Category: Research

In this research, we are going to explore the adverse effects of pollution on our environment. Pollution is the process of contaminating the environment (Oxford advanced learners dictionary pg 900). This causes discomfort, disorder, instability or even harm to physical features and living things of a place. It comes in various forms, but the main four are air, water, soil and noise pollution. The increase of human activity on the earth consequently increased pollution. It has been very hazardous. This made scientists come up with ways to curb it. It is still a problem these days, and so people have not stopped working to end it.

Our focus is on water and soil pollution. Water and soil pollution is the process of contaminating water and soil. In this project, we will investigate the apparent main pollutants of the Spring Mill Lake in South Central Indiana. The source of pollution in this water basin is the non point source. Non-point source of pollution comes from runoff water (“Atomic Cannonball off the High Dive” par 6). This is water from rainfall snowmelts. The runoff picks and caries human made and natural pollutants and later deposit them in water bodies. These are different water bodies for example, rivers, underground water and lakes and oceans.

The pollutants include lethal chemicals from towns, agricultural chemicals from farmlands, bacteria and nutrients from faulty septic tanks, sediments from construction sites, oil and grease from manufacturing factories. The natural sources include sediments from eroding riverbanks, salt from dissolving salt rocks, and bacteria and nutrients from animal wastes.

The Spring Mill Lake is in the Mitchell plateau physiographic area. This is a karst region formed on dolostones and limestone. This is in South Central Indiana. Non-point source pollution is common in such regions because karst is made of permeable rocks, which are not good filters. These rocks are aquifers and they are extremely vulnerable to contamination. In karst terrain, drainage is not definite. This channels all runoffs to underground waterways. The water then finds its way to various natural springs and flow on surface streams to the lake. In that case, it is always difficult to control their flow into the lake. This is the geology of the place on focus.

South Central Indiana is mainly agrarian with scattered forests. They are discrete like woodlots. The region has categories of ecological land types basing on relationship among soil, landform characteristics and vegetation cover. Plant communities relate very much to soil horizon depth, soil texture and landform topography.

Indiana has a wide range of economic activities. There are several factories manufacturing different types of products. There are factories producing electric motors, pharmaceutical companies, bio – based renewable plastics, steel products and cement. Tourism is also a growing industry in Indiana. The place is attractive to many visitors who spend their holidays there (Kathy par 20). Education, research and agriculture are also the other economic activities in South Central Indiana. The above-mentioned activities are the main uses of land.

From a keen look, it becomes very clear that the Spring Mill lake is becoming more shallow because of sedimentation. Its shores have litter. The project in course has an aim of reducing the sedimentation of the lake and cleaning the water that flows into it. The project chosen is planting more trees along the riverbanks to help in preventing erosion of the riverbank. The second thing is cleaning up the littered river. The reduction of erosion through tree planting will substantially reduce the quantity of sediments carried to the lake. This learning project has made us realize that protecting the water banks is very important. Without maintaining them, we ruin our water bodies.

The following are the effects of clearing trees on riverbanks. The water cycle is affected. Trees absorb water by their roots from the ground and release it to the atmosphere. This is in the process of transpiration. This process helps in the making of rain. Cutting the trees, especially those near the rivers, introduces a break to the water cycle. This will result into a dry weather and consequently climate. Trees are in the middle of the cycle. They are an integral part of the cycle.

Trees control the rate at which rain hits the ground. They hold up the rain and release precipitation gently onto the ground. This gives a perfect protection to the soil of a place. Splash floods will not occur to wash the soil away. This cover also helps in retaining the nutrients of the soil. Besides that, the old leaves that fall of increase the natural fertility of the soil. Maintaining trees along the riverbank will also keep the water clean. Flash Floods will not drain sediments into the river. Nutrients that would otherwise be in the soil will not move to the water. This will maintain a nutrient balance between the land and in sea, lake or ocean that the river drains its water. In this project, we plant more trees on the banks of the Lost River. This is with the aim of reducing the runoff water that carries many types of sediment (Ginn, Brian, et al Pp 14). We are also out to reduce the nutrients that this water carries off to the lake. The nutrients increase in the lake will cause the periodic increase of aquatic plants and algae (“Water Quality and Karst Hydrogeology” par 3). The proliferation of this plants and algae brings competition for the dissolved oxygen in water. Aquatic animals with these plant families will not have enough oxygen for life sustenance. Usually, the marine animals die. The aim of the project is to ensure that such occurrence will not happen in future.

Clearing of trees from a river basin will cause strong winds to sweep across the place. Trees check the speed of wind. Strong winds are usually very destructive. Apart from being catastrophic, in caries away the evaporating water from a river basin. This will eventually reduce the water in the place. It may even cause the drying up of a river if the trees make up the catchment area. This does not only apply to Central Indiana but to the whole globe. There are many places that people have encroached into forests and have settled along riverbanks. This should be very clear to them, because this will eventually harm them. We also have trees protecting soil from direct water loss through evaporation. Exposed soil will eventually reduce the amount of precipitation of a place (“Deforestation Effects on Micrometeorology” pg 1027)

The project service also aimed at cleaning parts of the shore of the lake and the estuary of the river. Littering of any place is not pleasing at all. Different types of objects such as polythene papers, cloth rags and even plant remains that float on water are the things in question. They cause the breeding of microorganisms that may cause diseases to human beings or even animals. The ambience of the place will improve on cleaning. These shores have a potential for an upgrade to a recreational site. This in turn generates income to the developers.

As we have seen, on planting trees, the quality of water changes a lot. This is water on the surface, water in the ground, and water in the atmosphere. Erosion of soil also ends. The plating of trees will improve the quality of water.

This project is very important in Indiana. At the end, we will get clean water in the Spring Mill watershed. It will supply clean water for various purposes. These are like drinking water, sustain life, recreation and respite (“A Water Shed Approach” par 1). This will offer protection to aquatic animals. Among them are the fish, which are food for a large population.

The increase of tree population will also help in cleaning the atmospheric air. This is because they will increase the amount of oxygen released to the atmosphere. It does this and at the same time reduces the amount of carbon dioxide.

The project will also show all people who will learn of it that it is very important to maintain a perfect vegetation cover. As they take the example of this project, the economies of the various places will rise. This is because the cost of repairing destroyed land is usually high. A polluted environment also prevents positive development through the hazards that it causes.

Other forms of water pollution that we did not focus on in this project are waste products from runoffs from urban areas, industrial waste drainage, and septic systems. The main causes of these are overloading the system with garbage, septic tank cleaning additives, household chemicals, poor installation and maintenance of the systems and overcrowded septic systems.

The remedies of this are proper use of the system, the use of less hazardous products, informing and educating the public, and providing facilities for disposing unused chemicals and chemical containers (“Groundwater pollution” par 4).

Farm and hose chemicals are another source of soil and water pollution. To detect these chemicals, we use the well water test. The main reasons for this mode of pollution are improper use of these chemicals, poor disposal, and septic systems that are very shallow. To prevent this, use appropriate chemicals, make the public aware of the hazards of wrong use of the various chemicals and teaching them about the recommended ways. People should be encouraged to have proper storage (“Storage” par 1). In line with that, we should encourage the use of less poisonous chemicals.

Deicing salts is another source of water pollution. This makes the water in the wells to be very salty and have high levels of chlorides. The source of this is the runoffs from piles and highways. We use properly built storage to prevent runoffs from them. We should also minimize the use of salts. Instead of using deicing salt, we should use alternative deicing material.

Pipelines may contaminate the underground water also. The evidence to this is the offensive smell in well water, detection of pipe leakage, excess chemicals and bacteria in underground water. The causes of this are poor maintenance, installation, and inspection of the underground pipes. Vibrations from heavy vehicles make the pipes burst sometimes. They then release their content to underground water. The best way to make sure this problem is not there is to install the pipes well. Regular inspection should also be done, and consequent repair if need be.

This project has its focus on the long-term maintenance of the ecosystem; ensuring not to compromise the ability of the generations to come to meet their needs. Tree planting takes care of this fact fully. It does that by making sure that those people who will come will benefit from the environment that is in order.

As the tools of statistics (programs and computing speeds) improve so does their relevance in social research. Statistics are used heavily in social research, from surveys to factor analysis to data mining.

Importance of statistics

The field of statistics is the science of learning from data. Statistical knowledge helps you use the proper methods to collect the data, employ the correct analyses, and effectively present the results. Statistics is a crucial process behind how we make discoveries in science, make decisions based on data, and make predictions. Statistics allows you to understand a subject much more deeply.

In this post, I cover two main reasons why studying the field of statistics is crucial in modern society. First, statisticians are guides for learning from data and navigating common problems that can lead you to incorrect conclusions. Second, given the growing importance of decisions and opinions based on data, it’s crucial that you can critically assess the quality of analyses that others present to you.

I think statistics is an exciting field with the thrill of discovering, learning, and challenging your assumptions. Statistics facilitates the creation of new knowledge. Bit by bit, we push back the frontier of what is known. To learn more about my passion for statistics as an experienced statistician, read more about me.

