America has had renowned leaders such as George Washington and John Adams, whose leadership significantly impacted the American people. When Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated in 1801, the occasion resulted in a more democratic country, which led to established economic freedom, known as the republican simplicity (Shi and Tindall 330). This expanded the nations economy as everyone could trade their different products across different states. Apart from providing the opportunity for businesses, the democratic process also ensured that various products could be availed where they were needed for industrial production. During his administration, he set more laws, which led to equality among republicans and federalists, thereby reconciling them. This paper focuses on republican simplicity following the market revolution.
President Jefferson focused mainly on reducing the national debt that his predecessors introduced; He succeeded in lowering customs taxes and government spending in every possible way. Further, he reduced the size of the navy, thereby reducing the national debt considerably. He also signed the Embargo Act of 1807, a law that banned American ships from leaving their ports until Britain and Frances grabbing was stopped (Shi and Tindall 344). This move saw the American economy declining more than that of Britain and France, and, as a result, the Act was repealed. The decline of the American economy transformed significantly after the market revolution, as mass production and factories displaced independent artisans. Farms no longer produced goods for local markets, which were shipped to international markets through inexpensive transportation, contrary to president Jeffersons era.
President Jefferson was an advocate of freedom; he liberated Americans from personal and governmental oppression. He felt that policies inducted before his tenure had led to a reduction in individual liberties and unnecessary government expansion and put the state into the hands of businessmen and merchants. He corrected the problems by revising the laws and reducing the expenses. The republican simplicity is not an absolute concept since the subsequent leadership invalidated it after President Thomas Jeffersons tenure. Thus, Americans returned to their usual ideologies as republicans and democrats (Shi and Tindall 471). Market revolution also led to changes in some laws as there were personal wealth and economic growth with developing lower-class poverty as many Americans labored for low wages.
President Jefferson committed to republican simplicity by ensuring no bill was imposed on Congress, thus refusing to open congressional drafts on policy grounds. He only sent the Congress messages, which lasted until Woodrows tenure, when he publicly addressed Congress and called for legislation. In this case, republican simplicity only expired during Woodrows Presidency, when he introduced progressive ideas (Shi and Tindall 946). Furthermore, republican simplicity is not valid where it weakened the control of Federalists regarding the federal judiciary by making sure that no republican served as a federal judge.
President Jeffersons commitment to republican simplicity was evident in how he emphasized the economy in government. He was also convinced that land ownership and labor on earth were the foundation of the republican government. In that regard, he persuaded Congress to reduce public land prices and extend credit to buyers to motivate them to own land and encourage Western settlement (Shi and Tindall 583). This was true as it saw many people settling, and land prices and houses were on the lower side for a long time.
President Jeffersons administration oversaw a reduction in federal spending. This changed the aftermarket revolution significantly as the state governments funded various transportation improvements, thereby increasing the annual federal expenditures to an average of $ 1323000 by Jacksons presidency. State legislature pumped more money into the economy by chattering more banks which later led to the economic crisis. With the market revolution, owning acres of land was controlled through inheritance to the first son, and property qualifications were abolished with a limited franchise to the whites. Election control was left to individual states, a move that led to unfair voting practices. Additionally, the market revolution saw the political rights of those who did not own property advance; most white men without property were franchised, while African Americans, non-English speakers, native Americans, and those in the age bracket of 18-21 had to fight for the right to vote.
Work Cited
Shi, David E., and George Brown Tindall. America: A Narrative History. WW Norton & Company, 2016.
Slavery was one of the main engines of the market revolution. This fact was associated with the rapid development of the textile industry. Even though the labor of free people was used in production, the creation of textiles could not do without cotton, the supplier of which was precisely the slave-owning South. The abolition of slavery itself was quite a long process. Consequently, obtaining freedom under various pretexts could be postponed for a long time. Even with the adoption of laws in many states, the employers themselves did not seek to free the slaves belonging to them. Perhaps this may be since much money was spent on slave labor, which no one would compensate, although various attempts were made. It was impossible to get freedom born in a family of slaves until the age of 25. All this created many problems and disputes, which is why this process was prolonged.
However, despite how slowly the process of emancipation from slavery took place, one can witness a significant improvement in the life of the Black population at that time. Firstly, with the release of a significant number of people, their quality of life also improved, which allowed the population to increase. Also, with freedom came the awareness of their position in society, which motivated the Black population to fight for their rights. Consequently, changes had to take place in society. Thus, a small part of the population has the opportunity to send their children to schools, as well as to take a direct part in voting. Another significant improvement in the whole situation was that in many Northern states, Black citizens were granted property rights and the opportunity for a fair trial with the participation of a jury. Thus, it became noticeable that the measures taken in the Northern States to free people from slavery improved the situation as a whole. In addition, this was the reason for the appearance of their culture, since now every free person could own and build a business, improve education, and take a direct part in the life of society.
Unfortunately, the situation in the South had a radically opposite situation. Moreover, the market revolution had a completely different impact there. The invention of various devices contributed to the fact that the planters significantly increased the volume of cotton production. Accordingly, more and more people were needed, which increased the number of the slave population. The cotton exports to other states have grown incredibly, and the incomes of planters have also increased. Thus, southern planters were not motivated to abolish slavery since cheap labor was required to perform this work. The situation of the slave Black population was depressing, as many people were involved in the process of increasing enslavement. Everyone was interested in this, even textile manufacturers in the Northern States.
Considering the impact of the market revolution on the female population, it should be said exactly how the perception of women in society has changed. Firstly, the working principle has changed. Now Americans began to work at enterprises, which made the past way of living a luxury. Women began to work to compensate for the low salaries of husbands. Although this situation was not ideal, it changed the attitude towards women as the differences began to fade. It is also worth noting that the availability of education for women has opened many doors. Hence, it was precisely the rapidly developing education system where many young girls went to work as teachers.
