Category: Research

Introduction

Sleep is defined as the state when your body is reduced in consciousness and your body is less responsive to the external world. We go through 5 different stages throughout the night. The first is a light sleep as you are drifting off and it lasts 5-10 minutes. The second includes a deeper sleep as your brain waves slow and sleep spindles show up on an EEG (used to check your brains activity). The body’s temperature and heart rate reduce. Stage 3 occurs after 25 minutes and delta waves occur, gradually increasing. Stage 4 is an even more profound sleep and if woken you would become groggy and disorientated. The final stage is different from the rest – REM sleep. This occurs 90 minutes into sleep and is the point in your sleep when you are found to dream. The body is a lot more active during this stage, at the point of wakefulness. The body is also relaxed and steady. REM stands for ‘rapid eye movement’ meaning your eyes show bursts of movements under your eyelids during this stage. The main differences between non-REM and REM, is the type of sleep you are in and what regulates these stages. Sleep is also needed for concentration. Sleep deprivation has found to be linked to a reduction in memories. People who are sleep deprived have worse immune systems, meaning they are prone to catch illnesses. Caffeine and amphetamine are stimulants which make people more alert and less tired. After consuming these people may struggle to sleep. This is due to a naturally occurring hormone in our brain called adenosine which block the receptors in our brain, causing drowsiness. We need less sleep the older we get. Infants need 18 hours of sleep per day and spend half of this time in REM sleep. The developing brain requires a great deal of protein synthesis. This replenishes and renews brain processes for cell manufacture and growth, REM sleep helps achieve this.

Biological Approach (Dement & Kleitman, 1957)

Dement and Kleitman (1957) investigated REM sleep to find out if it was related to dreaming. After studying participants overnight and waking them up at different parts throughout their sleep, they found 80% of the participants reported to have been dreaming during the REM stage. This shows the eye movements in sleep are connected to dreaming. Our internal body clock controls our circadian rhythm. The SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) in our hypothalamus in the brain receives light information and releases melatonin that makes us sleepy. Dreams only appear in the final stage of sleep – REM sleep. Biological psychologists believe dreams are meaningless and just a side effect of the brain’s activity during sleep.

This approach is very scientific, and researchers use proper methods which ensure the reliability and makes it practical. The approach also provides obvious examples that are proved with scientific evidence, meaning many experiments support these theories. However, the biological approach is not very generalised and does not consider other influences on behaviour such as emotions, social pressures, or childhood experiences. The approach also focuses on humanism and you cannot compare animals to humans.

Restoration theory (Oswald, 1966)

This theory approaches sleep by stating that it is necessary for the body to rest and recover. During sleep, the body heals small damages, the abolish of unneeded chemicals in muscles and restores neurotransmitters in the brain. It is also said that non-REM sleep replenishes the bodies physical factors and REM restores our brain and mental actions. This approach explains how our brains reinforces our memories as we sleep and how it eliminates parasitic memories. It also gives reasons as to why we dream. The approach is limited, and we likely sleep for more reasons than just physically restoring our body. Another negative thing is it often being compared to computers. The brain is much more intricate than that.

The evidence of this was found in a study of runners by Shapiro et al. (1981) where they found the sleep had by the runners was extended by 90 minutes than usual over the two nights of an ultramarathon. They learned it was their non-REM sleep that lengthened, rising from 25% to 45% of total sleep. This supports the idea that the body needs sleep to repair itself.

Adam and Oswald (1983) found that hospital patients who have undergone spinal operations or drug overdoses engaged in longer periods of REM sleep, supporting this idea of sleeping to restore your bodily functions.

Cognitive approach

This approach looks at the role of sleep in memory and thinking. It goes by that the mind is a processor of information and sleep exists to help this processing. Cognitive psychologists believe sleep is for memory consolidation, putting them in logical order and removes parasitic memories. The mind clears up the files, prunes unnecessary items and strengthens links between memories. The concept of schema is used to explain this approach. During memory consolidation, similar memories seem to reactivate in a pattern, suggesting they are being ‘linked’ in the brain. The continuity hypothesis of dreams suggests dream content is based on what we have been thinking about. REM strengthens newly formed connections in the brain, which helps learning and memory foundation (especially helps declarative memories). NREM is associated with the consolidation of declarative memories (facts, dates, events). Wagner et al (2004) shows that challenging maths problems are easier to understand after sleeping. This approach believes dreams to be what happens when the brain needs a task to do. It has strong points as it explains what our brains do with memories while we sleep which is good. It is very scientific and has lots of studies to prove it. Dreams are more likely to contain information related to an individual’s current concerns. Despite these points, it does not explain why dreaming happens in the frontal part of the brain. It also does not explain that if dreaming is purely about consolidation and problem solving, why do you dream about things that have not or are not going to happen.

Reorganizational (Crick & Mitchison, 1983)

This theory focuses that the brain requires memory consolidation to work correctively. Therefore, in our dreams, we are sleeping to reorganise and improve memory storage. This theory follows the concept of reverse learning – we dream to forget – meaning learning can be undone during REM sleep. They believe dreams are just a side effect of our brain decluttering parasitic (unwanted) memories during REM sleep. The other category of memories which they believed us to have are adaptive (wanted) memories. Therefore, you cannot always remember your dreams, as they hold images our brain has already ‘deleted’ the connections to. An example that backs up this theory is the spiny anteater which does not REM sleep, but instead has an enlarged frontal cortex. Crick and Mitchison believe this larger area is used to store parasitic memories. The pruning during REM allows for a more efficient brain. However, most research shows sleep to be helpful to memory, rather than the contrary. This theory also does not explain as to why our dreams often make sense to us and have a story to them – only to then be destroyed.

Czeisler et al (1990) examined night shift workers’ and whether their alertness and sleeping would improve with light-dark reversal treatment. Many problems arise due to shift work, including sleep deprivation, poor alertness, mistakes at work, risk of heart disease and emotional issues like anxiety or depression. Major industrial disasters have become more frequent such as Chernobyl in early hours due to fatigue, memory loss, reduced productivity, and low staff morale. The experimenters exposed shift workers to treatment involving bright light at night hours and complete darkness during the day at an attempt to prevent disturbances to circadian rhythms involving the sleep-wake cycle.

The study aimed to find a routine, including light exposure, which would improve shift workers to fully adapt to daytime sleeping. Czeisler and his colleagues applied this treatment to eight healthy males all in their 20’s, none of which had previously been shift workers. This was important to ensure their circadian rhythms were not messed with already. The shift work was mimicked in a laboratory location at night. There were five control and five treatment studies conducted in all. Involved were two conditions, the first being for night shift workers in a control condition with low-level lighting of 150 lux. In this condition, the men were asked to use their home setting for any daytime sleeping they needed. For this, sleeping was left unregulated and naturalistic. Secondly, an experimental condition under bright illumination of 7000-12000 lux (equivalent to early morning light) was conducted with the participants daytime sleeping at home was treated to having opaque windows and artificial darkness enforced. The participants were asked to stay in complete darkness from 9am to 5pm and wear sunglasses if necessary. They were needed to report their moods and alertness after completing the 6-day experiment. Czeisler and his team found disturbances and sleep wake cycle including associated declines in alertness performance and quality of daytime sleep can be treated effectively with scheduled to exposure too late at night and darkness during the day.

