the French Revolution set many of the intellectual foundations of modern conservatism. Often accompanied by romantic notions of lasting positive change for the masses, they have certainly altered the course of history irrevocably.
How to define a revolution? The word revolution has begun to define big changes in almost anything not just within the sphere of politics e.g. a revolution in healthcare. But what does it mean in the narrowest sense of the word? What makes an event a revolution and not merely civil unrest? Oxford Dictionary defines a revolution as a forcible overthrow of a government or social order, in favor of a new system’. This implies that a revolution must succeed in its goals to be defined as such. However, Jack Goldstone, an American historian recognized as one of the leading authorities on the study of revolutions and long-term social change, defines a revolution as ‘an effort to transform the political institutions and the justifications for political authority in society, accompanied by formal or informal mass mobilization and non-institutionalized actions that undermine authorities’. For the purposes of this essay, I am going to adopt the latter definition as it seems to describe popular revolutions, as opposed to coup d’états, which I am more interested in, and accommodates for unsuccessful revolutions, which I do not think should be overlooked.
There has been much study on revolutions as they are hugely consequential however early studies only tended to concentrate on the same four revolutions: the Glorious Revolution, the French Revolution, the Russian Revolution, and the Chinese Revolution. However, the Harvard historian Crane Brinton began to focus on other revolutions such as the English Civil War and the American Revolution, leading to scholars analyzing many other events as revolutions. Nowadays, hundreds of events are classified as revolutions, and the list keeps expanding.
It is clear that revolutions can have terrible consequences. For instance, the French revolution, whilst ultimately positive, did lead to the widespread massacre of Frenchmen suspected of not completely supporting the Revolution, indiscriminate torture and murder in France, especially against nobles and priests, decades of violence throughout Europe, including the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, and the stunting of the Industrial Revolution in France. The Russian Revolution led to a hugely devastating Civil War, a near-unprecedented level of oppressive control, the potentially most destructive war the world would ever experience, the Cold War, and widespread poverty, famine, and starvation. Given the severity of the potential consequences of revolutions, it is important that we ask ourselves: is it worth it? Why disrupt the stability of a country, risk lives, and gamble with your freedom if your life won’t improve if you succeed? Different revolutions have different short-term goals, often institutions or governments they wish to overthrow, but long-term they all have the same goal. All participants of popular revolutions are ultimate, at a basic level, looking to improve their lives. Take the example of the French Revolution again, fundamentally, the revolution was driven by a desire for a better quality of life by the “Third Estate”, the commoners and bourgeoisie. The “Third Estate” could clearly see the dichotomy between the excesses and comfortable life enjoyed by the aristocracy and monarchy and their own lives, paying enormous taxes to pay off the old national debt and ubiquitous poverty. In the revolution, the monarch was abolished, and democracy was developed. Civic rights were implemented. It granted freedom of speech, worship, association, press, and ownership of land. However far too many revolutions end in bloodshed and an exchange of power from one elite to another. This was the case during the Romanian revolution of 1989. The dictator Ceausescu was overthrown by the masses, and over 1,000 Romanians died, but the military immediately filled the power chasm, not the democracy that the people had hoped for. Thus, we return to the aforementioned question: is it worth it?
In this essay, I will be using three case studies to explore this question: the 2003 Ukrainian Orange Revolution, the 2014 Hong Kong Umbrella Revolution, and the 2011 Libyan Revolution. Firstly, I think they are from across a diverse array of countries, hopefully negating certain factors that will affect the study. Secondly, they are recent so there are resources available, and easy to find on the Internet, and people who have witnessed them who I can contact. Furthermore, they are recently so relevant to modern life and make the project more useful in contemporary society. Understanding the net impact on quality of life could help people decide whether to have a revolution.
One of the biggest obstacles to my project will be measuring the quality of life. There are numerous indexes that measure the quality of life, but these are not across all countries across long time periods. In fact, there is no single index to compare all the revolutions with, but this is not so obstructive as I merely wish to measure the change in the quality of life across the revolutions themselves.