Nevertheless, there was a situation of an inevitable split of society concerning the position of women. The middle and upper classes of society were distinguished precisely because the critical point was to protect women from performing difficult and low-paid wage labor. However, it turned out that women from the poor class of society contributed to developing the countrys economy since now the fulfillment of duties consisted not in household duties but in using skills in factories.
With the development of mechanized production, there was another shift in the responsibilities of women. Now there was no need to make clothes or any household items independently. Consequently, women who were free from work could spend more time on themselves. This fact allowed to begin the transformation from producers to consumers, so the way of life of the whole society has changed, not just womens participation in it. However, despite such positive changes, the position of women at the legislative level remained unchanged. Marriage remained one of the few ways to gain access to many things such as property or own money. Thus, the union of a woman and a man was strictly differentiated in spheres to achieve the most comfortable life for children and themselves.
There can be no doubt as to the fact that there are many similarities between French Revolution of 1792 and Russian Revolution of 1917. For example, both revolutions came because of growing discontent among Russian and French citizens over governmental authorities incompetence. Both revolutions idealized the concept of peoples equality, with the slogan of French revolution (Liberte, egalite, fraternite) being widely used by Russian Communists.
Both revolutions had resulted in ensuing the reign of political terror, immediately after revolutionaries, such as Maximilien Robespierre and Vladimir Lenin, became the heads of new revolutionary governments in their countries. However, it is important to understand that whereas; French Revolution was essentially a progressive political event (it had set Europe on the path of capitalism and industrialism, while removing French degenerate aristocracy and Catholic clergy from position of power), Russian Revolution of 1917 had resulted in turning the whole country into the testing ground , upon which the obscure theory of Marxism would be practically implemented, for the first time in history.
In fact, what later came to be known as Russias Great October Socialist Revolution , was more of a political coup the members of Russias Provisionary Government, which was formed after Czars abdication in 1916, we being simply arrested by the group of armed Commies, who never even enjoyed much of a public support, on the part of ordinary Russians.
It its turn, this provides us with the insight on another significant difference between French and Russian revolutions whereas, French revolutionary leaders, such as Robespierre, Mirabeau and Marat never ceased considering themselves as spokesmen for their people (they were all French), Russian Communist leaders, such as Trotsky (Bronstein), Kamenev (Rosenfeld), Zinoviev (Apfelbaum) etc. were all overwhelmingly Jewish, which is why they used to openly refer to Russians as the wood in the chimney of international revolution .
Frank Brittons book Behind Communism contains excerpt from Leon Trotskys speech, which he delivered to the leadership of Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1916: We should turn her (Russia) into a desert populated with white niggers. We will impose upon them such a tyranny that was never dreamt by the most hideous despots of the East (Britton 25). By 1922, 95% of Politburos members were Jews and this was in time when Jews only constituted 1.5% of population in Russia. In other words, Russian revolution of 1917 was only formally Russian . In its turn, this significantly differ it from French Revolution of 1792, which relied on ordinary citizens overwhelming support.
Whereas the enforcers of French Revolution sans-culottes were French people, the enforcers of Russias Communist takeover consisted of gangs of foreigners (Chinese, Latvians, Hungarians, Romanians), hired by Communist leaders to stamp out Russian peasants resistance.
Whereas, French revolutionaries were solely concerned with the matters of national importance, Russian revolutionary leaders strived for nothing less then taking over the political part in the whole world, which explains why Soviet coat of arms featured sickle and the hammer, displayed over the globe, and why Soviet Constitution used to openly proclaim that this was only the matter of time, before all worlds countries would join Soviet Union as Soviet Republics . Thus, both revolutions can only be compared formally, because of their diametrically opposite metaphysical essence.
Whereas, French Revolution allowed representatives of French bourgeoisie to proceed with their commercial activities, without having to observe feudal prejudices, during the course of the process, Russian Revolution of 1917 had resulted in physical elimination of national bourgeoisie, as social class, and in creation of new social class communist aristocracy , consisting almost exclusively of hook-nosed idealist promoters of workers cause .
Bibliography
Britton, Frank Behind Communism . London: Noontide Publications, 1979.
Many things that China is known for in modern-day and significant parts of its culture formed during the formidable years of the Song dynasty rule. Coming to power in 926 and ruling until 1276, the Song dynasty sought to strategically reunify China, which had been split apart by warlords and regions fighting among each other. The unification and innovative governance reforms led to an age of enlightenment and prosperity, Chinas Renaissance moment. The country rapidly propelled forward in technology, scholarship, economics, demographics, and culture, establishing it as a regional power. The Song dynasty (926-1276 AD) brought about a commercial revolution and prosperous society that had profound changes in Chinese history and culture.
Governance Reforms and Policies
Emperor Taizu was the first Song ruler and focused his efforts on politically unifying China and laying the foundations for future prosperity. By the time of his death in 976, all but two kingdoms were united under one rule (Lorge, 2015). The first reforms began almost a century later under Emperor Renzong. Led by scholars Fan Zhongyan and Ouyang Xiu, these initial reforms became known as the Qingli Reforms or Minor Reforms. Zhongyan proposed a ten-point program which focused on improving government efficiency, raising the standard of examinations, defense, agriculture, and education. However, the reforms largely failed, due to the lack of full support from the emperor and large landowners, with the only positive outcome was the establishment of a national educational system in China. This took place between 1043 and 1045 (Lorge, 2015).
Nevertheless, the efforts of Zhongyan and others were not in vain as three decades later, Wang Anshi, a minister under Emperor Shenzong, built upon their foundation. Anshi led what is now known as the New Policies or Xifeng Reforms lasting from 1069 to 1076. The key to these reforms was the use of Confucian principles as a means of addressing and solving key issues for the government and society.