This study has led to the design of special light treatments for shift workers, jet travellers and those with sleep disorders. However, the sample size of this study is exceedingly small and only looks at men making it difficult to generalise the undivided population of night shift workers. Another weakness includes, they did not account for peripheral variables like what the participants had for breakfast or if they had a coffee for example, making it difficult to recognise if they contributed to the outcome.

SUMMARY

In this research paper, the aim is to investigate the attitudes of the Libyan EFL learners towards literature in general, and short stories in particular for developing reading comprehension skills. Also, It discusses the advantages of the use of short-stories in ELT classrooms and the implications of this use of short-stories for the Libyan EFL teachers and learners.

Advantages and implication

The use of short stories in ELF classrooms for developing language skills has many advantages and implications. Pathan classifies these advantages under different categories such as: linguistic, socio-cultural, personal and emotional. Short-stories are filled with many linguistic advantages such as simplicity of sentence structures and vocabulary used in context and make learning of foreign language skills easy and simple. Also, they help to improve EFL learners’ vocabulary and motivate them to learn the four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Second, the use of short-stories has many socio-cultural benefits as well. Short stories can also be the best method of inculcating cultural and moral values in which stories have been the best method of transmitting principles, values, and common sense for centuries. Third, the stories from the Holy Quran and other Islamic stories will not only make the learning process easy but will renew their cultural and moral values as well. Thus, stories will help them in developing their moral character. Fourth, the use of short-stories has emotional benefits also for English learners. Stories provide language learners a picture of people, through the characters, while they are suffering and struggling which prepare young learners to cope with their own conflicts in life.

Studies and results

Before applying short stories as a method of teaching English:

To investigate the learners’ attitude, Pathan made a questionnaires for third semester EFL students doing their B.A. in English.

They were asked if they like reading comprehension skill, and the answers were 30% liked it and 70% disliked it.

The next question was about teaching material that used by their teachers in reading comprehension class. Their answers were: newspaper articles – informative passages from internet – various reports with tables and diagrams – different essays – information passages from magazines.

Then, they were asked about their perception towards short stories, and the result was as follows:

• 78% of the participants liked reading stories in Arabic.
• 20% of the participants liked reading stories in English.
• 4% of the participants did not answer.

After applying short stories as a method of teaching English:

First question was about their attitudes towards reading comprehension skill after they taught by using short stories, and this is the result:

• 94% of the participants likes reading comprehension skill.
• 6% of the participants dislikes reading comprehension skill.

This result proves that short stories play a very important role in arousing love and liking for reading comprehension skills among learners who disliked this important skill.

The second question was about the benefit they experienced in reading comprehension class after they taught by short stories. Their answers were positive and varies.

The result

The participants were further asked about the types of stories and the writers they preferred. They replied that they wanted their teachers to use all types of stories such as personal, social, religious, moral, historical etc. as they enjoyed the mixture rather than using just one type of the stories. Half of the participants preferred the stories only by English writers as they believed that through the stories by native speakers of English they would learn ‘real’ English, whereas others preferred stories written by any writer in English around the globe.

The discussion of the data, about the perceptions of the Libyan EFL learners towards the use of short-stories for developing reading comprehension skill, offers the following results:

1. The Libyan EFL learners develop liking for reading comprehension skill with the use of short-stories in the classroom.
2. They experienced and enjoy various linguistic, personal and emotional benefits with the use of short-stories which significantly contributed in their learning and mastering of English as a foreign language.
3. They prefer the use of short-stories in their classroom from their course teachers for developing reading comprehension skill.
4. They prefer various types of short-stories, written by both English writers and any other writer in English around the world, to be taught in their reading comprehension skill class.
5. They believe that short-stories not only make their learning English, in general, and reading comprehension in particular, a fun but also contribute in developing them into a complete person’.

Positive Aspects of this Article

The use of short-stories in ELT classroom for developing language skills has many advantages and implications. Pathan (2013) classifies various benefits of the use of short-stories in EFL classroom under different categories such as: linguistic, socio-cultural, personal and emotional and discusses them in detail focusing on their possible implications for EFL teachers and learners. In addition, Wright (2003) argues that ‘in using stories in language teaching, we are using something much bigger and more important than language teaching itself’.

In this paper, the researcher mentions the importance of religious and moral stories. Pathan (2013) explains that these stories can be highly effective for this purpose with the Arab EFL learners. The Arab EFL learners’ familiarity, with these stories, will not only make their learning of English easy but will rejuvenate their cultural and moral values as well. In fact, this type of stories may fight some of bad habits, immoral deeds and immodest behaviors. One of the important things that I have noticed is that the researcher talks about how short-stories can be beneficial to improve the four skills.

S. E. Hinton is best known for her ground-breaking young adult fiction publication of The Outsiders, which she wrote while in high school. The Outsider’s very realistic portrayal of adolescent experiences was amazing, as well as the fact that this high-quality novel was written by an adolescent. SE Hinton has said: “I wrote this novel while I was in high school because it was the sort of story I wanted to read”. Hinton was sick of novels with cliché storylines, she wanted to write novels about humans with real issues, so she gave her audience relatable stories, and these novels were popular among adolescents.

Hinton began a new trendy genre in adolescent novels, where controversial issues would be explored throughout many of her books. There was much debate over whether this ‘new breed’ of young-adult fiction books was way too realistic in nature for the good of their teen audience. These ‘realist’ books heavily portrayed some issues such as violence, drug/alcohol abuse, and even death. Even now, 50 years later, books such as the CHERUB series explore almost identical issues, in similar ways. Critics of realism at the time thought this ‘new breed’ of controversial adolescent novels would portray to their young readers that bad behavior was the norm. These critics tended to read The Outsiders as a novel displaying the amount of violence in teens, rather than a book about how the protagonists in the novel dealt with the amount of violence in their society. Some critics felt that the book glorified violence, entirely missing Hinton’s message.

S.E. Hinton has explored many different themes throughout the novel, such as the differences between socioeconomic status (in the East & West of the city this novel is set in), loyalty and friendships among societies lawless, and the innocence of the youngest (for example, Ponyboy’s innocence at the beginning of the book). In the final chapters of the book, Ponyboy asks Cherry if she can watch the sunset from the west of the town. She says yes, and he then explains to her that he also can experience the sunset from the East as well. These words from Ponyboy represent the fact that even the poorer kids in the East of town still see the same sunset as the wealthier kids, who lived on the West side of town. When Ponyboy first talks to Cherry, he sees her as another Soc (‘Soc’ was the term used for the wealthier adolescents from the west of town). But as he gets to know Cherry better, he realizes that she is different from the rest of the Socs. This is shown by her willingness to talk to Ponyboy, who is a greaser (Other Socs wouldn’t associate themselves with greasers). We begin to see that Ponyboy’s statement about Cherry’s sunset that she can see from her side of town, shows that Ponyboy knows that, while the lives they (Cherry & Ponyboy) live are very different because of their different socio-economic backgrounds and different friend groups, there are still many things that are common in their lives (like the sunset). Some of these being that there are issues in both of their lives and that being a Soc has its fair share of problems. Cherry helps Ponyboy realize that Socs aren’t perfect and that being rich doesn’t mean that there are no problems that must be faced.