1. Everybody watches weather forecasting. Have you ever think how do you get that information? There are some computer models built on statistical concepts. These computer models compare prior weather with the current weather and predict future weather.
2. Statistics mostly used by the researcher. They use their statistical skills to collect the relevant data. Otherwise, it results in a loss of money, time, and data.
3. What do you understand by insurance? Everybody has some kind of insurance, whether it is medical, home, or any other insurance. Based on an individual application some businesses use statistical models to calculate the risk of giving insurance.
4. In the financial market also statistic plays a great role. Statistics are the key to how traders and businessmen invest and make money.
5. Statistics play a big role in the medical field. Before any drugs are prescribed, scientists must show a statistically valid rate of effectiveness. Statistics are behind all the studies of medicine.
6. Statistical concepts are used in quality testing. Companies make many products daily and every company should make sure that they sell the best quality items. However, companies cannot test all the products, so they use statistics samples.
7. In everyday life we make many predictions. For example, we keep the alarm for the morning when we don’t know whether we will be alive in the morning or not. Here we use statistics basics to make predictions.
8. Doctors predict disease based on statistics concepts. Suppose a survey shows that 75%-80% of people have cancer and are not able to find the reason. When the statistics become involved, then you can have a better idea of how the cancer may affect your body or if smoking is the major reason for it.
9. A news reporter predicts the winner of elections based on political campaigns. Here statistics play a strong part in who will be your government.
10. Statistics data allow us to collect information around the world. The internet is a device which helps us to collect information. The fundamentals behind the internet are based on statistics and mathematics concepts.

Statistics Uses

Statistics are not just numbers and facts. You know, things like 4 out of 5 dentists prefer a specific toothpaste. Instead, it’s an array of knowledge and procedures that allow you to learn from data reliably. Statistics allow you to evaluate claims based on quantitative evidence and help you differentiate between reasonable and dubious conclusions. That aspect is particularly vital these days because data are so plentiful along with interpretations presented by people with unknown motivations.

Statisticians offer critical guidance in producing trustworthy analyses and predictions. Along the way, statisticians can help investigators avoid a wide variety of analytical traps.

When analysts use statistical procedures correctly, they tend to produce accurate results. Statistical analyses account for uncertainty and error in the results. Statisticians ensure that all aspects of a study follow the appropriate methods to produce trustworthy results. These methods include:

• Producing reliable data.
• Analyzing the data appropriately.
• Drawing reasonable conclusions.

Variations

There may be some benefit in thinking more widely about this and, in particular, in thinking about different sources of variation. The OP writes of ‘two bacterial groups’, and one can suppose that there is a whole collection of ‘bacterial groups’ in the background that are known to be truly different groups … this then leads to the idea of a typical distance between two randomly selected groups, or the ‘between-group variation’.In contrast, there is the idea that one will get different measurements on sampling from members of the same group, which would be ‘within-group variation’. A typical statistical test would be based on the sampling error of the difference between two means of samples from the same population (from the same group) and this is related to the ‘within-group variation’. A criterion of practical significance might reasonably be based on the size of the ‘between-group variation’.

One can imagine a whole suite of experiments set up to quantify both the ‘between-group variation’ and the ‘within-group variation’, and there is a whole set of statistical analyses for this purpose in the topic of ‘Analysis of Variance’. However, such a suite of experiments may be beyond your scope at present. Nevertheless, the separation at a thought level of the two sources of variation should still be useful to you. There are at least two possibilities:

• (a) a thought experiment where you imagine infinitely many samples from the two groups …then how big a difference would you expect in the means of the two samples if the groups are different.?
• (b) a more limited extended experiment and limited analysis, where you repeat the procedure using several pairs of groups that are known to be different, with samples of about the same size as you have. You then compare the size of the difference you see in the initial experiment with the differences found for pairs when you know the groups are different. You can then say that the difference found is either smaller than, or much the same size as, the differences found when the groups are different.

One basis of progress in this direction (there may be others), is that you have (or imagine you have) a whole population of ‘groups’ that are truly different. Then a reasonable question is whether the difference found is smaller than you would find for a pair randomly sampled from the population of different groups. A difficulty in this is how you define the population of ‘groups’ to be not unnecessarily too different from the groups you are considering.

Role in Research

Statistics play an important role in research of almost any kind because they deal with easily quantified data. When working in fields such as science or medicine, trials are needed, and experimental data has to be collected and analyzed. The study of statistics enables researchers to look at a large set of data and condense it into meaningful information.

Key aspects of statistics include finding averages/means, determining outliers on either end of a bell curve, and finding the range of quantities for set points. Also, statisticians make use of representative samples with proportionate demographics to determine factors that could affect a whole population. For example, a researcher might look for the average percentage of people who buy a particular medication, and then compare it to people who reported side effects after taking that medication. This would be used to determine the likelihood of suffering harmful side effects.

In addition to collecting and analyzing data, researchers use their skills in statistics and/or public speaking to present data in such a way as to elicit a specific response from the intended audience. The use of different types of charts or graphs makes the presentation of information more palatable and understandable for laypeople and professionals alike.

Variables

The variable is a characteristic that varies from one individual member of the population to another individual. Variables such as height and weight are measured by some type of scale, convey quantitative information, and are called as quantitative variables. Sex and eye color give qualitative information and are called qualitative variables.

Quantitative variables

Quantitative or numerical data are subdivided into discrete and continuous measurements. Discrete numerical data are recorded as whole numbers such as 0, 1, 2, 3,… (integer), whereas continuous data can assume any value. Observations that can be counted constitute the discrete data and observations that can be measured constitute the continuous data. Examples of discrete data are several episodes of respiratory arrests or the number of re-intubations in an intensive care unit. Similarly, examples of continuous data are the serial serum glucose levels, partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood, and the temperature.

Descriptive statistics

The extent to which the observations cluster around a central location is described by the central tendency and the spread towards the extremes is described by the degree of dispersion.

Measures of central tendency

The measures of central tendency are mean, median, and mode. Mean (or the arithmetic average) is the sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores. Mean may be influenced profoundly by the extreme variables.

Skewed distribution

It is a distribution with an asymmetry of the variables about its mean.

Inferential statistics

In inferential statistics, data are analyzed from a sample to make inferences in the larger collection of the population. The purpose is to answer or test the hypotheses. A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. Hypothesis tests are thus procedures for making rational decisions about the reality of observed effects

Qualitative Variable

Qualitative variables, on the other hand, can be put in groups or categories. For this reason, they are also called categorical variables. Sometimes they are given discrete numerical values that are convenient for grouping. However, these numbers are not useful in doing calculations such as average or standard deviation. For example, sports teams are put into divisions, such as Division 1, Division 2, etc. But these numbers are simply used for grouping, and would not be used in doing calculations. This makes sports team divisions an example of a qualitative variable.

Science provides many practical solutions to minimize the present levels at which pollut­ants are introduced into the environment and for remediating (cleaning up) past problems. All of these solutions come with some cost (both societal and monetary). In our everyday lives, a great deal can be done to minimize pollution if we take care to recycle materials whose production creates pollution and if we act responsibly with household chemicals and their disposal.

Additionally, there are choices we make each day that can also affect the quantity of pollutants. Heavily packaged foods, for instance, contain boxes, cartons and bottles etc., made with polluting dyes, many of which are released into the ground­water at municipal landfills. Whether we choose to drive to the corner store rather than walk or ride a bicycle will determine how much we personally contribute to acid and hydrocarbon emissions to the atmosphere (and ultimately to global fresh water supplies).

Since water plays such a vital role in life on the earth, good quality water is a precious resource. Often, water quality is more important than water quantity. The quality of the water affects the use we make of it, but the reverse is also true. Once we have used the water, we affect its quality.

This circular process indicates that the traditional habit of discharging untreated sewage and chemical wastes directly into rivers, lakes, estuaries of oceans for even­tual ‘assimilation’ into the environment is no longer acceptable—either technically or morally.

The explosion in human population and industrial activities, and the rate at which new chemicals and products are being developed and used pose a global environ­mental threat. The natural decay processes in water bodies can no longer cope with these loads.

Regulations:

Ideally, polluting contaminants should be prevented from entering the water. Specific causes which should be controlled to prevent water quality degradation are air pollution, agricultural run-off and seepage containing the residues of fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals, industrial pollution, either directly from the facility, or indirectly from the leaching of chemicals from landfills, or pollution from average households in the form of improperly treated municipal sewage.

At the most, in some circumstances, pollutants can be allowed only in low concentrations. In deciding how to prevent or to regulate water contamination, a number of questions have to be asked, including the sources, amounts and effects of various substances, ‘their fate after entering the water’, the concrete possibility to prevent substances to reach the water body or to remote them by treatment. Obviously, prevention is the only regulation method for those chemicals, which cannot be removed by water treatment methods from entering the water system.

Technology:

Technology can be used in many cases to reduce or eliminate sub­stances that may be harmful to the environment. Sewage treatment plants, properly operated and maintained, are the means of removing many toxic substances from wastewater and returning the treated water to a river or a lake without causing harm downstream.

Being a responsible consumer:

All of us, as individuals, can do something to protect the water quality by being responsible consumers. Many daily normal activities as simple as rinsing dishes in the kitchen create wastewater that is contaminated to some degree. Once this water enters the sewer system, it must be treated in a sewage treatment plant.