The New Policies focused on three categories of state finance and commerce, defense, and education/governance. Anshi advocated that government officials must be competent and trained, with men holding positions for which they were most qualified and best fit. He created the Three College system at the National University, which future officials from all prefectures had to attend, and where they were rigorously tested, replacing the previous prefectural examination system (Drechsler, 2013).
For defense, Anshi introduced the Baojia system, a local village security policy. It called for the organization of small-to-medium-sized groups of essentially militia in villages and towns. They exercised police powers, night watch, and local defense, relieving the prefecture governments of administrative and fiscal duties to support small-scale operations. There were also reforms to the army, with the creation of mixed force units of 3000 men, known as commands law, that sought to improve the relationship between officials and common troops (Pease, 2021).
Finally, Anshi introduced major economic and market changes. It introduced the equal tax law based on land ownership to collect taxes from major landowners that typically avoided paying them. Major shifts in agricultural policy were seen, such as the green sprouts law, with the government loaning money to peasants to buy seeds, and the hydraulic works law that focused on building local irrigation systems. On the market, the balanced delivery law sought to control expenditures and price ceilings for commodities, and the market exchange law targeted major merchants and guilds, which disrupted price manipulations and market fluctuations (Pease, 2021).
Technological Breakthroughs
With the reorganization of government, education, and the market, China saw significant technological progress. These breakthroughs came as a result of both domestic investment into education and international trade bringing new innovations back to China. There were breakthroughs in agriculture as a result of the above policies, with rice becoming a major feeding crop for the Chinese population. As an outcome of maritime trade, shipbuilding greatly improved alongside mapmaking and compass navigation. Manufacturing saw progress through new uses for gunpowder, porcelain production, and the invention of mechanical objects. Scholarship, culture, and science made great progress with the availability of printing and support of artists by the government (Paludan, 1998). Virtually all industries benefited from it.
Figure 1: Travelling on the River in Snow by Guo Zhongshu, approximately 910-977, demonstrating Chinese river craft (Paludan, 1998).
Demographic and Commercial Growth
Government efficiency and economic policies began to have an effect and resulted in economic growth. Authority was centralized with the administration, but for a period, it led to a period of strict control, preventing abuse and corruption. As agricultural policies took effect, there was a food surplus, and farmers had the ability to expand their families. The number of registered households nearly doubled to 97 million in China by 1020 (Chen and Kung, 2019). Aided by technological advancement, Chinese ships were the most advanced in the world for its time, able to carry high volumes of cargo, greatly contributing to the expansion of trade, particularly with Arabs who also saw flourishment with the rise of Islam. Export revenues rose from 500,000 strings of cash in 960 to nearly 65 million in 1189 (Agyekum, 2019).
With the growth of commerce, cities shifted from being purely administrative units to large commercial centers bustling with activity and attracting the best market and cultural entities. Urbanization occurred as people sought jobs in the new market economy. Private trade greatly increased commerce, conducted not only in official markets but throughout the city and its suburbs. It was an age of luxury, and elegant living was now enjoyed by a much wider class, not just aristocracy. Even the peasants and lower class felt the impacts with greater availability of food and entertainment (Paludan, 1998). General satisfaction was high, and China was by far the richest nation in the world at the peak of the Song dynasty, which made the period known as the commercial revolution.
Figure 2: A portion of the 5.25-meter-long painting Along the River During the Qingming Festival by Zhang Zeduan painted during the Song dynasty (approximately 1085-1145), showing the bustling urban centers full of people and commercial activity (Paludan, 1998).
Issues and Downfall
As with any period of great prosperity in history, the Song dynastys rule came to an end. By the end of the 11th century, the dynasty saw a degeneration of imperial leaders and fiscal problems that were largely self-caused. The Jin invaded Northern China, forcing the Song southward, albeit they continued to see several more decades of stability and prosperity. Eventually, the government positions that were so critical to the positive changes and were meant to attract competent administrators became corrupt as people bought their way into power. The wealthy merchants that prospered from years of economic growth found means to avoid taxes or regulation.
In order to compensate, the government levied taxes on peasants, which began to rebel. There was an evident socioeconomic class divide that was rapidly increasing, and that was unhealthy for any society. At this time, China also faced the continuous threat of invasion from inner-Asia tribes and lacked the military strength to respond.
The Song dynasty fell ironically due to misplaced trust. In 1233, the Song dynasty allied with the Mongols, sharing territories south of the Yellow River. The Songs sought to defeat their long-time adversaries, the Jin, whose emperor was defending in Caizhou. The allied force was able to jointly capture the stronghold. However, soon after, in 1235, the Mongols turned on the Song dynasty. In several stages, the Mongols gradually overtook Chinese territories until the final defeat of the Song in 1276. At this point, the Mongols took over rule in China and established the Yuan dynasty.
Conclusion
The Song dynasty and their fundamental changes to governance and politics of unification led to a period of social and economic changes in China. This period of increased growth, innovation, and prosperity became known as the Song commercial revolution. It was truly a time for significant shifts in Chinese social demographics, economy, and culture. Although some issues did persist, it was a truly unique period that generated progress.
References
Agyekum, Ivy K. 2019. Commercial Revolution in the Song Dynasty. Journal of Literature and Art Studies 9 (10): 10931098. Web.
Chen, Ting, and James Kai-sing Kung. 2019. Why the Song Dynasty? The Rise of A Merchant Class And The Emergence Of Meritocracy In China. Web.
Drechsler, Wolfgang. 2013. Wang Anshi and the Origins of Modern Public Management in Song Dynasty China. Public Money & Management 33 (5): 35360. Web.