The Greasers are honorable, even though the society they live in doesn’t see them in that way. They fight for each other and act together to overcome adversity. These characters perform many acts of honorable sacrifice for their fellow greasers. Johnny and Ponyboy go into a building that is on fire to save some children whose lives are in danger. Dally also goes into the building to save them. Johnny kills a Soc named Bob, to save Ponyboy’s life. Dally gets arrested for taking the blame for breaking the school windows, instead of giving in the real culprit (his mate), Two-Bit. All these examples among many others show how this group of boys are so devoted and loyal to each other, and that they will go to extreme lengths to keep each other safe.

Another of the themes explored in the Outsiders is the retention of innocence of Ponyboy. This is perhaps one of the most important themes explored, throughout this novel. When Johnny talks to Ponyboy about Robert Frost’s poem, he is explaining to Ponyboy that he must stay innocent in their world of corruptness. In the poem, the one line that Johnny constantly repeats to Ponyboy is: “Stay Gold Ponyboy, Stay Gold”. Johnny sadly also repeats this to Ponyboy as his last encouraging words, just before he died in the hospital as a result of his extensive burns, broken bones, and more, from his heroics in the burning house (where he and Ponyboy saved the children). Johnny’s words are telling Ponyboy that he shouldn’t allow himself to become polluted by the world, like Dally and the others. Johnny’s hopes were that Ponyboy was to pass some of his innocence onto Dally, and it could possibly help Dally reignite his lost innocence.

Another dominant theme in The Outsiders is that of class conflict. Ponyboy starts off the book, by explaining that he is a “greaser,” a term he says, “is used to class all us boys on the East Side” (ch1, p3). A ‘Soc’ is a term used to class all the boys on the West Side of town (Socs are usually significantly wealthier). These two social classes are enemies for no other reason than their different social classes, and the differences that come with their opposite socioeconomic status’. In this novel, this leads to a great deal of destruction, ruining several innocent young lives, including Bob, Johnny, Dally, and many more teenagers who were either physically hurt from the violence, or mentally affected because of losing their friend. Bob is killed because of the violence, and Johnny and Dally eventually also die as a result. The theme of class conflict is explored throughout this book, as the two sides of town are very different in terms of economic classes. The wealthier teens (Socs) from the west, and the greasers from the east. SE Hinton has said that: “The Soc vs. Greaser conflict was inspired by similar rivalries in her own high school”, this shows us that group conflicts are a major theme in this novel.

The Outsiders novel also explores the theme of love and heartbreak, even though this isn’t one of the main themes in the novel, it is still explored in various chapters. Ponyboys older brother Soda is in love with his girlfriend Sandy, who is still in high school. This is shown by Soda’s quote, ‘I think I’m gonna marry Sandy after she gets out of school, and I can get a better job and everything.’ Soda says this early in the novel, but in chapter 12, Soda is heartbroken when he receives the letter from sandy saying that she had moved to Florida to live with her grandmother and that their relationship couldn’t work anymore. This scene in chapter 12, explores the theme of heartbreak, and we also see the effect that this letter has on Soda, through the fact that he runs away from his house crying after reading the letter. The Outsiders also shows how, in Johnny’s case, a lack of love at home can be detrimental for a kid Johnny’s age (around 12 years old at the time). At home Johnny is abused by his parents, has no siblings, and as a result doesn’t feel like he is loved by anyone. The greasers are his family, as they take care of him, and give him the loving, caring friends that he needs.

This research paper is about the smoking and its effects on our society.The main purpose of writing this paper is to make people aware about that smoking is harmful for themselves and the people around they gather. In Pakistan and other countries smoking causes millions of deaths every year due to lung cancer and other carcinogenic factors. People tend to move toward this bad habit due to depression , anxiety and Other social problems. Due to low literacy rate around the world people don’t know about the factors about smoking and its harmful effects. For this purpose a mixture of qualitative research was carried out. Questionnaires are one of the most affordable ways to gather quantitative and qualitative data. specifically self-administered questionnaires, in which you don’t have to lease surveyors to perform head to head interviews, are a price-efficient manner to speedy accumulate massive amounts of records from a massive variety of people in a tremendously short time frame.. The conclusion which I have drawn from my surveys is that most of the social problems that lead people towards smoking which effects the health of the individual and cause harmful disease like cancer many people may help smokers to some extent to quit smoking.

Introduction

In this research paper we’re going to discuss about smoking and its problems..The issue which we are going to discuss that how people lead towards this bad habit and what are the alternatives of smoking that eases the mind of the addict by releasing the same amount of carcinogenic factors.

Although many harmful diseases are also caused by smoking which leads to death.The important issue which is to be discussed that how people behave towards a smoker and how individual are going to help smokers to quit smoking. The main objective of this paper is to discuss about the smoking and its most of the effects related to our daily lifestyle. About 1.3 million premature deaths caused by smoking every year in which most people are killed by lung cancer even after quitting smoking it effects the body of smoker and may cause them stroke, mouth cancer and other types of diseases. About each smoking each cigarette reduces the 24 hours of your life and it not only effects you but also effects the people around you in the form of passive smoking.It is more harmful than the actual smoking because carcinogens are directly thrown away into the air passage of the victim. The main cause of this bad habit is caused by the anxiety and other psychological issues in our society and due to this bad habit people started to dislike them furthermore because of this bad habit which changes the behaviour of the people towards them . Smoking is also the main root of all other drugs examples are addict for more satisfaction will go for something with more pleasure and high dose like cocaine, alcohol, meth and many more.

The people tend to develop more interest towards smoking due to low literacy rate. About 55-70% people who are addicted to drugs are illiterate. Education also play a important role in developing the character and self harmony in a person. Many people tend to help smokers to quit this habit and most of them succeeded successfully which is also a good role in helping the people who are addict but the main problem still remains until the individual willing to do it itself.Although smoking is many dangerous and should be stopped by government there should by fine who smokes in public places and effects the health of other people.

Literature review

Weinberger et al.( 2016) in this article explained about the Smoking related to depression which causes disability, morbidity and many physiological issues around the world . There are many epidemiological data present that tells us about the relationship between smoking and depression. People with depression less likely to quit smoking and find to to meet their nicotine criteria for pleasure and more likely to relapse. I choose this article because it helps us to develop the relations with person which have physiological disorders and why they smoke and harm themselves. However ,the authors ignore the facts that leads the people towards smoking which are homeless, financially unstable , bullying and suddenly smoking is the main root of the all other drugs. So these are the gaps that authors forget to discuss in this article.