Over the years, and in our history books, we’ve seen many examples of conflict and cooperation causing development in the world. The nationalist revolutions in Europe and Latin America, the democratic reforms in Britain and France, and the nationalist movements and failures in Eastern Europe and Russia are all examples of this. There are also many examples of revolution causing conflict. Conflict between the oppressed people and their oppressors led to revolutions in France, Haiti, and Mexico.
In the 1840s, France was divided politically. A period of reduced economic activity hit France. Many factories closed and people lost their jobs. Food prices went up because of poor harvests. In February 1848, also known as the ‘February Days’ violence erupted. The government silenced critics and prevented public meetings. This action by the government angered many people. During the ‘February Days’, chaos erupted. Church bells rang alarms, while women and men on the barricades sang the revolutionary anthem ‘La Marseillaise’. A number of demonstrators clashed with royal troops and were killed. Louis Philippe soon abdicated as the chaos spread.
In 1791, Toussaint Louverture led a slave rebellion in Hispaniola, now called Haiti. This revolt led to Haiti’s independence. Before this revolt, Haiti was owned by France. French planters owned sugar plantations that were run by many enslaved Africans. The Africans were treated terribly, they were overworked and didn’t have much food at all. Tired of the mistreatment, the African slaves decided to fight back. With the help of Toussaint Louverture, a former slave himself, they managed to win the fight. The revolution took many lives, but by 1798, they were free from slavery. However, in 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte sent a large army to try to reconquer Haiti. In January 1804, the island declared itself an independent country under the name of Haiti.
In 1810, Father Miguel Hidalgo, a Mexican Creole priest, realized enough was enough. He believed that Mexicans should have freedom. On September 15, 1810, Father Miguel Hidalgo gave a speech known today as ‘el Grito del Dolores’. The speech urged Mexicans to fight for their freedom. He assembled a small army to march to the outskirts of Mexico City. However, they soon disassembled after people thought they would lose power. Father Miguel Hidalgo had a few successes, but less than a year later he was captured and executed. Father Jose Morelos also tried to start a revolution, but he was captured and executed as well. In 1821, Agustin de Iturbide led a revolution and overthrew the Spanish viceroy. Finally, Mexico declared independence.
In conclusion, there are many examples of revolution causing conflict. Conflict between the oppressed people and their oppressors led to revolutions in France, Haiti, and Mexico. Some of these revolutions led to abdication of royalty, some led to the emancipations of enslaved people.
Wars and revolutions have a great impact on populations, their values and traditions, faith and self-identity, self-identification and happiness. these conditions led to the loss of faith and confidence. Depression and anxiety were caused by deaths during war and economic crisis, social instability and political changes. Thesis Devastation and deaths, slow economic development and political instability led to the loss of faith in Enlightenment ideals and anxiety experienced by many people.
Main text
Economic anxiety did the most damage to self-confidence. The traumatic price rises constituted the most severe shock to the world economy since the early 1930s.
People were afraid of instability and poverty. Following Freud: ‘In little altered form, the sensory material of anxiety which is operating behind the sense of guilt, is itself a punishment” (Freud 101). Revolutions and wars caused affective instability, anxiety and depression, concentration difficulties, aggressive fantasy, morbid ideas, and tendencies both to withdraw and to act out continue despite intensive treatment. When a person withdraws, he/she tries to renew himself and to figure things out: how to get along with others, what others feel about her, and how to control herself. War depression made these things difficult for a common citizen. Citizens seemed to try to make others match their moods rather than try to adjust their moods to others. Self-control is a major concern for people; they constantly seek internal equilibrium and a way in which to relate to others (Mckay et al 234).
War horrors and losses did not people a chance to be mentally healthy and happy. The loss of faith is caused by disorders as a mixture of normal feelings and mood swings. It is a disorder of extremes and contrasts that affect the individual’s developmental, educational, and personal pursuits. Adolescents, particularly, may manifest the disorder in developmentally unique ways, and their educational and personal endeavors are impacted significantly in ways that relate to their age and stage. Such signs represent the duality with which the individual struggles, including dramatic motoric, cognitive, and emotional shifts. Borowski depicts experiences of a man: “I escaped from the ghetto and spent the entire war hiding in a friend’s house inside a sofa” (172). The argument against innocence is by no means a modern one. Indeed, one need only look to Genesis for a powerful refutation, wherein the rebellious angels could rebuke an order as perfect and divine as God’s own.