These facilities are never 100 per cent effective, which means that some water quality deterioration remains after the treatment process. So choosing non-hazardous products, reducing the use of some chemicals, respecting the recy­cling programs of municipalities, ensuring a proper disposal of waste are important behaviours to maintain water quality.

Over the globe, there are rising issues about the financial, social, and ecological parts of the world including water-emergency and about the basic parts of an absence of access to essential water assets. Related issues are disparities in access to water assets, the privatization of water in the setting of neo-liberal approaches, and a proceeded with protection from the acknowledgment of financial and social rights. The expanding shortage of water has come about in endeavors both universally and locally, specifically in creating countries, to propel a human rights-based way to deal with access to water. This approach is picking up power, with India and worldwide principal among those countries upholding a rights-based approach. For instance, the state of Punjab in India using the ground clean water for agricultural irrigation purposes in excess and in upcoming decade it may face water crisis likewise Chennai confronting the same situation of water emergency and transportation at a huge cost is in run to facilitating the water to the people of Chennai in India.

Mehta, P. (2012). Impending water crisis in India and comparing clean water standards among developing and developed nations. Archives of Applied Science Research, 4(1), 497-507.

Water utilization over quick creating sub mainland economies is developing at exceptional rate which is more than double the pace of the populace development for as long as century. Despite the fact that there isn’t yet a worldwide water lack, about 2.8 billion individuals, speaking to over 40% of the total populace, live with some type of water scarcity off which practically 1.2 billion live under states of physical water shortage, which happens when over 75% of the waterway streams are pulled back in nations like India and China. Staying 1.6 billion individuals live in regions of monetary water shortage, where human, institutional, and money related capital limits access to water, even though water is accessible locally to satisfy human needs. These conditions are pervasive in quite a bit of Southern Asia and Sub Saharan Africa. Side effects incorporate absence of or immature water foundation, high weakness to short and long-haul dry spell, and troublesome access to dependable water supplies particularly for provincial individuals. Then again there is amazing association between the nature of crisp water and fortifying life span and medical advantages. All over the world and all through time, any place you discover clean and contaminant free water, you locate the most beneficial, most lively human advancements. Water can regularly develop as an issue in the relations between country states. Water bargains and understandings frequently come about considering the current world of politics. Be that as it may, the governmental issues of water aren’t constrained to the worldwide circle; local legislative issues regularly assume a noteworthy job in water security. This paper is an outline of the issues encompassing India’s water shortage, and furthermore correlation of clean water norms among creating and created countries. The need for great importance is not another arrangement however usage of the current plans is more appropriable. The government has demonstrated the best eagerness in embraced the arrangement of councils which make reports and more reports. These reports have been distributed. Rules have been issued, laws have been passed and that is all which has adequately been finished.

Samra, S., Crowley, J., & Fawzi, M. C. S. (2011). The right to water in rural Punjab: Assessing equitable access to water through the Punjab rural water supply and sanitation project. Health Human Rights, 13(2), 36-49.

Even though India is ready to meet its Millennium Development Goal for giving access to safe drinking water, there remains a stressing error in access among urban and rustic zones. In 2006, 96% of the urban populace versus 86% of the rustic populace got their drinking water from an improved water source. To build access to consumable water in provincial territories, the World Bank and the territory of Punjab have executed the Punjab Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (PRWSS) to improve or develop water supply frameworks in 3,000 towns regarded to have insufficient access to clean drinking water. This examination intended to inspect whether the privilege to water was satisfied in six towns in rustic Punjab during execution of the PRWSS. The standardizing substance of the privilege to water necessitates that water be of enough, wellbeing, availability, affordability, and adequacy as far as quality. While their discoveries recommended that the PRWSS improved water quality, they additionally show that entrance to water was constrained because of affordability and the low financial status of certain individuals living in the objective networks.

Mahmood, B., Hussain, S., Sohail, M. M., Hussain, N., & Ahmad, M. (2013). Assessing the level of awareness about malnutrition and poor drinking water affecting child health in district Chiniot, Punjab, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 12(11), 978.

This research explores the degree of awareness about ailing health and poor drinking water on the youngster wellbeing in Chiniot the village of Pakistan. Absence of improved drinking water and sanitation administrations causes real illnesses like the runs influencing wellbeing status and mortality among kids. Utilizing a quantitative information, the investigation’s major target was to decide if access to improved wellsprings of water and sustenance in Chiniot are full of feeling for soundness of youngsters who are under five years old. Potential instrument behind the connections between youngster wellbeing and various kinds of water supply and sanitation administrations are likewise investigated. Information were gathered from various towns of Chiniot. Multi-arrange inspecting system was utilized to gather an example of 200 respondents. The principle destinations of this investigation were to consider the consciousness of rustic individuals about the impacts of lack of healthy sustenance and poor water supply on kid wellbeing. The significant discoveries of this examination are that for the most part individuals in provincial settings have not awareness about hunger, poor drinking water and youngster’s wellbeing.

Macedonio, F., Drioli, E., Gusev, A. A., Bardow, A., Semiat, R., & Kurihara, M. (2012). Efficient technologies for worldwide clean water supply. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification, 51, 2-17.

A review of the issues related with overall water deficiency issue and of the expanding open support and attention to this problem introduced in this work. The current water treatment forms and their significance as far as sum, quality and cost of water created just as their ecological effect are outlined. That incorporates a review of the present desalination systems in use and a review of conceivable future innovations, targeting settling diverse water issues. The mechanical improvements and difficulties together with new conceivable creation modes for the future urban water arranging are likewise introduced. At last, courses towards a cutting edge and propelled city arranging in a less expensive and increasingly economical path dependent on a progressively objective utilization of water, by providing water of various quality to the last clients as indicated by their necessities, just as the business of procedure heightening standards are talked about.

Samra, S., Crowley, J., & Fawzi, M. C. S. (2011). The right to water in rural Punjab: Assessing equitable access to water through the Punjab rural water supply and sanitation project. Health Human Rights, 13(2), 36-49.

Around the world, 884 million of 6.7 billion (roughly one out of eight) individuals try not to approach clean drinking water.2 Although access to safe drinking water has expanded lately, generous upgrades are required to arrive at the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of dividing the extent of people without manageable access to safe drinking water by 2015.3 In India, the level of the populace utilizing improved drinking water sources (characterized as family associations, open standpipes, boreholes, ensured burrowed wells, secured springs, and water accumulations) in 2006 was 89% (96% urban, 86% provincial) contrasted and 81% (85% urban, 79% provincial) from 1990 to 1998.4 Given these enhancements, almost certainly, India will meet its total level MDG focus for clean water by 2015 (in general 91%).

Hannah and Roser (2019) – ‘Water Use and Sanitation’. Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: ‘https://ourworldindata.org/water-use-sanitation

Clean water is a basic component for human health, prosperity and flourishing. Regardless of whether utilized for drinking, cleaning, nourishment creation or modern yield, access to adequate water assets is an essential human need. Access to adequate and safe sanitation offices is additionally imperative for cleanliness, illness avoidance, and human wellbeing. The World Health Organization features the commitment of poor water and sanitation access to wellbeing, mortality and diminished neediness alleviation.1 2 Contaminated drinking water, poor sanitation offices and open poo add to the transmission of irresistible illnesses, for example, looseness of the bowels, cholera, diarrhoea, typhoid, and polio, and can likewise impact sly affect unhealthiest. The WHO gauges that in 2015, the passing’s of 361,000 youngsters under 5-years of age could have been maintained a strategic distance from by tending to water and sanitation hazard factors.

Kanaaneh, H., McKay, F., & Sims, E. (1995). A human rights approach for access to clean drinking water: a case study. Health and Human Rights, 190-204.

In northern and focal Israel are approximately 70 towns that are not perceived by the province of Israel. At any rate half of these towns are not associated with the national drinking water systems and need adequate quality and amount of water. Flare-ups of ailments related with polluted water supply have happened, just as significant natural trouble. An episode of hepatitis A prompted the collaboration of a general wellbeing doctor, a medical attendant, an ecological specialist, and a human rights legal advisor in effectively taking a case to the International Water Tribunal to gain admittance to safe drinking water for these networks. This contextual investigation gives a model to participation somewhere in the range of advocates and experts of wellbeing and human rights.

Narayanan, Americai V. & Narayanan kavya (2019) . things to do to avoid another water crisis. The hindu newspaper article 28211356.

As per an ongoing NITI Aayog report, An Indian government’s report, showing 21 Indian urban areas will come up short on groundwater by 2020 if utilization proceeds at the ebb and flow rate. Water administration in urban areas crosswise over India has been specially appointed. Taking in their exercises from the Chennai emergency, other metropolitan urban areas should now set up urban water arranging and the board sheets, a changeless body like urban improvement experts, that control the supply, request and support of water administrations and structures.

Bartram, J., Brocklehurst, C., Fisher, M., Luyendijk, R., Hossain, R., Wardlaw, T., & Gordon, B. (2014). Global monitoring of water supply and sanitation: history, methods and future challenges.