Jedrychowski et al.(1992) in this article explained about the risk of lung cancer caused due to smoking and its effect in biological manner which can cause certain damage to cells of the body and cause different types of cancer which are squamous call carcinoma, small cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. The risk can be increased by smoking large amount of cigarettes.The fact is that it also affects the individual who gave up smoking. I chose this article because it helps to find the information about different types of lung cancer.However, the authors skipped the part in which he had to tell about the deaths from other causes except from lung cancer due to smoking.

Chorti et al.(2012) in this article explained about the effects of electronic and passive tobacco smoking on lung function. Volunteers are asked to participate in a experiment in which some of chose to smoke with e-cigarette while other chose tobacco cigarettes. To study the effects they smoked the cigarettes after smoking of tobacco cigarettes the risk of lung cancer greatly increased and the level of nicotine rises with the evaluation of some chemicals after smoking of e cigarette there was nothing such effect but nicotine level was so high. The purpose of this article is to help us scientifically by giving guidance about the effects of any king of smoking. However, the authors failed to express anything and other diseases rather than lung cancer example it can cause marginal effects and down seizures.

Coleman et al.(2002) in this article explained smokers are very motivated to stop smoking but there are no objective tools to identify their level to stop smoking.The authors tried to investigate the construct validity and inter reliability of smokers motivation code (SMC).

The authors described different methods to stop smoking . The behaviour of patient mostly depends upon past quitting behaviour , self efficacy and many more. The reason of this article is that because authors told us about the willingness to stop smoking by conducting different experiments.However, the author did not mention that these patients requires special treatment from psychological perspective and there should be special centres in which certain teams or individuals help people to drain out from the main causes that lead them towards smoking.

Campion et al.(1994) in this article explained about the evaluation of mass media campaign on smoking and pregnancy.According to authors the campaign was launched in which there were advertisements about the effect of smoking on unborn child. 14% women called the survey to help but there are no other major changes between smoker women and their partners. The reason of this article is to develop sense of humour about the next generation how would they effect us. However, the authors missed the points that campaign wasn’t enough for them to quit smoking there should be proper law and management that monitors the safety guidance of unborn child and smoking should be banned for pregnant women.

Research Questions

• If you see a smoker, is your attitude towards them likely to be different than towards a non smoker?
• What diseases are caused by smoking?
• In your opinion, what reasons contribute the most for someone to pick up smoking?
• Do you think that people contribute in helping smokers quit this habit?

Discussion

To understand and discover the current situation of smoking a survey was conducted among student to keeping the research questions in mind. This was a mixture of qualitative research . In this research both males and females were present ageing from 18 to 22. The survey indicates about the situation of smoking in society.

According to this survey the huge amount of people which is 45.5% don’t bother their attitude towards a smoker after that 32.5% and 22.% shows negative and positive behaviour towards a smoker respectively. According to recent study which shows that “Smokers placed less emphasis than non-smokers on the health risks associated with smoking. Older Canadians, particularly smokers aged 65 and older, tended to have more lenient attitudes toward smoking, compared with younger age groups. Respondents with high school education or less held more lenient attitudes, compared with those with a university degree. Quebec residents were more tolerant of tobacco use than were residents of other provinces.

In the second question we asked about the most of the people that what disease are caused by the smoking . The data shows that about 57.1% of the participants agreed that all of the above disease are caused by smoking and 41.6% agreed on lung cancer while a minor portion of participants agreed on that smoking cause heart diseases.According to WHO “There is no safe level of exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke.

In adults, second-hand smoke causes serious cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, including coronary heart disease and lung cancer. In infants, it raises the risk of sudden infant death syndrome. In pregnant women, it causes pregnancy complications and low birth weight.

Almost half of children regularly breathe air polluted by tobacco smoke in public places. Second-hand smoke causes more than 1.2 million premature deaths per year. 65 000 children die each year from illnesses attributable to second-hand smoke.

In the next question we asked most of the people that is vaping consider healthier option than smoking? According to survey about 20.8% answered that smoking does not have nicotine and tobacco which caused the harmful diseases . Majority of people which is 54.5% of the conducted survey told us that both are social evils and causes problems.About 9.1% do not sure about their information and 15.6% agree that it is safe to use vape for vaping.According to American Heart Association “Many people think vaping is less harmful than smoking. While it’s true that e-cigarette aerosol doesn’t include all the contaminants in tobacco smoke, it still isn’t safe. Here are just a few of the reasons why:

• Most e-cigarettes deliver nicotine, which is highly addictive and can harm the developing brains of teens, kids and foetuses in women who vape while pregnant. Some types expose users to even more nicotine than traditional cigarettes.
• In addition to nicotine, e-cigarette vapour includes potentially harmful substances such as dactyl (a chemical linked to a serious lung disease), cancer-causing chemicals, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and heavy metals such as nickel, tin, and lead. Users breathe in these toxic contaminants, and non-users nearby risk secondhand exposure.
• The liquid used in e-cigarettes can be dangerous, even apart from its intended use. Children and adults have been poisoned by swallowing, breathing or absorbing the liquid through their skin or eyes.
• E-cigarettes have been linked to thousands of cases of serious lung injury, some resulting in death. While the exact cause is still not confirmed, the CDC recommends that people not use e-cigarettes.

In the above question or survey you can see we ask people what are things which are responsible for the smoking.About 75.3% agreed that depression, peer pressure and anxiety are the main social evils which lead people towards smoking.About 18.2% people agreed that depression lead towards smoking and minor amount of participants agreed on anxiety and peer pressure.

In this survey we asked do you think that people help smokers to quit this bad habit.According to survey 19.5% people say yes that they will help smokers to quit this bad habit about 63.6 % agreed to some extent meaning that they help smokers to certain level to quit smoking it most depends upon the will power of the person that the individual really wants to get rid of this bad habit. According to a study the quitting behaviour of the smoker depends upon the past quitting behaviour, self esteem and other methods and about 16.9% people tells us that they won’t help people or addict to stop this bad habit.According to NHS UK “People breathe more easily and cough less when they give up smoking because their lung capacity improves by up to 10% within 9 months.

In your 20s and 30s, the effect of smoking on your lung capacity may not be noticeable until you go for a run, but lung capacity naturally diminishes with age.

In later years, having maximum lung capacity can mean the difference between having an active, healthy old age and wheezing when you go for a walk or climb the stairs.

Conclusion

Over the years smoking has validated damage for our society and one such harm is at psychological degree. Smoking appears to take manage of our mind and make us do illogical things. a few robust smoking human beings are growing becoming risk for their households and a burden on the society. most smokers being at some point of younger age, and this leads to chance taking or rebel later in their lives. Presence of high reputation model and peer additionally leads to encouragement of smoking. smokers say they smoke to relieve the feeling of pressure however in fact they’ve better strain stage than non-people who smoke. Psychologist Hans Eysenck has developed a persona profile of people who smoke, and Extraversion is trait in smoker in which they have a tendency to be impulsive, sociable and exhilaration searching for individuals (Eysenck, 1965). Psychologists additionally trust that persona and social elements are incredible reasons of smoking. Now it’s far obligation of government round the world to do so in opposition to smoking and ban it from public places. Governments around the world need to offer quitting treatments of smoking in distinct society so we will remove the illnesses from our society.