It seems that Conrad, Freud and Borowski do not believe in progress and rationality because of social degradation and loss of civilized values. Conrad and Freud underline that with the public making more specific demands, policy experts should also lose some of their influence. In the face of powerful pressures from public opinion, policymakers will no longer treat experts’ judgments about the workability of policies as a decisive consideration in choosing them. In fact, the integrity of expert advice will also suffer. While on the anagogic level Kurtz in The Heart of Darkness is a type of questing god, on the level of a particular bank and shoal of time he is a sort of Macbeth displaced into the power struggles of the late nineteenth century.As such, he is also a parody of Matthew Arnold’s man of culture, obviously lacking the spiritual authority Arnold assumed accompanied “culture.” Kurtz’s culture, like the principles Marlow talks about, flies off at the first good shake, leaving an unaccommodated man who gives the lie not only to the notion of the saving powers of culture but to Rousseau’s optimism concerning the nature of man. In fact, while challenging the traditional certainties of the nineteenth century, Conrad’s portrayal of Kurtz’s inability to live outwardly from a firm core of being, from a “deliberate belief” as Marlow puts it, anticipates with amazing accuracy one of the most prevalent symptoms that psychotherapists have encountered in recent decades.
After wars and revolutions core manufacturing industries also declined, and as they did, manufacturing jobs vanished forever. Now, growing anxiety and shrinking institutional confidence undercut the ability of policymakers to defend themselves against challenges to their policy power. At the same time, changing circumstances and public concerns allowed new political claimants successfully to insist on new conditions for policymaking (Mckay et al 236). Policy information and access became more widely available. As power became more dispersed and its exercise more conditional, the policy process became more tentative. The very conditions placed on the exercise of political power, then, contributed to a sense of gridlock that further undermined confidence in government’s problem-solving capacity (Mckay et al 238).
In the book The Heart of Darkness, Conrad portrays a crisis of rationality and civilized values. The fundamental tension underlying man and civilization is the pleasure principle vs. the reality principle. The former is based upon man’s natural tendency toward pleasure. In early development this tendency is manifested in an instinct to separate the unpleasant from the ego and attribute it to some external object. In normal development the instinct is mitigated and controlled by experiential knowledge which teaches that some pain originates from within while, similarly, the source of pleasure is often not ego but object. The boundaries of the primitive pleasure principle are rectified and, says Freud, “In this way one makes the first step towards the introduction of the reality principle which is to dominate future development.” (Freud 34).
Powerful deflections, says Freud, “cause us to make light of our misery.” The chief single deflection for Kurtz was undoubtedly the all-engrossing search for ivory, a job at which he proved an enormous success. What the wilderness whispered to Kurtz was the truth that civilized men “moored with two good addresses, like a hulk with two anchors” (Conrad 72) had long ago ceased to hear: that man’s principal ambition is pleasure and, if left unrestrained, he will do anything to obtain it. Irreconcilable is the ineffable darkness into which Kurtz has peered; knowledge of the unknowable, the numina, too great for mortals to withstand. Conrad questions: Did he live his life again in every detail of desire, temptation, and surrender during that supreme moment of complete knowledge? He cried in a whisper at some image, at some vision—he cried out twice, a cry that was no more than a breath” (101).
Summary
In sum, the authors portray that reality is too strong for a common man. He becomes a madman, who for the most part finds no one to help him in carrying through his delusion.
By The belief that one can successfully shut out reality, and reality here is the incontrovertible opposition of primitive (natural) instincts and the compelling social structures of modern Western man. The philosopher’s vision of natural man has, over the ages, assumed a variety of forms, but generally speaking these forms can be categorized into two antithetical and irreconcilable visions of human nature: one which holds that man is innately good, the other that he is innately sinful.
Works Cited
Borowski, Tadeusz. This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen Penguin Classics, 1992.
Conrad, J. Heart of Darkness Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 1999.