Universal checking of drinking water and sanitation shapes attention to nations ‘needs and advises strategy, usage and research endeavors to expand and improve administrations. The Millennium Development Goals built up worldwide focuses for drinking water and sanitation get to; advance towards these objectives, encouraged by universal checking, has added to lessening the worldwide illness trouble and expanding personal satisfaction. The encounters of the MDG time frame created significant exercises about the qualities and impediments of flow ways to deal with characterizing and checking access to drinking water and sanitation. The techniques by which the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) of WHO and UNICEF tracks access and advancement depend on investigation of information from family unit studies and direct relapse displaying of these outcomes after some time. These techniques give broadly delegate and globally practically identical bits of knowledge into the drinking water and sanitation offices utilized by populaces around the world, yet additionally have generous restrictions: flow strategies don’t address water quality, value of access, or extra-family unit administrations. Improved measurable strategies are expected to more readily display worldly patterns. This article portrays and basically surveys JMP techniques in detail.

Kuylenstierna, J. L., Björklund, G., & Najlis, P. (1997, August). Sustainable water future with global implications: everyone’s responsibility. In Natural Resources Forum (Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 181-190).

The present use and the executives of freshwater isn’t supportable in numerous nations and districts of the world. On the off chance that present patterns are kept up, around 66% of the total populace will face moderate to extreme water worry by 2025 contrasted with 33% at present. This water pressure will hamper monetary and social advancement except if move is made to manage the rising issues. The Exhaustive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World, arranged by the United Countries and the Stockholm Environment Institute, calls for prompt activity to anticipate further crumbling of freshwater assets. Albeit most issues identified with water amount and quality require national and local arrangements, just a worldwide responsibility can accomplish the fundamental concurrence on standards, just as money related intends to achieve maintainability. Because of the focal and coordinated pretended by water in human exercises, any estimates taken need to fuse a wide scope of social, biological and monetary factors and needs. The Assessment along these lines addresses the numerous issues identified with freshwater use, for example, incorporated land and water the board at the watershed level, worldwide sustenance security, water supply and sanitation, biological system necessities, contamination, reinforcing of real gatherings, and national water asset evaluation abilities and checking systems. Governments are asked to move in the direction of an agreement regarding worldwide standards and rules for coordinated water the executives, and towards their usage in nearby and local water the executive’s circumstances. The elective improvement choices accessible to nations confronting water pressure, or on the other hand the hazard thereof, should be considered in all parts of advancement arranging.

Rodell, M., Velicogna, I., & Famiglietti, J. S. (2009). Satellite-based estimates of groundwater depletion in India. Nature, 460(7258), 999.

During their research time of August 2002 to October 2008, groundwater consumption was proportionate to a total deficit of 109 km3 of water, which is twofold the limit of India’s biggest surface-water store. Yearly precipitation was near ordinary all through the period and they exhibit that the other earthbound water stockpiling parts (soil dampness, surface waters, day off, and biomass) did not contribute fundamentally to the watched decrease altogether water levels. Although their observational record is brief, the accessible proof proposes that unsustainable utilization of groundwater for water system and other anthropogenic uses is likely to be the reason. On the off chance that measures are not taken soon to guarantee feasible groundwater utilization, the ramifications for the 114,000,000 inhabitants of the district may incorporate a decrease of rural yield and deficiencies of consumable water, prompting broad financial anxieties.

Galiani, S., Gertler, P., & Schargrodsky, E. (2005). Water for life: The impact of the privatization of water services on child mortality. Journal of political economy, 113(1), 83-120.

While most nations are focused on expanding access to safe water and along these lines decreasing tyke mortality, there is little accord on the most proficient method to really improve water administrations. One the significant proposition under exchange is whether to privatize water arrangement. During the 1990sArgentina left on one of the biggest privatization battles on the planet including the privatization of neighborhood water organizations covering around 30 per cent of the nation’s districts. Utilizing the variation in responsibility for arrangement crosswise over reality produced by the privatization procedure, we find that tyke mortality fell 8 per cent in the territories that privatized their water administrations; and that the impact was biggest (26 per cent) in the least fortunate territories. They check the vigor of these appraisals utilizing cause explicit mortality. While privatization is related to critical decreases in passing’s from irresistible and parasitic ailments, it is uncorrelated with passing’s from makes inconsequential water conditions.

After World War I the Americans became tired of war and responsibilities. They wanted to return to a normal way of life. This made the Americans suspicious of foreigners and people who have views that were different than the average American’s. Some Americans were especially afraid of the Russian Revolution. In 1917 a Communist state was set up in Russia by the Bolsheviks. They attempted to convince workers across the globe to overthrow capitalism. Many American citizens were afraid that “bolshevism” was a threat to the American society. Increasing the fear of the Americans were the anarchists, people who thought that there should be no government. Anarchists bombed many cities in 1919, frightening the American citizens.

The fear led to the Red Scare, which was a period when the government went after the Communists, also known as the “Reds”, and other people with radical views. In late 1919 and early 1920, 10,000 people were ordered to be arrested due to being suspected of being Communists and anarchists. Raids were also staged on “suspicious” groups. The U.S. government deported hundreds of the aliens it arrested, but they quickly released many others due to a lack of evidence.

After WWI many industrial workers began strikes in an attempt to get their wages increased. These strikes would keep rapidly increasing prices. Many citizens believed that labor unrest was caused by the radicals and Bolsheviks. Racial tension increased at the same time. Some white people resented African American competition for factory jobs in the north. About 350,000 steelworkers went on strike in September 1919, demanding higher wages and an 8-hour work day. The companies accused the strikers of being “Red agitators” which cost the strikers public support and forced the strike to end.

During the same month police officers from Boston went on strike for the right to form a union. When the strike collapsed in the end, the entire police force was fired. Some workers chose not to join labor union, linking the unions with radicalism. A sharp drop in union membership happened in the 1920s. Despite the unions’ decline, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters was created. This union of railroad workers gew in the 1930s, when the government began encouraging unions.

President Calvin Coolidge, his administration, and the Republican congress all held that support of business would aid prosperity. The U.S. government cut spending and lowered the income tax on wealthy Americans and corporations. They also raised tariffs to protect business and overturned laws regulating child labor and women’s wages. President Calvin Coolidge favored a limited role for the U.S. in world affairs. He wanted world peace, but he didn’t want the U.S. to join the League of Nations or join foreign alliances. Many Americans supported this policy of isolationism.

A recession lingers after WWI. The economy the n began a steady growth that lasted a decade. In 1922 the U. S’s gross national product was $70 billion. By 1929 it rose to $100 billion. New technology stimulated rapid industrial growth, and electricity powered the American industry. Before WWI only 30 percent of the U.S. factories were run by electricity but by 1929, the number rose to 70 percent. By decreasing the cost of production, businesses could decrease the cost of products, increasing profits overall.

New ways of managing businesses helped the economy grow. Employers used scientific management to adopt more efficient work methods. The new methods lowered costs and increased productivity. Businesses began adopting mass-production techniques. This further increased productivity and cut production costs. Businesses also began trying to better their relationships with workers. They set up safety programs, and some even provided health and accident insurance. Others encouraged their workers to buy stock in the company. These steps, known as welfare capitalism, attempted to link workers more closely to the company they worked for. Businesses also adopted these steps to keep workers from joining independent unions.

By the twenties more than 60 percent of American houses had electricity. Companies produced electrical appliances, and the consumers acquired them. Using these appliances meant less time on household chores. Businesses began spending more money on advertising to persuade consumers to buy a product. Newspapers and magazines were filled with ads, and with the spread of the radio, a new advertising, the commercial announcement, was born. Consumers found a new way of paying called installment buying, where the consumer would promise to pay small, regular amounts over time.

During the twenties the car became a part of every Americans daily life. The U.S. economy also revolved around the automobile. About 4 million Americans began working for auto companies or related jobs. In 1914 Ford announced that he would pay workers the high wage of $5 per day. By the mid-twenties other car making companies such as General Motors began cutting into Ford’s sales by offering cars with various improvements.

American citizen’s love for driving cars called for new highways and roads. With the highways came gas stations and rest stops. The businesses along highways profited due to the American’s new love for cross-country travel. The car boom also affected companies that made products used in cars. An example of this would be that steel, rubber, and glass industries grew. Cars also contributed to the spread of suburbs. Now that people could drive to work, they could live in suburbs and still go to work in the cities.

Despite this prosperity, there were still many Americans that were not a part of this boom in the twenties. Farmers made of for a large portion of this group. During the war, the government had to buy wheat, corn, and other products from farmers, which helped the farmers. But, after the war farmers were forced to compete with European agriculture once again. The prices of food fell, and farm income dropped. Many farmers lost their farms due to being unable to pay their debts.

Railroad workers and coal miners also struggled as trucks took business from railroads and electricity replaced coal as a power source. Americans also bought less cotton now and more clothes were made of synthetic fibers. This forced many textile factories to shut down. Workers’ wages raised slightly, but the cost of iving rose even more. By 1929 nearly three fourths of families had incomes of below $2,500, the accepted level needed for a comfortable living.