In conclusion smoking is not only dangerous to you but all of the human beings around you. those who smoke have accelerated their hazard of getting coronary heart sicknesses and lung cancer. Smoking is bad dependancy and as soon we can put off smoking it’s higher for humans around us. We have to reduce the range of people who smoke in our society as it destroys our society from its core. it is absolute necessity to fully understand the harms of smoking and prevent it from taking lives of virtuous peoples. The smoking must be quitted via smoker to keep away from monetary losses the harmful consequences of fitness. Smoking strongly contributes to sterility consequently both male and woman ought to discourage it. We recognise almost every disorder that is connected to smoking and inflicting the deaths hence it is time to mention no to harmful outcomes of smoking. At last I want to say that smoking is dangerous for you and your loved ones.

References

1. N, R., & C, P. (1998). Attitudes Toward Smoking. Health Reports. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9926345/
2. World. (2018, March 9). Tobacco. Retrieved from Who.int website: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tobacco
3. Is Vaping Safer Than Smoking? (2014). Www.Heart.Org. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-lifestyle/quit-smoking-tobacco/is-vaping-safer-than-smoking
4. NHS Choices. (2019). Quit smoking. NHS. https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/quit-smoking/

Mao Dun, a famous Chinese writer, said, ‘a short story mainly captures a typical segment of life to illustrate a problem or a social phenomenon that is much broader and more complex than itself.’ This means that there is a limitation of the length of a short story, that its content cannot take place over a long period of time.

This literary form refers to a brief fictional prose narrative that is short in length, usually involving only a few characters who generally lack a development, and revolving around a main event. The plot of a short story is usually concise and compact, and the explanation of the incidents usually not being overstated or fully developed.

There are many kinds of short stories in the history of human literature: anecdotes, fables, tales, legends, etc, that share some similarities in term of literature. The short story is characterized by possessing five elements, and the author uses a lot of figure of speech and literary techniques to develop and narrate the story, which these attributes are fully presented by three famous writers. There are five elements that comprise the entirety of the content of a short story, including characters, setting, conflict, theme, and plot.

Characters can influence the reader’s understanding of the plot in many ways, because they are the narrators or experiencers of the story. Readers can learn about a character in various ways, such as through the author’s physical description, through the character’s dialogue, thoughts and confessions (The Five Elements of a Short Story, 2016). Generally, readers pay more attention to the protagonist and the antagonist, who are the principle characters and the whole story is centered on them.

The importance of setting is reflected in providing the context for the actions of the characters in the story. When the reader knows the time and place of the story, it is easier to understand what characters are doing and why (Hansen, 2019). Without the setting, the reader will be confused and not understand the story.

The conflict is a struggle between two people or things in a short story, with one side is the main character or the protagonist. Both external and internal conflicts may expose in a story, which can be the obstacles a character faces in the external world (society, morality, ethic, etc), or can be his or her emotional obstacles (feelings, emotions, illness) (What is Conflict in a Story, 2019). It reveals what the author is trying to convey to the reader. All the characters, plots and backgrounds serve the theme.

Plot is a pattern of events that develop from the interactions between characters, which also contains five elements: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and conclusion. The conflict involving in the plot makes a story emotionally engaging, and most importantly, the theme can be introduced through plots (Literary Terms, 2015). These five elements are indispensable for a short story that the lack of any of them make the story incomplete.

Figures of speech and other literary techniques make the story vivid and fascinating, helping the reader to create an image for what the story is describing. The common ones include metaphor and simile, which are designed to make a comparison; alliteration and hyperbole, which are used to provide a dramatic effect; idiom and proverb, which connect the story to the realistic background; personification and onomatopoeia, which bring the reader to the story personally, etc (Figurative Language, n.d,).

Figures of speech are considered the most common literary technique in writings. For example, “Time is money” is a widely known metaphor that compares time and money, but it does not literally mean that the amount of time can be measured by money. Instead, it encourages people to use time effectively as they are as valuable as money earned. Flashbacks, foreshadowing and symbolism are important literary techniques whose presence serves to emphasize or clarify plots in a short story, adding complexity and depth to the narrative, with the ultimate goal of leading to the theme. Flashbacks are usually inserted abruptly, bringing the reader back to past events rather than in chronological order, which readers can access almost all of the hidden information through the supplements. Foreshadowing provides the readers with hints about the future plot, which can be used directly or indirectly through symbols and omens. A proper-used foreshadowing always give its reader a sense of humor, fear, tension, excitement, doubt, or suspense and anticipation, that it encourages the readers to predict the plot by revealing clues, and revoke their interests to read on (Literary Terms, 2015). Symbolism is often used to give another interpretation beyond the normal meaning, which the symbolized object may be conventional such as interpreting white pigeon as the symbol of peace, or the symbol may have an unique interpretation that only being recognized in the story which it appears (Symbolism, 2013).

The use of figures of speech and literacy techniques make up a huge portion of the English language and have lasted for thousands of years, which still play an important role in almost all kinds of modern literature. Maupassant, O. Henry and Chekhov were among the world’s top three short story writers who used the literacy techniques proficiently and had a great influence on the world’s literature. All three were born in similar years, at a time when capitalism was showing many flaws in the late 19th century. The writing styles of the three writers are also very similar, that they all satirize the darkness and decadence of capitalism with humorous words, as well as people’s snobbish and naked relationship with money. These three writers wrote with limited space, a few characters and relatively simple backgrounds and events, reflecting an essence or value of a peculiar time period. Artistically, they are adept at capturing the ironic but philosophical drama of life (Froio, 2018). For example, in Chekhov’s Chameleon, there is only one incident in which a dog bites a man, and a scene in which a police solves a crime, involving only four characters. The plot development is extremely simple, however, the author focuses on describing the five ‘color changes’ of the police officer Orchumilov during the trial process, which subtly shows the extremely strong ironic effect. Maupassant’s The Savage Dama captures a small section of the Franco-Prussian war, in which the French people, together with the French government, rise up in revolt to express their patriotic feelings. The more valuable this short story shown is the profound revelation of the war’s harm to the people of the two countries (The Best Short Story Writers of All Time, 2019). To sum up, the language of these three writers’ short stories is accurate, clear and vivid; in the structure of the works, they connect all parts of the novel closely and logically, creating a legend in the history of literature.

Conclusion

In summary, the foundation of a successful and popular short story consists of five basic elements (characters, setting, conflict, theme, and plot) among which the flexible use of figures of speech and literary techniques ensures the fullness of the characters and the interest of the story, with the concise plot makes short stories easier to read and write. These factors have contributed together to the enduring popularity of the short story.