Lorge, Peter. 2015. The Reunification of China: Peace through War under the Song Dynasty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Paludan, Ann. 1998. Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. London: Thames & Hudson.
Pease, Jonathan O. 2021. His Stubbornship: Prime Minister Wang Anshi (10211086), Reformer and Poet. Leiden: Brill.
The industrial revolution refers to social and economic changes that take place in an environment due to advancements in technology. Between 1750 and 1850, Europe was on the track of technological inventions and innovations. Alfred Weber is one of the worlds known revolutionists who engineered the use of written literature in this field by putting down the two revolution theories, i.e., Agglomerative and Deglomerative forces; agglomerative refers to concentrating factors, i.e., factors that pool together all the important elements of production. Deglomerative is spreading and dispersive factors that lead to urbanization, e.g., labor and transport. Without these factors, there cannot be effective urbanization (Mokyr, 2003). These factors include:
Ready market, availability of manpower, electricity, good transport system, and raw materials. For any urbanization to take place, these factors must be present. Goods and services which were produced were sold and consumed by the present population in Europe. This provided a good opportunity for the producers to double their production, and in ammeter of time, there was market expansion as peoples quench to buy more goods. (Dewald 18th century)
Availability of manpower, electricity and transport ensured that goods could be produced more efficiently and effectively. Production gradually increased. Transport facilitated the movement of people from different places. These people pursued different business objectives and ideas which were instrumental to industrial development. Its through these two forces that we get to understand the deeper meaning of revolution, especially in the early 1700s. It provided a space for others to improve their industrial research improvement. I therefore wholly agree with Alfred Weber.. (Dewald 18th century)
Industrial revolution as a catalyst towards urbanization
In fact, the industrial revolution was the force behind urbanization in Europe. This is explained in the following ways.
Industries and factories
Manpower was needed to drive the machines in these factories. There was then a pool for jobs which attracted laborers who came to work together, a need for staying together with a rose, and they began contracting tents which later converted into urban centers. (Salter, 1986)
Social interaction
As people interacted, they needed to build markets where they could sell their products. The building of markets ensured that people met regularly at the designated places, which eventually became a routine and converted into large modern urban centers. When people came together, they intermarried, procreated and there came a need to build more houses, schools, hospitals, and churches from where they could meet for basic services like education, treatment, and worship, respectively. These institutions grew into big modern urban centers and hence expanded urbanization. (Salter, 1986)
Transport
The invention of various transport systems provided people with the opportunity to travel, visit friends and relatives. People then moved to places of work and settled. The provision of services like water and electricity also pooled people together, and thereby a need for reservoirs and connection terminals rose. These terminals later grew into big urban centers which are still used by people. All this was possible because the man had seen it wise to expand his brain. Technology that we see today began a long time ago and gradually advanced as man became more creative. With the current economic trend, civilization has hit the doors of all nations making the world to become a global village. (Tanton, 1994)
Conclusion
The world today has made a big step in technological advancement. Its important that we appreciate the classical scientist who, despite having gone to mire, made great contributions to our lives as well as our economy, either directly or indirectly. We emulate them by being ever-ambitious and innovative in or order to keep the fire burning.
Work cited
Mokyr, Joel. Long-term Economic growth and the History of technology.2003. Web.
Revolution (from Latin _revolutio_ coup, rollback) has many definitions. The following meaning will be used here: an armed rebellion that radically changes a political and state system. It is natural to ask about the causes of such an extraordinary and crucial event that run the unstoppable metamorphosis process. Also, this is important because of an apparent reason that people who do not know the past cannot build their future. Speaking more academically, they cannot predict any system changes (political, social, global, etc.), but this is necessary for its existence. Nine articles were reviewed to study a posed issue; every three are contained in one body paragraph and examine one aspect of the problem. The first paragraph is about ideological causes, the second economic ones, and the third political or social ones. However, are they only impersonal forces or among them is a conscious one? The French Revolution is the most striking example to study the causes of any revolution, as well as the English Civil War and Russian Revolution.
Ideological causes of revolution
First of all, no one can talk about the French Revolution without considering the historical and ideological context in which it took place. This context is called The Age of Enlightenment, a movement that dominated philosophy during the whole 18th century. Clayton, Conniff, and Gauss note that this revolution was driven by ideas born in the Age of Enlightenment (Clayton, Conniff, and Gauss 17). This intellectual movement affected the profound principles of societys built on. Looking at the English Revolution, everyone can see the same argument. For instance, Stone notes, the English Revolution is perhaps even more convincingly demonstrated by its word than by its deeds (Stone 49). Moreover, even Russian Revolution had an intellectual dimension as there were many organizations with their ideas of the proper way to build a state. Wade writes that Russia in 1917 was a marketplace of ideas ; people did not want just good economic conditions; they were concerned by thoughts about how to live on (Wade 98). All those arguments and examples support a claim that these revolutions have their roots in the intellectual context of their time, truly revolutionary.
Economic causes of revolution
Secondly, no one can deny the significance of economics for the evolution of a society, and economic factor is a big one in influence on The French Revolution in 1789. The population in France was only rising because of industrial revolutions and technological developments that improved living conditions and its prosperity, though with hunger and starvation. Johnston notes that in 1789 one-half of the population of France had known from experience the meaning of the word hunger , and it colorfully shows the economic problem scale (Johnston 15). Also, it is evident that the monarchy was in a significant crisis. Economic factor took its place in the English Revolution, too, for as Yerby notes, changes in the balance of landowning and wealth created a platform for the parliamentary challenge to the crown (Yerby 6). The same argument can also be made about the Russian Revolution. For example, Goldstone writes, Leon Trotsky emphasized the uneven development of capitalism amid Russian feudalism as a cause of the revolution (Goldstone 148). In short, the monarchies could not address an issue with economic stagnation and the economys disability to be productive.