Freud, S. Civilization and its Discontents. W. W. Norton & Company, 1989.
Mckay, J.P., Hill, B.D., Buckler, J. A History of Western Society since 1300 (9th Ed). Houghton Mifflin College Div; 8 edition, 2005.
The invention of the engine-powered airplanes is one of the most significant technological inventions of the last century. This innovation led to a revolution in the transportation industry as it provided the fastest means to travel to any destination in the world. Over the course of its existence, the airline industry has not had many major technological breakthroughs.
The most important breakthrough in the industry occurred in the 1950s and this was in the form of the invention of the jet engine and its subsequent adoption in commercial planes. Jet engines led to a significant change in the way the airline industry operated and prompted the growth of air travel. This has led to some people referring to the widespread adoption of jet engine as the jet revolution.
This paper will set out to demonstrate that the introduction of jet engines revolutionalized air transport and led to the development of some unique commercial and regulatory issues in the air industry. The paper will provide a brief historical overview of the airline industry and discuss the significance of the jet engine.
Brief Historical Overview
The modern era of air transport began in 1903 when the Wright Brothers successfully flew their prototype aircraft. The success of this pioneers paved the way for the advancement of powered, sustained, and controlled flight. The development of aircrafts received a major boost during the First World War.
During this war, the Britons and Germans endeavoured to improve their aircrafts in order to gain an advantage in the war. By the end of the war, fighter plans that could fly at higher altitudes and greater speeds had been created. These planes had a high carrying capacity and they were modified into passenger and freight aircrafts after the war.
The jet engine was invented by Frank Whittle, a member of the Royal Air Force. He patented his design in 1930 and through the decade, he carried out numerous tests on the design. The first turbojet aeroplane was the Heinkel He, which flew in 1939 and it was designed by the German inventor Hans von Ohain.
This marked the birth of the jet engine and in the years following the war, the technology was refined for use on a commercial scale. The jet engine became a major challenger of the established piston-engine types that dominated commercial air travel in the 1940s and 1950s.
Jet engines continued to operate together with piston engines and it was only after 1958 that the jet revolution took root. Brooks (1967) asserts that the jet revolution proper started in 1958 with the commissioning of the first turbojet airliner, the Boeing 707 and the DH Comet. These jet engine airplanes plied the Trans-Atlantic route.
Issues with Introduction
The jet engine did not enjoy success in its early years of use in the civilian markets. Mowery and Rosenberg (1999) state that the in the early 1950s, the technology had significant uncertainties in its performance. The major airlines did not support the jet engine due to a number of disasters associated with this technology.
In 1952, metal fatigue in jet powered aircrafts operated by British Overseas Airline Corporation led to a series of crashes. In these early years of commercial airline operations, the general population was wary of air travel. Reports of accidents further alienated the population from air travel. This led to the initial commercial failure of the jet engine.
However, jet engine technology had been fine-tuned by the end of the 1950s. The significant advantages attributed to this new technology led to a positive response especially by people in the industry.
Mowery and Rosenberg (1999) highlight that the increased productivity attributed to jet engines led to great enthusiasm by most people involved in the airline industry. The increased capacity of the big jets meant that greater profits could be realized from air travel and sustainable growth could be achieved.
Implications of the Jet Revolution for Airlines
The jet engine contributed to the growth of the airline industry as it encouraged more people to make use of air travel. The quality of flight from piston-engine airplanes was poor and most people preferred to make use of the slower traditional forms of transportation such as train and ship for long distant travel. The quality of air travel increased dramatically with the development of the jet engine.
Brooks (1967) documents that because of the increased comfortability of air travel; there was a marked increase in air traffic especially across the North Atlantic.
The market of the air industry was also expanded by the jet engine. The OECD (2010) notes that the jet revolution increased the commercial viability of airlines by promoting growth in the tourism industry. Due to the lower cost of flying, the European tourist industry in the 1960s experienced a boom.
The viability of air travel was guaranteed by the jet revolution. In the decades before the revolution, the air industry was heavily dependent on government subsidies. Before the 1960s, most airlines did not exhibit operating profits and governments did not make any money from the industry.