Stress is a common problem in the modern world, it is a problem that most people face on a daily basis. The definition of stress can vary, psychologists define stress “as any uncomfortable, emotional experience accompanied by predictable biochemical, physiological and behavior change.” Stress can be defer depending on an individual, stress can be beneficial as one may take it for motivation however, too much stress can be harmful to our health. In this essay, I will be looking at a case study on stress, as well as looking at factors that can influence health.

The flight or fight response, otherwise known as “acute stress response” (short-lived), was first described by Walter Cannon (American physiologist) in 1920, used to describe animals’ reaction to a threat. This theory was then recognized as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome. The fight or flight response is a response, triggered by the release of hormones in the body in preparation for a fight (to deal with the problem), or flight (run away) in which can be both physical and mental. As a response to acute stress, the body’s sympathetic nervous system is active by the sudden release of hormones, in which the nervous system stimulates the adrenal gland to trigger catecholamines, which include adrenaline and noradrenaline. The catecholamines cause the body to immediately react causing increase heart rate, blood flow, and breathing rate. Once the threat is over, the body takes 20-60 minutes to return back to its pre-arousal level.

In case study one, the patient experienced cognitive stressors. A cognitive stressor is the inability to solve a problem or coming up with a creative project. The stressor was triggered by a conflict between her boyfriend regarding the future and her manager over a marketing complaint. To deal with the confrontation, the patient immediately perceived these two events as a threat triggering her flight or fight response. The sympathetic nervous system caused her body to immediately react to the potential threat so in this case confrontation, to experience hyperventilation, palpitations, chest pain, dizziness, anxiety, and a dreadful sense of doom in which she interpreted her symptoms as a heart attack. However, what the patient thinks is having a heart attack, is actually stress as confirmed by her cardiologist. The flight or fight response can play a critical role in how we deal with a certain situation, it how prehistoric man survived and in modern-day era, can actually be helpful depending on how someone copes.

Holmes and Rahe (1967) devised a questionnaire called the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS), this questionnaire was used to identify major stressful events. This questionnaire included life events that were either severe such as the death of a spouse, to mild such as changing school which happened within a 12-month period, with the mean value. If someone is scared with less than 150, they have a 30% chance of suffering from stress, and anything over 300 would be an 80% chance of suffering from stress. The aim of the study using the SRRS, was to be able to correlate the result with the onset of illness. The questionnaires were used on 2500 male sailors, the result was that the researchers concluded that life changes had a strong correlation with increased chance of stress and health breakdown. Although the questionnaire had a strong link between the higher SRRS score and illness, it did not take into consideration people’s differences. It was highly problematic, as it either overestimated/underestimated people’s stress levels and may not have any correlations to increase health breakdown.

Lazarus et al (1981) devised a questionnaire called the Daily Hassles and Uplifts Scale. This questionnaire was composed of 117 items of daily events. The participants were asked to complete the questionnaire only at end of the day in which they had experienced the previous month, the items were rated on a scale of 0-3, 0 being no applicable and 3 being a big deal. The total score is calculated and used as an indicator of stress. The result was that the hassle scale tended to be more accurate with predicting stress such as anxiety and depression rather than life events. However, this questionnaire did not take into consideration individual problems and may over/underestimate their stress levels.

Hans Selye, a medical doctor, and researcher (1956) came up with a theory called the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) to explain the short-term effects of exposure to stressors with lab rats. He did this by observing a series of physiological changes in the rats after they were exposed to stressful situations. Selye identified these stages as alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. The alarm stage is the initial symptom that the body experiences under stress, otherwise known as the fight or flight response. This reaction causes the heart rate to increase and the adrenal gland to release a substance called cortisol. The resistance stage is when the body starts to repair itself after the initial shock, which causes the body/hormones to settle and normalize. If the situation does not settle and the body remains on high alert, it results in the body eventually adapting to the higher stress level. The body unconsciously attempts to cope with the situation and continues to secret hormones, which leads to the exhaustion stage. The exhaustion stage is the result of prolonging or chronic stress for a long period of time resulting in negative consequences such as emotional, physical, and psychological stress. “Every stress leaves an indelible scar, and the organism pays for its survival after a stressful situation by becoming a little older.” (Selye, H. 1956)

Richard Lazarus (1966) transactional theory of stress and coping (TTSC). This occurs between a person and the environment. The TTSC consist of stressor, primary appraisal, secondary appraisal, and coping response. The stressor is a stimulus that causes stress, which can come in a variety of forms such as biological, environmental, cognitive, and life change stressors. When confronted by the stressor, the body’s initial immediate response to the threat (fight or flight), is the body’s way of responding to the threat which is the primary appraisal either as a threat, challenge, or loss. This follows by the secondary appraisal of the how-to body that can best deal with the situation. This can be done through internal/external options, internal options could be through willpower, inner strength, or meditation, external options could be seeking help through family/friends and healthcare professions. The outcome can either be beneficial or harmful. The coping response can be either beneficial or harmful called problem-based control, in which you feel in control of the situation by learning different strategies such as new skills. Emotional-based coping is when the person fails to cope with the situation or feels in little control, thus not being able to solve the problem which results in emotional distress.

The treatments I would recommend to the patient would be biofeedback (biological/behavior techniques) and stress inoculation theory SIT (cognitive theorphy0. Biofeedback theory offers the patient information on the state of their health, such as high blood pressure and how to manage it. SIT theory was developed by Donald Meichenbaum (1985) and as a basic idea to cope with stressors. The treatment consists of three phases, conceptualization, skill application, and rehearsal, and application and follow-through of the phrase. Both of these tests have shown to be very effective in helping people with stressful jobs. This will help with our patient as she often mistakes her symptom for a heart attack, the biofeedback theory will help reassure the patient. This will help the patient, in terms of her job and pressure from her boyfriend and mother about her future to take control of her stress.

In conclusion, stress can have a massive influence on our health. However, with appropriate treatments and methods, many people are able to get the right help needed.

The scientific controversy over-vaccination and its foreboding threat has been constantly brought into the debate. Over the past few years, the anti-vaccination group has risen and continues to rise as the days go by. I believe in the vaccination of not just children but of adults as well. The risks and eluding threats of not being vaccinated are far more severe and threatening compared to the minute chances in which receiving a vaccine can result in having autism. Throughout this essay, we will be looking at both sides of the argument to discuss the stance, proofs, and evidence they have to back up their claims.

The anti-vaccine movement argues that vaccines simply inject you with a disease/illness with which you could have possibly had no association just to simply fight it off. They state that by reading package inserts reviewed by the US Census Data dating back to 1912 on disease incident rates, read FDA warnings, researched pharmaceutical company studies for these and other drugs, sourced the government’s vaccine adverse events reporting website, collected reports on outbreaks and how many affected were previously vaccinated that they have then made an informed decision to be unvaccinated. The most common point made by the anti-vaccine movement is that empowering the state to ‘force’ inject you or your children against your will is far more dangerous than measles.