Social or political causes of revolution
Thirdly, there is another cause of revolutions, a political or social one, specifically about the class struggle and class inequality, a relic from the Middle Ages. Bergman notes that the aristocracy dominated the bourgeoisie and the classes below the bourgeoisie through the political instrument of the monarchy (Bergman 51). It gets in line with Marxist discourse and interpretation of the development of history, the dialectical one. This point of view puts forward the necessity of abolishing the Old Regime in a revolutionary way because it is only possible to change something profoundly. Regarding the English revolution, Russel notes that social change remains an undoubted part of the causes of the Civil War (Russel 8). As for the Russian Revolution, the nobility and the peasants gap was enormous, and industrialization in Russia brought social problems and social stress (Hickey 6). The conflict between classes was escalating, and this was one of the main causes of events in 1917. Therefore, one of the leading causes of a revolution must be social or political, which everyone can see in examples of The French, English, and Russian revolutions.
Conclusion
To conclude, indeed, more factors cause a radical and total upheaval but ideological, economic and political, or social are the main ones. The first cause touches the Age of Enlightenment, during which European scholars had developed new ideas that were to replace old ones. The second cause is the backwardness of the French economy that could not support the population with food; because of it, there were hunger and starvation. The third cause is a political or social one, for it is about the inequality between classes; lower classes were struggling to change a system, higher ones to harden it. Although, there are scholars that argue the success of it. However, a question about the existence of the conscious power that influenced the process of the birth of revolution is still open. No matter how many reasons there are for revolution, it takes a definite, not unconscious, forced to make the first step. Despite this, all these causes are described, using The French Revolution as an example, but everyone can extrapolate them on the revolution in general.
Works Cited
Bergman, J. The French Revolutionary Tradition in Russian and Soviet Politics, Political Thought, and Culture. OUP Oxford, 2019.
Clayton, Lawrence A., Conniff, Michael L., and Gauss, Susan M. A New History of Modern Latin America. University of California Press, 1999.
Goldstone, Jack A. The Encyclopedia of Political Revolutions. Taylor & Francis, 1998.
Hickey, Michael C. Competing Voices from the Russian Revolution. Greenwood, 2010.
Johnston, R. M. The French Revolution. Outlook Verlag, 1909.
Russell, C. The Origins of the English Civil War. Macmillan Education UK, 1973.
Stone, L. The Causes of the English Revolution, 1529-1642. Routledge, 1972.
Wade, Rex A. The Russian Revolution, 1917. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Yerby, G. The Economic Causes of the English Civil War. Freedom of Trade and the English Revolution. Taylor & Francis, 2019.
The article written by Christine Gorman and Dina Maron throws light on the way in which scientific discoveries about the role of ribonucleic acid (RNA) contributed to the development of new medical treatments. These drugs can potentially benefit a great number of people, especially patients suffering from various chronic diseases.
In should be noted that for a long time, researchers believed that this polymeric molecule played only a minor role, especially in comparison with proteins and DNA which were the major subjects of many studies (Gorman and Maron 54). This opinion has long been prevalent in the scientific community. However, later studies demonstrated that RNA could exercise control over both proteins and DNA.
In particular, RNA could intensify as well as block various cellular processes which are vital for the functioning of living organisms (Gorman and Maron 55). According to the findings of biologists, cells rely on microRNA in order to coordinate the production of various proteins. Apart from that, it can stop the transformation of a gene into a protein. In turn, these functions of RNA can be important for understanding the origins of different disorders such as various forms of cancer.
Additionally, it is important to mention that RNA can play a vital role for the restoration of broken and non-functional genes. These are some of the main scientific discoveries that have profound implications for the activities of healthcare professionals who may acquire new opportunities for treating various diseases which cannot be overcome effectively, at least nowadays. So, it is important to discuss these issues in greater detail.
Additionally, much attention should be paid to the use of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats or CRISPR (Gorman and Maron 57). This mechanism is important for re-creating the sequences of the DNA that should be modified (Gorman and Maron 57).
By gaining better insights into this process, researchers will develop better tools for treating various hereditary diseases. Additionally, the use of this mechanism is vital for the creation of genetically-modified organisms that can be required for various professionals. These are some of the major breakthroughs that can be singled out. In many cases, these findings can find practical implications.
It is possible to say that awareness about the role of RNA can result in the creation of different tools which can be used for the diagnosis as well as treatment of various disorders. For instance, one can mention the drugs which are needed to treat hepatitis C affecting millions of people throughout the world. At present, many of the patients cannot derive any benefits from using the existing drugs (Gorman and Maron 57).
In contrast, RNA-based medications can benefit these people because they can decrease the quantity of virions in the liver. Additionally, one should speak about a more targeted gene therapy which did not exist before new scientific discoveries (Gorman and Maron 57). In this way, medical researchers can cut the molecules of DNA at very specific locations (Gorman and Maron 57). As a result, they will eliminate causes of many disorder.
This is one of the elements that can be identified. Moreover, the use of RNA can be useful for treating the notorious Ebola virus which is nowadays discussed by many journalists and medical workers. This danger has become particularly acute at the time when this contagious disease can cross national borders. Thus, the use of RNA-based treatments can be instrumental for reducing a great number of risks endangering the global health. This is one of the improvements that should be taken into consideration.
It is also important to mention that the study of RNA is complicated by the fact that many of these molecules are non-coding. In other words, they do not lead to the creation of proteins. This is why it may be difficult to prove that these molecules perform any important functions which are relevant to the treatment or prevention of various diseases. This is one of the challenges that should be considered. Still, modern scientists have more efficient tools for overcoming these problems.
One should keep mind that at this point, many of the new medications have not passed clinical trials. Only few of them were registered by the Food and Drug Administration. Nevertheless, these developments can have profound implications for the work of healthcare professionals who currently find many of the existing medications ineffective. This is one of the points that can be made.