The jet revolution led to an increase in the overall economy of the industry and airlines started to show operating profits that make it possible for the industry to cover almost all the costs of providing air transport. The introduction of jet engines considerably shortened travel times and this had a positive impact on demand.
The OECD (2010) notes that while the fuel consumption of jet engines was higher than that of the piston-engines, these engines offered improved energy efficiency and higher carrying capacities. Airlines could therefore make more profit on one trip.
The airline industry was able to compete favourably with established freight transporters such as rail and ships. The jet engine led to an increase in the power to weight ration of the plane and this increased the payload that an airplane could handle.
Bigger planes with higher load capacities could be built since the jet engines were capable of providing the energy required to operate this crafts. Because of the increased power-weight ratio offered by jet engines, it was possible to construct wide-bodied jets in the late 1960s and these machines could carry significant amounts of freight for long distances (OECD 2010).
The jet engine also encouraged the consolidation of major airlines. Before the jet revolution, there were a significant number of airlines in operation all over the world. Small airlines were able to maintain a fleet of small aircrafts and remain profitable. However, the introduction of jet engines led to the development of larger and more expensive airplanes.
These machines were technically sophisticated and required more financing than the piston engine types that had been used before the jet revolution.
Brooks (1967) asserts that the nature of jet engine planes forced airlines to consolidate themselves into fewer and stronger companies that could afford the larger more expensive aircrafts. Government also actively persuaded smaller airlines in their country to join into stronger groups in order to benefit from the advantages offered by jet engines.
The jet engine caused some airlines to be pushed out of the market due to the price advantage. While jet engine aircrafts were at first more expensive to operate due to the increased fuel consumption and the high capital cost of obtaining the aircraft, the operational cost decreased over the years (Mowery & Rosenberg 1999).
By the 1970s, the jet revolution had pushed real airfares downwards leading to the decline in profitability for smaller operates.
Regulatory Issues
In its initial years, the jet revolution prompted greater government regulation to ensure that the industry was sustainable. Adoption of jet engines led to the emergence of various competing airlines within a short duration of time. These airlines engaged in aggressive competition with each other as they sort to increase their market share in the industry.
Brooks (1967) reveals that this aggressive competition threatened the future viability of more airline companies as they were forced to reduce their prices in order to remain competitive. These actions led to some form of government intervention in the industry. The greater regulation by the government ensured that the fierce competition did not render the airline industry uneconomic.
The jet engine revolution promoted the move towards widespread deregulation in the air transport industry. The close relationship between the airline industry and the state experienced a change, tens of airlines were privatized to some level, and the airline market was liberalized. This opened up the industry to competition and led to the collapse of some of the smaller carriers.
The jet revolution promoted the development of the hub and spoke network, which is today the most widely used network. Even before the prevalence of jet engines, this form of network that was centred on major airports was in operation.
However, regulations by local authorities deterred the expansion of airlines. The jet revolution contributed to deregulation, which led to the adoption of hub and spoke networks nationally and internationally.
Discussion and Conclusion
With a history of a bit over a century, air transportation has grown to be the most significant component of the global transportation system. The Jet revolution was the most significant leap in aeronautical technology. The airline industry is yet to witness a technological innovation that is as dramatic as the jet revolution.
Even so, improvements have been made on the fuel efficiency of the jet engines and engineers have worked on reducing the noise pollution caused by jet engines. However, none of these developments is as dramatic and influential to the airline industry as the jet revolution was 6 decades ago.
This paper set out to discuss the significance of the jet revolution on air travel. The paper has demonstrated that the introduction of the jet engine made it possible for airplanes to travel faster and at an overall reduced operating cost.
The jet revolution contributed in making air travel the cheapest and most efficient form of public transportation across long distances. The benefits brought about by the jet engine continue to be enjoyed by the world today.
References
Brooks, PW 1967, ‘The development of Air transport’, Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 163-183.
Mowery, DC & Rosenberg, N 1999, Paths of Innovation: Technological Change in 20th-Century America, Cambridge University Press, Oxford.
OECD 2010, Globalisation, Transport and the Environment, OECD Publishing, London.