The twenties also brought many changes for women. One large change was the ratification of the 19th amendment in 1920, allowing women in all states to vote. Women also now ran for election to political offices. The number of women working outside the house steadily grew. Most working women worked as teachers or office workers, but some that were college-educated began professional careers. Still most married women remained to work in the home. The symbol for the new “liberated” woman of the twenties was the flapper, a carefree young woman with short “bobbed” hair, heavy makeup, and short skirts. Many people saw the behavior of flappers as a sign of the morals changing and new freedoms.

Cultural changes spread quickly due to the new growth of mass media. Laborsaving devices and fewer working hours gave citizens more leisure time to enjoy newspapers, magazines, phonograph records, the radio, and the movies. In the twenties the motion picture industry in Hollywood became a major business. The movies offered an escape and entertainment to many Americans. At first, the movies were silent, and only black and white, with actors’ dialog printed on the screen. In 1927 Hollywood introduced movies with sound. The first “talkie” The Jazz Singer, created a sensation.

The radio brought the new entertainment into people’s homes in the 1920’s. Radio networks broadcast popular programs that included news, concerts, sports, and comedies. Businesses realized that the radio offered a huge audience for messages about their products to be heard, so many businesses began to help finance radio programs. Radio stations sold spot advertisements, or commercials, to companies.

The invention of the radio also added to the popularity of sports such as baseball, football, and boxing, by allowing listeners to experience sporting events at home as they are happening. American citizens flocked to sporting events, and sporting stars became heroes. Americans also took up new activities with enthusiasm, which eventually turned into fads. Board games and crossword puzzles became a big deal. Contests like flagpole sitting and dance marathons made headlines.

During the twenties people began dancing to a new type of music called jazz. Jazz capture the spirit of the era so well that the 1920’s are often referred to as the Jazz Age. Jazz uses dynamic rhythms and improvisation. Famous jazz musicians such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and Bessie Smith emerged. Jazz inspired a blossoming culture in Harlem, an African American section of New York City. During a movement called the Harlem Renaissance, writers presented the African American experience in novels, poems, and stories.

While the Harlem Renaissance thrived, other writers questioned American ideals. Some influential writers chose to live in other countries due to this. Other writers remained in the U.S. and wrote about life in America.

Disagreement began to arise between those who defended traditional beliefs and those who welcomed new beliefs. One issue that divided America was the use of alcohol. The temperance movement was rooted in religious objections to drinking, and in belief that society would gain of alcohol was not available. The movement achieved its goal in 1919 with the ratification of the 18th amendment. This amendment established Prohibition, which banned liquor in all the United States. In the rural South and Midwest Prohibition generally succeeded. However, in the big cities Prohibition did not get much support.

A continuing demand for alcohol led to lawbreaking. Illegal bars and clubs, known as speakeasies, sprang up in cities. The government could do little to enforce prohibition. By the early twenties, many states in the East quit trying to enforce the laws. Prohibition contributed to the rise of organized crimes. Powerful gangsters made millions of dollars by bootlegging. They used their profits to influence businesses, labor unions, and governments. Over time most of America realized that Prohibition had failed. It was repealed in 1933 with the 21st amendment.

Many native-born Americans were afraid of the rapid changes in society. Their concerns led to an upsurge of nativism. With this came the revival of the Ku Klux Klan. The KKK preyed on African Americans, but also targeted Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and other groups they believed to represent “un-American” values. Klan members used scare tactics, whipped or lynched people, and burned property to get their way. The Klan spread from the South to other areas in the country in the twenties.

Nativism also arose because some Americans believed that foreigners would take their jobs. In 1921 Congress responded to these Nativist fears by passing the Emergency Quota Act, which established a quota system, an arrangement that placed a limit on the number of immigrants from each country. The policy favored immigrations from northern and western Europe. Congress revised the law in 1924. The National Origins Act reduced the annual country quota and based it on the census of 1890. The law also completely excluded the Japanese immigrants completely. An earlier law already excluded the Chinese. The quotas did not apply to country in the Western Hemisphere. As a result, immigration from Mexico and Canada increased.

Another cultural clash in the twenties involved the role of religion in society. This conflict gained national attention in 1925 in one of the most famous trials of the era. In 1925 Tennessee passed a law making it illegal to teach evolution. The law was supported by Christians who accepted the biblical story of creation. A teacher named John Scopes deliberately broke the law so that a trial could test it’s legality. Two famous lawyers took the opposing sides in the trial. Although Scopes was convicted if breaking the law and fined $100, the Christians lost the larger battle. The defense made it appear that the offense wanted to impose their religious beliefs on the entire nation. The Tennessee Supreme Court overturned Scopes’s conviction.

For decades, Russia had been a smouldering cauldron of discontent, bubbling over occasionally in strikes, riots, and assassinations. However, it was The Great War which was to be the tipping point for three of the most powerful dynasties the world had ever seen; The Hohenzollerns of Germany, the Hapsburgs of Austria-Hungary, and the topic of this presentation the Romanovs who were the emperors of all the Russia’s. This was the war which brought these great empires to ruin and which spawned republics in their place. It marked the end of an imperialistic age and forced us to give up our last grasp of our medieval understanding. World War One proved to be the end for the tsarist government. The tsar was unable to rule effectively, and he made poor decisions which led to hardship for his subjects. Secondly, it was in 1915 that Tsar Nicholas II decided against advice to take command of the Imperial Russian army. Finally, from the start of the war, Russia’s economic problems grew worse and by 1917, the country was facing economic collapse.

Firstly, Tsar Nicholas II was unable to rule effectively. Nicholas’s poor decisions led to worsening relations with the government and increased hardship for his subjects. He was detached from the plight of the Russian people and his policies alienated ethnic minorities. When the tsar did recall the Duma in 1915, the Octoberists and Kadets established the Progressive Bloc who wanted to have greater control over the war. In response Nicholas closed the Duma, which in turn alienated many liberals. It was in this climate of low support that Nicholas declared himself Commander in Chief of the army and departed for the Eastern Front. His absence left a weakened government in Petrograd and his wife, Tsarina Alexandra, in control, however she was a German princess and some were suspicious as to where her loyalties lay. Her biggest fault proved to be that she would appoint men who owed their positions to winning favour with the Tsarina, rather than their ability and effectiveness. This would have been bad enough with Russia at peace, but in wartime, it led inevitably to disaster for the monarchy and for Russia.

Secondly, It was in 1915 that Tsar Nicholas II decided against all advice to take personal command of the army. He left Petrograd and moved to army headquarters. The tsar may have believed that, by taking charge, his army would be inspired and fight with renewed vigour. Unfortunately, the Tsar knew little about the command and organisation of military forces. After the tsar had taken command Russia’s embarrassing series of military failures continued and his presence did nothing to reinvigorate the army. The situation was not helped by the organisation of the Russian troops which deteriorated as there were massive shortages of ammunition, equipment, and medical supplies. It was Nicholas II’s decision to take charge of the army which meant that he was seen by the Russian people as having personal responsibility for the military disasters inflicted on Russia and would only make him more unpopular.

Finally, Russia’s economic problems grew worse and by the beginning of 1917, the country was facing economic collapse. The ‘war economy’ had resulted in a steep increase of workers in the cities. City administrations faced added pressure to provide housing and services. Due to this unemployment rose in industries that were not directly contributing to the war effort. Even for the industries which remained raw materials from overseas could not reach Russia which resulted in shortages of finished goods. Living conditions deteriorated, especially because of shortages in the shops. These were caused by:

• The abandonment of Poland and Lithuania in 1915 had deprived Russia of much farmland

• Peasants hoarded grain for their own use rather than selling it

• The railways were committed to the war effort not transporting supplies to the cities

There was a severe lack of food in Moscow and, in 1917, Petrograd only received half of the grain required to feed its citizens. These shortages contributed to social unrest.

In conclusion, it proved to be a combined series of economic, military, and political failures which were brought on and then accelerated by the breakout of World War One which only served to cause the downfall of the tsarist system and the Russian Empire itself. The precarious situation the Russian Empire was in is best described by the Deputy Minister of the interior during February 1914, he sent a memo to the tsar in which he stated that ‘A war against Germany even if Russia won would only serve to destroy the monarchy.’ This serves to perfectly capture how precarious the Russian situation was and that the monarchy which had ruled Russia for 300 years was already near collapse and World War One only accelerated the process.

Water pollution is the dumping of foreign materials in water. Water pollution has the following advantages: helps in disposing harmful materials off the land surface and is inexpensive. Disadvantages of water pollution include: waterborne diseases, death of aquatic life and hindrance to boating activities.

How do industries cause water pollution explain?

Explanation: Industries discharge chemical wastes comprising substances called effluents in rivers, lakes, streams etc. Factories sometimes turn waterways into open sewers by dumping oil, toxic chemicals and other harmful liquids called effluents into them.

In other words, it is toxic water that cannot be drunk or used for essential purposes like agriculture, and which also causes diseases like diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid and poliomyelitis that kill more than 500,000 people worldwide every year.

What are the types of water pollution?