The article indicates that there are various investments into this particular field. For instance, some medical research companies received more than $ 700 million (Gorman and Maron 59). These examples suggest the new scientific discoveries attracted the attention of many pharmaceutical companies.
At present, the main task is to translate theoretical discoveries into practical applications. On the whole, this investment can bring significant improvements into the lives of many people, especially at the time when new drugs pass the necessary tests. Therefore, better insights into the functions of RNA can be vital for many stakeholders.
Works Cited
Gorman, Christine and Dina Maron. The RNA Revolution. Scietific American 310.4. (2014): 52-59. Print.
The Arab Spring has been the most significant event that has swept over some of the countries in North Africa and the Middle East in the course of this decade. These events have had monumental implications for the politics of the Arab world. Because of this revolution, governments in the region have been toppled over by protestors or forced to engage in reforms to end autocratic rule. Regimes in Egypt, Tunisia, and Libya have fallen because of the Arab Spring while the Syrian government is struggling to maintain its hold on power amid violent opposition from a large section of the country. While the Arab Spring Revolutions were initiated by the self-immolation action of the Tunisia street vendor Mohamed Bouazizi, deep-seated political discontent and economic grievances made this revolution widespread. AbuZayyad states that the Arab Spring was bound to happen due to the various social, political, and economic grievances that the citizens of the Arab world faced for many decades (127).
Oppression
The rule in the countries where the revolutions occurred was characterized by a gross violation of human rights and a lack of individual freedoms for the citizens. In most of the countries, the government did not respect the rule of law and the people whom the government deemed as threats could be arrested and imprisoned without due process. In Libya, Gaddafi was notorious for torturing dissidents and political activists in the country. The disposed Egyptian leader Hosni Mubarak is accused of engaging in widespread corruption and stifling any opposition using the police force (Blanche 26). The oppression of the regimes is evident from the excessive force used against peaceful protests and civil disobedience by rulers in Egypt, Libya, and Yemen. The citizens of these countries were inspired to revolt against these oppressive governments and advocate for better governance.
Lack of democracy
In addition to the oppression by the government, the lack of democracy also triggered the Arab Spring in most of the countries. AbuZayyad notes that Arab dictators in Yemen, Egypt and Libya ruled with an iron fist and denied their citizens a political voice (127). The citizens had put up with these authoritative governments for many years and they were at last ready for a change. Salem demonstrates the political causes of the Arab Spring by noting that the citizens of the affected nations were tired of the lack of democracy in their country and they reached a point where they declared to the regimes the power should be in our hands; you are not our caretakers (137). Citizens therefore took to the streets to demand for representation in the political affairs of their countries.
Problem
The Arab spring has resulted in a number of significant problems for the countries affected.
Casualties
The most significant problem has been the rise in casualties due to the violence in most of the countries. Protestors in all the countries that have been involved in the Arab spring have been met with some opposition by the government (Jones 57). While some governments have been accommodative of protestors, most have engaged in violent reprisal of the protests. Blanche documents when Syrians took to the streets in protest, the regime of President Assad has engaged in a brutal crackdown on protesters leading to thousands of deaths (27). This led to more protest up to the point there the opposition formed rebel groups and took up arms against the government troops who are now involved in the strife. Because of this, there are many casualties every day as the government forces attack the opposition who are demanding for a change in the countrys governance.
Refugees
The Arab Spring has led to civil wars in some countries leading to the displacement of many. In Syria, the revolution has led to an armed conflict between the government forces and opposition rebels. Most people have had to flee their homes in order to avoid the gunfights and bombings that take place in the country every day. The BBC reports that up to 1million Syrians have been turned into refugees (Knell 1). The situation for these refugees is dire due to the lack of funding and most of them are struggling to get the basic necessities.
Destruction of Economy and Society
The economies of the countries affected by the Arab Spring have been devastated. Knell documents that the economic situation is most dreadful for Syrian civilians as the country has endured many months of armed conflict in the country (1). The cash flow into the country has reduced dramatically since most business activities in the country have halted. Citizens have therefore had to suffer from a lack of food resources and money. Egypt is facing high rates of inflation and a reduction in foreign investment as investors stay out of the country due to the uncertainty that has followed the post-Mubarak years.
The Arab spring also has caused instability in the region by inspiring revolutions and unrest in other Arab nations. The Arab Spring began in Tunisia following the actions of the Mohamed Bouazizi whose tragic self-sacrifice catalyzed the revolution in his country. However, this revolution did not remain in Tunisia but it quickly spread to other Arab countries. Forstenlechner et al. assert that because of this revolution, it is no longer a question of if the old monarchs will fall but rather of when they will fall (54). The disruptive nature of the Arab Spring has not been confined to the countries that have experienced the popular uprisings. The Arab Spring has emboldened extremist groups to confront the government and try gain political power in their countries. Forstenlechner et al. document that following the victories of the Muslim Brotherhood groups in Tunisia and Egypt, radical local Islamist groups in the UAE started to become more politically active in the country (55). This is a course for alarm since such groups often adopt extremist stands and are anti-Western.
Proposed solutions
One solution to the Arab Spring phenomena is modeling the countries in the Arab land after nations such as the United Arab Emirates, Western European Countries and the USA. The model countries highlighted here have not experienced the kind of popular revolt that the Arab Spring countries experienced. Forstenlechner et al. observe that even as the revolution swept across the Arab lands, there was little popular demand for political change in the UAE (54). While the political systems implemented by the Western nations the UAE differ significantly, both have democracy as their basis.