While the anti-vaccination movement often brings up a few concerns on the effects of vaccines and how the same threats that were once in the past are not an issue in the 21st century many argue that even with better hygiene, sanitation, and access to safe water, infections still spread. ‘They’re so effective, they take diseases like measles away. But then we forget those diseases are dangerous, says Kathryn Edwards, M.D., director of the Vanderbilt University Vaccine Research Program, in Nashville. When people are not vaccinated, infectious diseases that have become uncommon such and measles, mumps, polio, etc can quickly reappear once exposed. When you do not vaccinate your kids you put other children (children who are too sick to receive vaccines, people going under chemotherapy, etc.) are at risk. Children who are not healthy enough to receive a vaccine risk their health and even their lives every day by interacting with children who could handle vaccines but never received them. By not vaccinating your kids you are putting the health of other kids at risk. They also bring up the point in which there is no actual evidence that vaccines cause autism. The 100-year-old study that previously elucidated the impression that vaccinations cause autism that is still used by many anti-vaccination movements to back up their claims was disproven.

All things considered, my view on the matter is that there is no soundproof or evidence that can state that vaccinations cause autism. The CDC did a study in 2013 that debunked the myth in which vaccines cause autism. Vaccinations are there to protect us from diseases that could potentially kill us or make us dangerously ill. Vaccinations have helped us adapt to viruses that would otherwise be deadly. Ultimately vaccinations make your body stronger by educating it about all the threats it can face. Vaccinations include a harmless, neutralized and stable version of the diseases that pass through the immune system so your antibodies can learn how to fight it. Vaccines prevent you from either contracting it again or contracting a potentially lethal form of the disease, As for vaccines like the polio vaccine or measles vaccine, it’s highly unlikely that the patient will contract the disease at all if they get the vaccine. Although vaccinations aren’t completely harmless the tremendous benefits and the effectiveness of getting a vaccination are outweighed.

Sleep is defined as unconsciousness from which the person can be aroused by sensory or other stimuli. It is to be distinguished from coma, which is unconsciousness from which the person cannot be aroused. There are multiple stages of sleep, from very light sleep to very deep sleep; sleep researchers also divide sleep into two entirely different types of sleep that have different qualities, as follows.

the cortical activation necessary to maintain wakefulness is supported by an extensive network of subcortical structures and pathways. Major neurochemicals of this “ascending arousal system” include excitatory norepinephrine arising from the locus ceruleus , serotonin from the midline raphe nuclei, histamine from the tuberomammillary nucleus, dopamine from the ventral periacqueductal gray matter, acetylcholine from the pedunculopontine tegmentum, and the laterodorsal tegmentum of the pons and orexin from the perifornical area.

TYPES OF SLEEP

Sleep is of two types:

1. Rapid eye movement sleep or REM sleep
2. Non-rapid eye movement sleep, NREM sleep or non-REM sleep.

RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP – REM SLEEP

Rapid eye movement sleep is the type of sleep associated with rapid conjugate movements of the eyeballs, which occurs frequently. Though the eyeballs move, the sleep is deep. So, it is also called paradoxical sleep. It occupies about 20% to 30% of sleeping period. Functionally, REM sleep is very important because, it plays an important role in consolidation of memory. Dreams occur during this period.

There are several important characteristics of REM sleep:

1. It is usually associated with active dreaming and active bodily muscle movements.
2. The person is even more difficult to arouse by sensory stimuli than during deep slow-wave sleep, and yet people usually awaken spontaneously in the morning during an episode of REM sleep.
3. Muscle tone throughout the body is exceedingly depressed, indicating strong inhibition of the spinal muscle control areas.
4. Heart rate and respiratory rate usually become irregular, which is characteristic of the dream state.
5. Despite the extreme inhibition of the peripheral muscles, irregular muscle movements do occur. These are in addition to the rapid movements of the eyes.

NON-RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP – NREM OR NON-REM SLEEP

Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep is the type of sleep without the movements of eyeballs. It is also called slow-wave sleep. Dreams do not occur in this type of sleep and it occupies about 70% to 80% of total sleeping period. Non-REM sleep is followed by REM sleep.

This sleep is exceedingly restful and is associated with decrease in both peripheral vascular tone and many other vegetative functions of the body. For instance, there are 10 to 30 per cent decreases in blood pressure, respiratory rate, and basal metabolic rate.

Although NON-RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP is frequently called “dreamless sleep,” dreams and sometimes even nightmares do occur during slow-wave sleep. The difference between the dreams that occur in slow-wave sleep and those that occur in REM sleep is that those of REM sleep are associated with more bodily muscle activity, and the dreams of slow-wave sleep usually are not remembered. That is, during slow-wave sleep, consolidation of the dreams in memory does not occur.

STAGES OF SLEEP AND EEG PATTERN

RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP

During REM sleep, electroencephalogram (EEG) shows irregular waves with high frequency and low amplitude. These waves are desynchronized waves.

NON-RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP

The NREM sleep is divided into four stages, based on the EEG pattern. During the stage of wakefulness, i.e. while lying down with closed eyes and relaxed mind, the alpha waves of EEG appear. When the person proceeds to drowsy state, the alpha waves diminish.

1. Stage I: Stage of Drowsiness Alpha waves are diminished and abolished. EEG shows only low voltage fluctuations and infrequent delta waves.
2. Stage II: Stage of Light Sleep Stage II is characterized by spindle bursts at a frequency of 14 per second, superimposed by low voltage delta waves.
3. Stage III: Stage of Medium Sleep During this stage, the spindle bursts disappear. Frequency of delta waves decreases to 1 or 2 per second and amplitude increases to about 100 µV.
4. State IV: Stage of Deep Sleep Delta waves become more prominent with low frequency and high amplitude.

MECHANISM OF SLEEP

Sleep occurs due to the activity of some sleep-inducing centers in brain. Stimulation of these centers induces sleep. Damage of sleep centers results in sleeplessness or persistent wakefulness called insomnia.

SLEEP CENTERS

Complex pathways between the reticular formation of brainstem, diencephalon and cerebral cortex are involved in the onset and maintenance of sleep.

However, two centers which induce sleep are located in brainstem:

1. Raphe nucleus
2. Locus ceruleus of pons.

Recently, many more areas that induce sleep are identified in the brain of animals. Inhibition of ascending reticular activating system also results in sleep.

Role of Raphe Nucleus: Raphe nucleus is situated in lower pons and medulla. Activation of this nucleus results in non-REM sleep. It is due to release of serotonin by the nerve fibers arising from this nucleus. Serotonin induces non-REM sleep.

Role of Locus Ceruleus of Pons: Activation of this center produces REM sleep. Noradrenaline released by the nerve fibers arising from locus ceruleus induces REM sleep.

Inhibition of Ascending Reticular

Activating System Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) is responsible for wakefulness because of its afferent and efferent connections with cerebral cortex. Inhibition of ARAS induces sleep. Lesion of ARAS leads to permanent somnolence, i.e. coma.

Ionic Regulation of Sleep

The Shaker gene is part of a voltage-gated K+ channel that regulates sleep/wakefulness, another potassium channel, Kv3.1, is present in GABAergic cells that express the Ca2+ binding protein parvalbumin, notably in fast spiking neurons.