Types of water pollution

• Surface water pollution. Surface water includes water that is found naturally on the earth’s surface.
• Groundwater pollution.
• Chemical pollution.
• Nutrients pollution.
• Oxygen depletion pollution.
• Microbiological pollution.
• Suspended matter.
• Effects on human beings.

What are the pros and cons of pollution?

When chemicals from factories are dumped in water rather than on land, it means crops from rain-fed agriculture will not be affected. Water pollution prevents health hazards. When materials are dumped in rivers, they become unavailable to human beings and hence cannot affect them, for instance, poisonous food materials.

What are the effects of pollution on the environment?

Effects of Pollution of Water Diseases: In humans, drinking or consuming polluted water in any way has many disastrous effects on our health. Destruction of Ecosystems: Ecosystems are extremely dynamic and respond to even small changes in the environment. Eutrophication: Chemicals in a water body, encourage the growth of algae.

What are the pros and cons of water privatization?

When the water industry goes to the private sector, then it can operate more freely since there aren’t as many political influences in the boardroom. If anything, private water companies can exert more influence on the government because of their role in society. 3. It can lead to infrastructure investments.

How to explain the benefits and costs of pollution?

Explain why pollution can be said to have benefits as well as costs and describe the nature of these benefits and costs. Using marginal benefit and marginal cost curves, apply the marginal decision rule to show and explain what is meant by the efficient level of emissions and abatement.

The First warfare had profound social, psychological, economic and political consequences that arguably formed the twentieth Century. it’s troublesome to place a time-frame on its impact. Assessing the aftermath of the war will vary between the Nineteen Twenties and therefore the Nineteen Forties and even go as way because the conflict. but regardless of the scope of the conflict is, its unprecedented quality certainly resulted in immense transformations in Europe. Its immediate outcome was the territorial amendment on the continent. This upset the majority of the signatories in a method or another and nobody was utterly glad. Economic power was decentralized as FRG lost an outsized portion of its industrial force, whereas the USA emerged because the world major power. the good Depression within the Nineteen Twenties had severe consequences to the post-war economies that were still making an attempt to recover.

On the opposite hand, the devastation that occurred from this total war penetrated European societies. It influenced the mentality not solely of the troopers, however of the population at giant resulting in ideology, each pacifist and nationalist. The political outcome of this psychological impact may be seen within the coup of 1917 yet because the rise of dictator and Il Duce, however conjointly within the creation of the League of countries, symbolising the 2 different movements on the continent. the primary warfare was the first total war in history. it’s so straightforward to check however the conflict influenced all aspects of life, since they were totally incorporated into the military activities. The harshest consequences of the primary warfare were in all probability knowledgeable by FRG. Seen as a defeated aggressor, the country had to simply accept full responsibility for the happening of the conflict. The terms of the accord of Versailles in 1919 were seen as hugely severe, though they grow pale as compared with the accord of Brest-Litovsk a year earlier. Article 231, that placed total guilt on FRG, gave the justification for the imposition of half-dozen,600 million pounds reparations. This was a vast total, that in theory would have had to be repaid up to 1984. The country lost all its colonies, that became mandates of the League of countries, 10% of its land in Europe, between 15.1 percent of its population, 16% of its coal fields, and 50% of its iron and industry.

This was a huge blow to its economic strength and national pride. The Rhineland was to be demilitarised, whereas the German army was restricted to a hundred,000 men with no craft, armoured vehicles and submarines and solely six battleships. The aftermath of the accord in FRG was extremely polemical. The folks resented it with extreme anger and disappointment with the reparations, war guilt and particularly with the creation of the ‘Polish corridor’ that gave European country access to metropolis. Contemporaries like J.M. Keynes and Harold Nicholson criticised the settlement and it shortly became mostly discredited. nevertheless it’s still troublesome to assess it importance. It definitely radicalised the German population and created a powerbase for the increase of Hitler’s NSDAP because it gave rise to ideas like the ‘stab within the back’ story and therefore the try for a bigger FRG. several have seen it as associate degree inevitable prelude to the Second warfare. Yet, some historians like Sally Marks and Vyvyen Brendon don’t see a cause and consequence relationship between the accord of Versailles and therefore the events of 1939. it’s in all probability safe to conclude that in any case, the settlement greatly influenced German politics.

Criminological theories are useful tools because they help to understand the criminal justice system, the victims, and the perpetrators in the system. It is important to acknowledge that there are many criminological theories with different levels of analysis, and there is no single theory capable of explaining all the forms of offending behaviors. The ‘problem’ of youth crime is complex in nature. This essay argues that the ‘problem’ of youth crime can be identified as both that African youth are responsible for committing street-related crimes in Victoria, as well as media and public discourse are responsible for over-representing and racializing African adolescents. In this context, a youth offender is defined as an alleged offender who is between the ages of 10 and 17 years, during the initial time in which they were linked to a recorded offence (Crime Statistics Agency [CSA] 2018). Using official statistics, media reports, and academic literature, this essay evaluates Robert Agnew’s General Strain theory, because this theory is somewhat useful in understanding the underlying factors contributing to street crimes committed by African youth. Agnew’s theory examines that failing to achieve one’s positively-valued goals can insinuate youth crime and youth confronted by negative stimuli can turn to deviance. Furthermore, the lack of positive stimuli such as positive social networks instigates in participation crime. Travis Hirschi’s Social Bond theory is used to explain that bonds to society influence the reduced likelihood of street-related offending by African youth. This theory compensates for Agnew’s limitation of underplaying the importance of social control, to which most African youth conform.

Firstly, African youth represent a significant proportion of the overall youth community who commit street-related offenses in Victoria. Street-related crimes are crimes such as burglary, robbery, and carjacking (Wright and Topalli 2012). According to the Centre for Multicultural Youth (2014), the rate of offenses committed by the Sudanese and Somali youth populations was 7109.1 per 100,000 and 6141.8 per 100,000 respectively. In contrast, 1301.0 per 100,00 offenses were committed by the remaining wider youth community (Centre for Multicultural Youth 2014). The substantial difference between African youth committing crime and other nationalities of offenders is reinforced by Hanrahan (2018) who reported that Sudanese were the sixth largest group of offenders in Victoria from April 2017 to March 2018. Additionally, Victoria Police statistics highlight that the second highest group of alleged offenders were born in Sudan after New Zealand (Centre for Multicultural Youth 2014). Based on these findings, it appears as though African youth crime is a critical issue. In fact, there are African youth groups engaging in serious street offenses which distress the general public. This is evident through various examples which have been continuously reported by the media. For example, on the 26th of May, four African teenagers invaded a Melbourne home and held a couple of hostages for half an hour, while stealing their car, jewelry, and computers. This was amongst a series of crimes committed by the same young men who also participated in carjackings, home invasions, and burglaries in a range of other Melbourne suburbs (Australian Associated Press 2019). A media report by Duncan (2018) draws a similar conclusion that young members of the African population were liable for causing havoc at the 2018 Moomba festival. Using evidence such as camera footage, witnesses, and police testimonies, Duncan (2018) conveys the reason behind the strong presence of police during the 2018 Moomba festival was instigated by the high number of public arrests of African youth in the previous years of the Moomba festivals. The examples and statistics described above suggest that African youth crime should not be overlooked because they are responsible for a significant percentage of street crimes. Instead, the underlying causes that contribute to African youth offenses should be examined and understood through Robert Agnew’s General Strain theory of crime.

Agnew’s theoretical framework argues that failing to accomplish a positively-valued goal motivates African youth to commit street-related crimes. To begin, Agnew’s theory claims that a specific strain experienced by an individual may lead to negative emotions such as anger and frustration (Agnew 2013). Agnew defines strain as any situation that is disliked by an individual that causes them to become dissatisfied with themselves (Agnew 2013). Strain is experienced by any individual, however, it manifests into crime if an individual is unable to cope with this strain in a legal manner (Agnew 1992). Agnew’s theory can be applied to understand African Australian youth committing offenses, using unemployment as a potential cause. Unemployment is a strain because it is a failure of not being able to achieve one’s monetary goals. Unemployment can manifest into anger which can then fuel youth into committing street crimes such as theft or burglaries in order to feel a sense of achievement (Agnew 2013). For example, Morris (2016) reported the story of a 14-year-old African Australian who was part of an African youth gang and was responsible for youth crime in Melbourne. The boy expressed his frustration over the lack of employment opportunities which contributed to his criminal offences. This highlights that employment is considered a monetary success and the 14-year-old African Australian attempted to achieve this positively-valued goal through illegitimate means of attaining money. Frustration and anger are significant emotions that are associated with a sense of power which encourages desires for retaliation (Baron 2006). In fact, Baron (2006) argues that anger is a crucial cause of street crime. Therefore, Agnew’s theory suggests the importance of identifying interventions that minimize the anger experienced by African Australian youth from unemployment, which motivates them to engage in street crimes.