In western nations, the democracy is implemented by means of voting for the desired leaders through the ballot. In the UAE, the majlistyle democracy that is comprised of hereditary tribal leaders is used to ensure that the concerns of the citizens are heard and responded to. The two differing democratic systems ensure that people have a forum within which to make their demands and receive responses from the leaders. The leaders of the Arab countries that had their governments overthrown by the revolution were authoritative rulers. The citizens were not allowed to express their needs and any act of dissent was punished forcefully.
Change or you will be changed were the last words that came out of Sheikh Mohammed Bin Rashid AlMaktoum at the Arab League in 2004. How did he foresee the Arab spring? Were other leaders walking on the wrong path? The answer to both questions is Yes. There is a reason why the United Arab Emirates did not take part of the Arab Spring. The rules of equality it implemented to secure the nations safety and the citizens well-being. By focusing on the wellbeing of the citizens, the nation will ensure that the economic prosperity of everyone is assured (Pundak 57).
The economic conditions of the citizens played a big role in the beginning of the revolution as is evident from the case of Tunisia where the revolt was started by the street vendor Mohamed Bouazizi who set himself on fire in protest of the treatment he received from local officials and his poor economic conditions. The economic component of the revolution is confirmed by Forstenlechner et al. who observe that the Arab Gulf countries that have provided enough jobs and housing for their citizens have been saved from experiencing the Arab spring (54).
The Arab Nations should work towards fostering their unity and develop problem-solving mechanisms for their problems. With internal problem-solving measures in place, the Arab league would have a way of reaching solutions without involving the West. The Arab League consists of 22 Arab Nations with an aim to draw relations closer between them along with the goal of coordinating collaborative effort to resolve struggles as a single effective entity. Over the years, the Arab League proved to be capable of promoting peace and unity in the region. Examples would be the adoption of the Charter of Joint Arab Information Action and the Arab Peace Initiative .
Before reaching out to the supreme powers of the world, the Arab nations could settle issues internally with disciplined execution and effective collaboration. With more than 400 million individuals in all member states, a change is feasible. There is a need for fixed legal rules governing the transfer of power, which should reflect the popular satisfaction of the people. In addition, the subordination of all political parties to the citizens satisfaction should be linked to the legitimacy of their status. Introducing democracy to a region as such is an absolute necessity.
When the Arab League is unable to sort out the problems, the individual nations should reach out to the international community for assistance. The international body such as the UN is capable of coming up with solutions to the solutions that nations face. These bodies also offer a forum for fair negotiation between parties and through this, consensus can be reached. Arab countries can therefore present their problems to this body and solutions can be achieved. The international bodies implement binding resolutions that the conflicting parties must abide by. In cases where military action is required, the UN can authorize the action with the support of the international community. The toppling of the Libyan dictator, Muammar Gaddafi, was done with the support of the international community.
Evaluation of solutions
The complete change in governance of Arab Nations will not occur easily since some regimes are keen to maintain their hold on power. Even though the democratic system is the most desirable one for the nations, most Arab rulers are not open to these drastic changes. However, the commitment of the citizens of the countries to bring about change has prompted most countries to implement reforms in their system. Most of the governments have therefore started to demonstrate greater transparency and respect of law. The needs of the people are also addressed by most of the Arab nations since governments have learnt from the Arab Spring that they must remain accountable to their citizens. Failure to do this will result in the legitimacy of the government being questioned and this might lead to a widespread popular uprising against it.
The division between members of the Arab League is a substantial problem. The Effectiveness of the Arab League has been adversely impeded by disputes among the association members. There has been stiff competition for leadership of the League especially between the two regional powers: Egypt and Iraq (BBC 1). In addition to this, hostilities exist between some of the countries due to ideological or political differences. These weak divisions and weak enforcement mechanisms have prevented the Arab League from taking consistently effective action (Williams and Colleen 47).
In other words, these Arab nations pull themselves backwards by highlighting fundamental differences. The BBC highlights the lack of credibility by the Arab League by noting that when the association sent its monitors to Syria, neither the government nor the opposition sought to welcome them (1). The Arab nations need to iron out their differences and form a cohesive and strong association. Such a League will be better placed to solve the problems that the individual countries can encounter.
The perception that the international community is not concerned about the well-being of the Arabs presents a major problem to the third proposed solution of reaching out to the international community. This perception is driven by the fact that most Western countries support Israel in Middle East affairs even when it is evident that Israel is in the wrong. The historical relationship between Arab countries and Western countries has also led to apprehension since the Western countries such as Britain have colonized Arab countries or exploited them because of their natural wealth reserves. As long as such suspicions exist, Arab countries will be unwilling to rely on the international community to act as a mediator in their affairs.
Conclusion
This paper set out to discuss some of the problems caused by the Arab Spring and propose solutions to ensure that the situation does not occur again. It began with nothing that oppression and lack of democracy were the most significant causes of the Arab Spring. The Arab Spring has been a positive development in the Arab world at large, as oppressive regimes have been overthrown. However, the revolution has led to some negative effects such as the killing of many people. It has also created a refugee problem in some of the countries and led to the destruction of the economy and society. Solutions to the Arab world problem are therefore necessary.
This paper has proposed that the nations of the Arab world should be modeled after Western countries and the UAE. It has also suggested that the Arab league should work to solve internal issues and if this does not work, the countries should reach out to the supreme powers of the world to collaborate and tackle these issues. The paper has noted that these solutions might face some problems due to the lack of unity among Arab Nations and the lack of trust in the intentions of the international community. However, these problems can be overcome to ensure that the stability and future development of the Arab land are guaranteed.
Works Cited
AbuZayyad, Ziad. The Arab Spring: Progress Report and Conclusions. Palestine-Israel Journal of Politics, Economics & Culture 18.1 (2012): 119-128. Academic Search Complete. Web.