A solution to address unemployment and the inability to achieve an individual’s positively-valued goal is proposed by Heller (2014). Heller (2014) recommends summer jobs to resolve joblessness amongst disadvantaged youth because unemployment is a key cause of offending. This article acknowledges Agnew’s theory and thus advocates that summer jobs can help in accomplishing goals of monetary success by providing wages to individuals. This similar recommendation is also put forward by researcher Troy Pittaway, who strongly believes that the government ought to support young African people by assisting them in their employment pursuits (The Australian 2018). In 2018, the Victorian Multicultural Commission (2018) also offered an action plan consisting of over 150 actions that aimed to create employment and education opportunities for young African people. The Victorian Multicultural Commission (2018) acknowledged that employment and education were important focus areas, and subsequently proposed actions such as assisting young unemployed African Australians to become financially secure by finding jobs and providing young African Australians access to work placement programs that lead to ongoing employment. This illustrates that utilizing Agnew’s framework is helpful in understanding that African Australian youth commit street offenses when they are unable to achieve their goals and fail to legally cope with this strain. Additionally, Agnew’s theory also aids in attempting to solve this problem by introducing reforms that increase the likelihood of African Australian youth achieving their goals.

Agnew’s theory assists in understanding that, African youth commit street crimes because of the negative stimuli they are exposed to and the lack of positive stimuli they receive in Victoria. Negative stimuli can consist of disruption of familial relationships, discrimination, and peer pressure, and the lack of positive stimuli can include poor emotional support (Nino, Ignatow & Cai 2017; Shepherd, Newton & Farquharson 2018). Agnew (1992) claims that the negative stimuli individuals experience can cause anger and resentment. These pessimistic attitudes draw youth to participate in criminal behavior. Journal articles from Nino, Ignatow & Cai (2017) and Froggio (2007) assert that a high amount of peer delinquency causes the strains; loss of positive stimuli, and exposure to negative stimuli. The study conducted by Nino, Ignatow & Cai (2017) reports that the negative stimuli consisted of negative peer relationships and the lack of positive stimuli consisted of conforming peers. Nino, Ignatow & Cai (2017) report that the youth engaged in crime were the youth who were more vulnerable to peer pressure. These youth were more likely to be involved in gangs and hence were more likely to commit street-related crimes. This explanation for deviance is illustrated by Donovan (2016) in the Victorian Youth Summit who interviewed Harriet Offei, an African adolescent living in Melbourne. Harriet revealed that many African adolescents who were dependent on their friends were also vulnerable to succumbing to the peer pressure of committing crimes (Donovan 2016). In other words, co-offending is more prominent than the act of carrying out a crime individually in Victoria by the African youth population. Examples include the St Kilda incident in which three males were assaulted and robbed by approximately 10-20 youths who were identified as African appearance (Cunningham 2018); and a violent brawl committed by approximately 60-70 youths also identified as Africans in Collingwood, which left six victims hospitalized after home invasions and multiple carjackings (Bolt 2018). Maladaptive behaviors such as aggression, risk, and sensation-seeking by African adolescents are responsible for these criminal behaviors described above (Piquero & Sealock 2010). These behaviors could also stem from early childhood trauma from being exposed or subjected to physical and emotional abuse (Shepherd, Newton & Farquharson 2018). For example, in the article written by Park (2018), Kuon Gido an 18-year-old boy was involved in the theft of a BMW car along with other Sudanese youth. Kuon claimed his actions were sourced from his anger towards his parents’ deteriorated marriage, as well as being treated as an outcast when arriving in Australia. Hence, this conveys that Agnew’s theory is applicable in understanding that African youth commit street-related offenses because of the negative stimuli and lack of positive stimuli they are exposed to.

Agnew’s theory is not being adopted by the media and public discourse in Victoria regarding African youth committing street crimes. Instead, this young demographic group is depicted in a stigmatizing manner by media and public discourse who fail to recognize the individual strains contributing to street crimes. The impact of media coverage on young South Sudanese, adds to their already war-torn struggles. This is illustrated in the 2007 murder of a young South Sudanese, Liep Gony, in Melbourne. Despite Gony being murdered by two young white men, the media and Former Federal Minister of Immigration, Kevin Andrews, publicly condemned the entire South Sudanese community for failing to integrate into Australian society (Benier, Blaustein, Johns & Maher 2018; Coventry, Dawes, Moston & Palmer 2014). They criticized this ethnic group for being the problem-group of youth crime in Victoria, rather than a victimised group subjected to violence (Coventry et al. 2014). These prejudiced views promoted by media coverage and politicians are also supported by misconstrued statistics. (Weatherburn 2011) underlined that crime statistics can be misinterpreted and misused. This is highlighted in the Crime Statistics Agency’s (2018) media release which revealed that journalists and media outlets are reporting incorrect figures. The African youth population is not responsible for the majority of street crimes because these offenders only represented 1.0% of the unique offender population in comparison to Australian-born offenders who represented 71.7% of the unique offender population in 2017 (CSA 2018). This shows that journalists ought to consult with criminologists when interpreting data and statistics because they are also accountable for racializing youth crime and keeping the public informed about recent criminal offenses (Police Accountability Project 2017). This is because the public who view misleading media coverage regurgitates the false information and consequently participates in racial discrimination towards African adolescents (MacDonald 2017).

Benier et al. (2018) reported that the media was responsible for saturating stories about African youth gang crime and thus allowing racism directed towards African youths to become socially acceptable. Participants in the Benier et al. (2018) study and the article Ryan (2018), criticized the media for continuously covering stories that have a black suspect and a white victim. Because of such negative portrayals, the majority of African youth groups were constant victims of heavy racial profile policing, became socially isolated, and were prevented from achieving their educational and professional goals (MacDonald 2017; Benier et al. 2018). This suggests that media and public discourse are not utilizing Agnew’s theory. Instead, dominant media discourses link African youth with criminality, hence influencing the level to which African youth are subjected to discrimination (Nolan 2011). For example, this is evident through Herald Sun’s coverage of Sudanese youth which does not feature the difficulties and strains experienced by Sudanese (Nolan 2011). Sudanese youth in Nolan’s (2011) article reveals that the media does not acknowledge that Sudanese migrant youth were once recruited as child soldiers, and such adolescents require counseling and social services before they integrate into society. Therefore, Agnew’s theory raises awareness of the importance of recognizing why African youth commit street-related violence because failing to recognize such strain by media and public discourse will lead to discrimination against African youth in Victoria.

Hirschi’s Social Control theory counteracts Agnew’s lack of emphasis placed on African youth who do not commit street crimes because they are tightly bonded to society. Hirschi (1969) states that delinquency happens when someone’s bond to society has weakened or broken. The four bonds are; attachment, involvement, commitment, and belief. Social control theory is useful in understanding the protective factors that prevent African youth’s involvement in street-related offenses. African-Australians Multicultural Employment and Youth Services (AAMEYS n.d.), a not-for-profit organization aims to consolidate and strengthen African youth’s pre-existing social bonds. This organization attempts to achieve strengthened social bonds through various projects. For example, this organization hosts primary and secondary school homework support classes to improve students’ numeracy and literacy skills (AAMEYS n.d). Another program in Victoria, similar to AAMEYS, is the Beaut Buddies Program by Foundation House (Australian Human Rights Commission 2010). Although the main focus of this program was to improve the English language skills of African youth, it also aimed to improve their involvement with their own culture. This shows that through these programs, African youths are able to enhance their bond of commitment to their academic success as well as increase their involvement in school-related activities. Both programs embody Hirschi’s Social control theory, because African youth engage in prosocial activities (Huebner & Betts 2002). Such participation is likely to reduce levels of delinquency among African youth which is emphasised in the study completed by Ryan, Testa & Zhai (2008). Hence, African youth portray conforming behaviors to society. In support of this, Smyrk (2018) claimed that the majority of Sudanese youth have become important members of society through being involved in the aforementioned pro-social tasks. Similarly, Majok, a member of the Sudanese community in Melbourne developed a passion for videography (Lam 2018). Majok is a valuable contributing member within the Sudanese-Australian society, because his videos inspired other migrant refugees to transition into Australia smoothly (Lam 2018). This signifies that developing special interests will increase self-efficacy and thus lead to an improved sense of attachment and commitment toward society (Ryan, Testa & Zhai 2008). Hence, this demonstrates Agnew’s limitation of not explaining why some African youth conform to society. However, this can be examined through Hirschi’s Social control theory which studies why there is an absence of criminal activity amongst African youth populations.

This essay establishes that explaining the problem of African youth street-related crime using criminological theories is complex in nature. This is because all criminological theories are inadequate to some degree when defining crime. Robert Agnew’s General strain theory is one useful example in comprehending the ‘problem’ of African youth street-related offenses. Which, the ‘problem’ of youth crime in Victoria is focussed on African youth street-related crime. This ‘problem’ can be studied in two different manners. The first is that a proportion of African youth is responsible for committing street-related offenses because of the strains such as the inability to achieve their positively valued goals the exposure to negative stimuli and the lack of positive stimuli. The second way to examine African youth crime is through extensive media coverage by journalists who are responsible for misconstruing data to emphasize the correlation between ethnicity and crime, thus overlooking the strains African youth experience. On the other hand, Hirschi’s Social control theory is also utilized to interpret why African youth do not commit crimes, which is a lacking feature in Agnew’s theory. Overall, this results in a misguided understanding of youth crime which can have negative consequences on the society’s ability to help reduce overall youth crime rates.