Blanche, Edward. The Dark Side of the Arab Spring. Middle East 432.1 (2012): 26-29. Academic Search Complete. Web.
Forstenlechner, Ingo, Emilie Rutledge and Rashed Salem Alnuaimi. The UAE, The Arab Spring And Different Types Of Dissent. Middle East Policy 19.4 (2012): 54-67. Academic Search Complete. Web.
Jones, Seth G. The Mirage of The Arab Spring. Foreign Affairs 92.1 (2013): 55-63. Academic Search Complete. Web.
Pundak, Ron. From The Arab Peace Initiative To The Arab Spring And Back. Palestine-Israel Journal Of Politics, Economics & Culture 18.1 (2012): 113-118. Academic Search Complete. Web.
Salem, Walid. The Arab Spring. Palestine-Israel Journal of Politics, Economics & Culture 18.1 (2012): 136-147. Academic Search Complete. Web.
Williams, Paul and Colleen Popken. U.S. Foreign Policy And The Arab Spring: Ten Short-Term Lessons Learned. Denver Journal Of International Law& Policy 41.1 (2012): 47-61. Academic Search Complete. Web.
Malcolm Gladwell in his work Small Change: Why the Revolution Will Not Be Tweeted? Casts light upon the role of modern technologies in the peoples life particularly in the activists attempts to organize a demonstration. The author expresses his point of view about the relationship between social media and social changes. He points out that the internet connects people on the one hand, but the bonds between them become weaker.
Internet makes it easier to organize different groups, to attract the peoples attention to the people who need help and find all information which people need. In fact, it seems that the Internet and social nets make people closer and sympathetic, but these bonds are supported by participation not motivation. Taking into account on-line charitable organizations, the author says: Facebook activism succeeds not by motivating people to make a real sacrifice but by motivating them to do the things that people do when they are not motivated enough to make a real sacrifice (Gladwell 321).
As for social and activist organizations who want to attract the peoples attention to the social problems, the internet seems to be very helpful. The communication flaw is very fast and millions of people may read the idea you want to pass to them but it does not make them involved. This information just crosses their minds without any results. Comparing to the activists of previous centuries and demonstrations that overturned the whole political and economic systems, modern network organizations have a lot of drawbacks.
The civil right movement organized by Martin Luther King was a strategic activism with discipline and precision. Martin Luther King was an unquestioned authority and the black church was in the center of movement (Gladwell 322). Networks are not controlled by the authority. Everyone has the same rights in the network. Decisions are made with the help of agreements and the ties between people are loose (Gladwell 323). People can never see others in a real life that is why they do not worry about the life of other people who they have never seen and probably will never see in the future. The spirit of collectivism remained in the past when activists organized demonstrations without the Internet.
There are not any limitations in the Internet. People can say whatever they want and nobody is responsible for the inaccuracy of information. Wikipedia is one of the brightest examples. There is not any editor-in-chief who controls the entry of every article and the accuracy of information. As the author points out, networks do not have a centralized leadership structure and clear lines of authority, they have real difficulties reaching consensus and setting goals (Gladwell 323). Such vague structure makes many organizations vulnerable to manipulation and internal strife. Boycotts and rebellions of the past were organized with the help of discipline and strategy that cannot be achieved with the help of Internet. Weak-tied connection in the Internet with the access to all information helps people to get through difficult situations feeling strong-tied connection of virtual friends (Gladwell 327). In fact, it makes easier to express your point of view, but harder to influence other peoples mind. People prefer to sit in front of their monitors and click the mouth supporting the activists but they are not ready to go to the demonstration and fight for their rights and liberties.
I agree with Gladwells point of view. In fact, the use of Internet does not help to provide social changes in our life. Otherwise, it makes people more indifferent to the information which comes to their mind every day. Although, there are a lot of advantages in using social nets, this weak-tied world is good at things like the return of the stolen telephone but not at the great overturns of our life.
Works Cited
Gladwell, Malcolm. Small Change: Why the Revolution Will Not Be Tweeted? The New Yorker, 2010. Print.
How we listen to music today is much different than in years of Napster and Limewire. iTunes revolutionized the music industry by providing a legal alternative for music downloads, but today there is a significant shift toward subscription-based streaming. Streaming services generated 75% of the U.S. music industry revenues in 2018, and digital downloads, including iTunes, accounted for only 11% (Flanagan and Garsd). The number of digital downloads is continuing to fall, indicating that the product life cycle (PLC) of services like iTunes have reached their Decline stage. The most challenging PLC stage of iTunes was its Introduction because of its novelty. The number of innovators, who are the first people to use the product, was low, and Apples service was only accounted for about 1.5% of total music industry revenue in the U.S. by 2005 (Golijan). Apple had to work hard to convince the artists because Steve Jobs proposal of ten-dollar albums was not persuasive when physical copies cost 16 dollars and above at the time (Golijan). The success and decline of iTunes can be related to the fashion style of PLC. Downloading music was conventional during the last decade, but trends are moving to other directions right now.
The life of iTunes could have been extended had Apple integrated streaming capability from the start and not mixing everything into one application. By the end of Maturity, iTunes had become slow and full of bugs, because Apple tried to put all media types in one place (Roose). Eventually, iTunes is to be split into several different apps for music, videos, and podcasts. But the market of streaming is already dominated by companies like Netflix, Spotify, and Google, so chances of Apple are low.
The next era of music consumption is about streaming services and internet radios like Spotify, Pandora, iHeart Radio, and Netflix. The revenue amounts they are generating are steadily increasing year-by-year (Flanagan and Garsd). With the number of digital music downloads approaching the bottom, products like iTunes are facing their decline and may be discontinued entirely in the coming years. Just like Apple ended the age of MP3 downloads and physical CDs at the beginning of the 2000s, iTunes is experiencing the same fate.