Introduction

1.1 Background

Although it has declined substantially over the past two decades, the pregnancy rate among girls and women 15 to 19 years of age remains a stubborn public health problem. Each year, more than 600,000 teens become pregnant and 3 in 10 teens will become pregnant before they reach 20 years of age. According to community studies, 10%-40% of young girls have had unintended pregnancies and 14 million children worldwide are born every year to young married and unmarried women aged 15-19 years. Similarly, teenage pregnancy accounts for about 70,000 deaths annually. The teenage pregnancy rate is higher in Africa than its surrounding continents; as it is a fact that of the 20 countries in the world that have the highest teenage pregnancy rates, 18 countries are from Africa. Uganda has one of the highest levels of teenage pregnancy ranked 14th out of 54 countries in Africa, with 24% of adolescents (13-19 years) in 2011; who were already mothers or pregnant with their first child. Currently, the average prevalence of teenage pregnancy in Uganda is as high as 25%, with 27% in rural areas and 19% in urban areas. These studies show that teenage pregnancy is still at a high prevalence and particularly most of these cases come from developing countries. Unintended pregnancy is seen as a key concept for understanding fertility and the unmet need for family planning. It has been a major challenge in developing countries including Uganda. However, there is scarce representative information on its determinants among teenagers in Uganda. Data for this study were extracted from the 2016 Uganda Demographic and Health Survey. The prevalence of unintended pregnancies among teenagers between 12-19 was computed. Chi-square and multivariate logit regression analysis methods were used to measure association and predict the factors influencing unintended pregnancies in Uganda.

1.2 Problem statement

Unintended pregnancy can be defined as the kind of pregnancy that is reported to be either unwanted or mistimed. it is a major problem in developing countries, Uganda being one of them. For instance, in the late 1980s, a comparison of demographic and health survey data from 11 developing African countries showed that in Uganda 68% of women aged 20-24 years and 73% of those 35-39 years had given birth in their teens. Uganda is the leading country in teenage motherhood among the 11 countries. Our study involved teenagers between 12-19 years in Uganda as a majority of these unintended pregnancies occur in these age groups. This has led to an increase in school dropout rates among teenage girls and lower enrolment of girls than boys in secondary schools. Therefore, this study aims to identify the determinants of unintended pregnancy among teenagers in Uganda and provide their applicable solutions.

1.3 Research questions

Could religion be a factor contributing to unintended pregnancy among youths in Uganda?

Is there a relationship between the wealth index and unintended pregnancy among youths in Uganda?

Is there adequate access to media on sex education for youths of Uganda?

1.4 Objectives

1.4.1 General Objective

To establish the determinants of unintended pregnancy among teenagers in Uganda and determine factors that can reduce the prevalence of unwanted pregnancies among teenagers.

1.4.2 Specific objectives

1. To determine to what extent these determinants influence unintended teenage pregnancy.
2. To guide reproductive health program planners and policymakers to implement effective reproductive health programs that can reduce the risk incurred by these unwanted teenage pregnancies.

1.5 Justification of the study

The determinants of unintended pregnancy among teenagers in Uganda have not been delved into and analyzed. From the study, the findings intend to provide policy and program recommendations that will help policymakers, health service providers, and the government to develop effective programs to alleviate unintended pregnancies among teenagers in Uganda. This can further aid in the reduction of cases of pregnancy-related complications in Ugandan teenagers such as abortion, maternal and infant morbidity and mortality.

Literature review

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews the relevant literature on the overview of unintended pregnancy among youths and also related works done by other researchers on the subject matter. Hence the literature review will address the various issues under investigation, providing a clearer background to the problem studied.

Unplanned pregnancy in adolescents constitutes an important health problem worldwide and has been associated with a great number of negative health outcomes. Giving birth during the teenage leads to bearing more children than would be expected after the teenage years. (Brhane, G. et al.)The outcome of this phenomenon results in an exponential increase in population growth. Unwanted adolescent pregnancy is also associated with stigmatization, low birth weight, stillbirth, and maternal death. Also, lack of access to health care, the inadequacy of skilled delivery personnel, and delayed access to antenatal care (ANC) deprive teenage mothers and their born babies of essential health care services. Research on the determinants of teenage pregnancy in Uganda is minimal. At least one research has linked adolescent pregnancy with early marriage; this single factor alone cannot constitute all determinants of unwanted teenage pregnancy. It, therefore, becomes essential to do pertinent research and seek the answers to causes and solutions to unintended adolescent pregnancy and eventually help health care authorities, program managers, and policymakers improve their decision-making in planning and problem-solving in Uganda.

The prevalence of unintended pregnancy in Uganda continues to be high. Unintended adolescent pregnancy can have lasting social, economic, and health outcomes. Due to the increasing number of teenage pregnancies in developing countries, a lot of studies have been done to alleviate this phenomenon. Using multilevel logistic regression with the MLwiN program to establish the influence of social disadvantage on teenage pregnancy in West, East, and Southern Africa, results showed that teenage pregnancy decreased in East Africa, plateaued in West Africa, and increased slightly in Southern Africa between 1992-2011. Teenage pregnancy was found to be major associated with family disruption, community level of female unemployment, and community poverty (Odimegwu. C & Mkwananzi. S, 2016 ). The prevalence of teenage pregnancy in Uganda was found to be high (from Uganda Health and Demographic Health Survey 2016 data). Thus the a need to study the determinants of teenage pregnancy in Uganda.

Unintended pregnancy in Uganda has led to high levels of unplanned births, unsafe abortions, and maternal injury and death. (Hussain R, 2013). Among pregnant women in Ghana, the prevalence of unintended pregnancy is significantly predicted by a number of background characteristics such as the age of the women, marital status, education attainment, parity and region of residence, and independent and unmet need for contraception (et al Samuel H. Nyarko, 2019). However, the predictors of teenage pregnancy were overlooked.

Previous studies in Uganda have involved the research of the effects and prevalence of unintended pregnancy and abortion, but the factors influencing teenage pregnancies have not been studied. It, therefore, becomes important to do pertinent research and seek the answers to causes and solutions to unintended teenage pregnancy in Uganda.

3 Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the methodology used for this study. It discusses the area of study, types and sources of data, statistical techniques employed, data analysis process, and ethical considerations.

3.2 Area of study

The survey was conducted in Uganda. Uganda is located in southeast Africa. It is bordered by Tanzania and Rwanda to the south, Zaire to the west, Sudan to the north, and Kenya to the east. Uganda is landlocked and lies 800 kilometers inland from the Indian Ocean.

3.3 Type and source of data

This study will solely rely on secondary data from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). Information from this survey was collected from teenage girls and women who experienced unwanted pregnancy. The surveys were designed to collect detailed information on a wide range of factors and indicators such as the age of the respondent, education level, marital status, age at first pregnancy, wealth index, religion, place of residence and exposure to media and sex education, using cox regression model we will consider the survival time that is, the time to the occurrence of the event (having the pregnancy). Time origin and event time will be clearly defined.

The explanatory variable (covariates) in our analysis will consist of education level (primary, secondary, university, no education), place of residence (rural, urban), exposure to media and sex education (yes, no), wealth index (poor, middle class, rich), religion (Christian, Muslim, others), marital status (single, married, divorced/deceased). The age of respondents must strictly be between 12-19 years since we are dealing with teenagers.

In Cox regression, the hazard function, also referred to as the hazard rate, represents the probability that a subject who is under observation at a time t has an event at that time (in our case the risk of having an unplanned pregnancy before 19 years). It is expressed by h(t) or λ(t). It corresponds to the ratio of the probability density function P(t) and the survival function:

The interpretation of the HR results is similar to RR and OR: an HR higher than 1 means an increase in the hazard, an HR lower than 1 means a reduction in the hazard, and an HR equal to 1 means there is no difference (effect) between the two groups. However, HR, RR, and OR are estimates of different natures and should not be confused.

The Cox regression model is also currently known as the Proportional hazards model. It is a semi-parametric survival model and a regression method. It can be used when investigating the relationship between dependent variables and explanatory variables, also known as covariates, independent variables, or predictors. Therefore, Cox regression permits to evaluation of simultaneously the effect of several factors (adjusted comparisons) on survival. In our cases, we will use the Cox regression model to come up with the determinants of unplanned pregnancies among teenagers in Uganda. Univariate and multivariate models can be performed. It is formulated as follows:

Where:

• t is the survival time;
• h(t) is the hazard function, determined by a set of p independent variables X1i, X2i, …, Xpi for I subjects;
• β1, β2, …, βp are the coefficients (also called parameters) that quantify the statistical relationship between the p covariates and the survival (regression coefficients);
• h0 is the baseline hazard. It corresponds to the value of the hazard if all the Xi are equal to zero.

In order to conclude we will need to check the statistical significance. We will look at the confidence intervals of the HRs, and the probability values (P value) of the covariates and their significance in unplanned teenage pregnancies.

3.4 Data analysis

The study will use statistical software such as Stata, SAS, and R. The data obtained will first be entered cleaned and collated in Excel spreadsheets. The data will then be imported into the statistical software whereby analysis will be done using the Cox regression model.

Reference

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