The strongest evidence that Ca2+ channels play a role in sleep regulation is provided in studies involving (transient-type) T-type Ca2+ channels, but evidence also suggests that L-type Ca2+ channels may also modulate sleep

Endocrine Manifestations of Sleep and Wake States

hormones are little influenced by sleep versus wakefulness, including adrenocortotropic hormone, cortisol, and melatonin; some are strongly influenced by sleep, such as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and prolactin; and some are affected by particular sleep stages, such as growth hormone

The suprachiasmatic nucleus sends signals to other parts of the brain that control hormones and body temperature. Then, signals travel from the brain down the spinal cord and back up to the pineal gland, a small pinecone-shaped organ in the brain where melatonin production takes place. During the day, such signals prevent the pineal gland from producing melatonin. But when it is dark outside, these signals are not activated, and the pineal gland is able to produce melatonin

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING SLEEP

During sleep, most of the body functions are reduced to basal level.There are important changes in the body during sleep:

1. PLASMA VOLUME Plasma volume decreases by about 10% during sleep.
2. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

   Heart Rate During sleep, the heart rate reduces. It varies between 45 and 60 beats per minute.

   Blood Pressure Systolic pressure falls to about 90 to 110 mm Hg. Lowest level is reached about 4th hour of sleep and remains at this level till a short time before waking up. Then, the pressure commences to rise. If sleep is disturbed by exciting dreams, the pressure is elevated above 130 mm Hg.

3. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

   Rate and force of respiration are decreased. Respiration becomes irregular and Cheyne-Stokes type of periodic breathing may develop.

4. GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

   Salivary secretion decreases during sleep. Gastric secretion is not altered or may be increased slightly. Contraction of empty stomach is more vigorous.

5. EXCRETORY SYSTEM Formation of urine decreases and specific gravity of urine increases.
6. SWEAT SECRETION Sweat secretion increases during sleep.
7. LACRIMAL SECRETION Lacrimal secretion decreases during sleep.
8. MUSCLE TONE Tone in all the muscles of body except ocular muscles decreases very much during sleep. It is called sleep paralysis.
9. REFLEXES Certain reflexes particularly knee jerk, are abolished. Babinski sign becomes positive during deep sleep. Threshold for most of the reflexes increases. Pupils are constricted. Light reflex is retained. Eyeballs move up and down.
10. BRAIN Brain is not inactive during sleep. There is a characteristic cycle of brain wave activity during sleep with irregular intervals of dreams. Electrical activity in the brain varies with stages of sleep.

REFERENCE

ARTICLES

1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5390528/ FUNCTIONS AND MECHANISM OF SLEEP BY NCBI RESOURCE
2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4755451/ PHYSIOLOGY OF SLEEP BY NCBI RESOURCE

BOOKS

1. TEXBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY BY GUYTON AND HALL 6TH EDITION
2. ESSENTIAL OF PHYSIOLOGY BY SEMBULINGAM

Vaccines save lives; fear endangers lives. While opposition to vaccines is as old as the vaccines themselves, vaccines work. They have kept children healthy and most importantly, alive. Most vaccines given in childhood years are around 90-99% effective in preventing disease. So why would you keep such an advantage away from your child? The anti-vaccination movement has become a global epidemic, spreading across social media and poisoning people’s minds along the way, resulting in an exponentially increasing number of parents refusing to vaccinate their children, causing easily preventable diseases to spread, infecting those same children, then potentially, ending in their tragic, inevitable death.

The anti-vaccination movement has become a global pandemic, spreading across social media and poisoning people’s minds along the way. This stigma towards vaccines has only caused a lot of unnecessary problems to occur in this already problem-filled world. It has caused numerous measles outbreaks amongst children;

Many ‘anti-vaxxers’ may argue that giving a chid multiple vaccinations for different diseases at the same time increases the risk of harmful side effects and the immune system will not be able to cope as it will overload and weaken the child’s immune system. However, the reality is that children are actually exposed to more antigens in one day from the environment than there are antigens in all vaccines they get combined. An antigen is a toxin or other foreign substance that prompts the body’s immune response, particularly the body’s antibody production. Children are continuously exposed to large amounts of bacteria, even the food we eat exposes antigens – does this mean we should stop feeding our children? In addition to this, the vaccines that we are injected with contain either a weakened or killed version of the bacteria or virus; in fact, some vaccines don’t actually have any! A vaccine is used to expose the body’s immune system to a small, weakened version of the preventable disease. This process induces the body to produce antibodies to fight off the infection, teaching the immune system how to fight off the disease. This means if the body ever comes into contact with said disease they won’t be affected by it as the immune system already knows how to fight it off. For example, you may be familiar with chickenpox, and how a child never gets the chickenpox again after the first time they are affected by it, this is because their body has produced the right antibodies to fight them off. Vaccines work in the same way but do not make a child sick.

On the topic of immunity through vaccines, some may argue that natural immunity is so much better than immunity through vaccination. Natural immunity occurs when a child becomes infected with said infection/disease and the immune system is left to fight it off. If they survive the infection, they will become immune to the virus that caused it, just like chickenpox, so if it works with chickenpox, why can’t it work with everything else, am I right? Well. The risk associated to vaccines is nowhere near the risk associated without them. In developed countries measles affect 1 in 500 people, whereas the very vaccine that prevents it (the MMR vaccine) causes a severe reaction in 1 in a million people. To put this is into perspective, 500 seconds is 8 minutes and 1 million seconds is 12 days, using the internet as an example; depending on your internet connection, there is a chance you would be offline for 1 second every 8 minutes, or for 1 second every 12 days. Measles is a “highly infectious viral illness that can be very unpleasant and sometimes lead to serious complications” according to the NHS. If you wanted to develop natural immunity to measles, you would need to contract it first. However, it can cause many uncomfortable symptoms and give rise to several complications, and you may need to stay in a hospital bed for a couple days. Several parents have risked this for ‘natural’ immunity and it has resulted in 1,261 individual cases of measles from January 1 to November 7 of 2019, have been confirmed in 31 states.

This could easily have prevented from some liquid in a syringe, the World Health Organisation lists vaccines as causing an 80% decrease in measles, a percentage that high could eventually lead to eliminating the disease altogether. However, the very vaccine that prevents measles ( the MMR vaccine) has been proven to cause autism right? Wrong. The study that concluded with the MMR vaccine causing autism was conducted by Andrew Wakefield, a British Surgeon. His study only involved a total of 12 children, whereas a more credible, large-scale study with over 90,000 children did not have the same results as Wakefield’s did. Medical officials also investigated his research, they found his medical practices to be deleterious and his medical license was revoked from him. There is also evidence that suggests that autism develops when you’re in the uterus – nowhere near the time that vaccines are being inoculated. But let me ask you a question, would you rather let your child not be vaccinated and die, or vaccinate your child for them to potentially have autism?

What in the vaccines may cause the autism you ask? Well, it could potentially be the ‘unsafe toxins’ that are put in the vaccines such as aluminium, mercury and/or formaldehydes. But did you know that in an average day we eat, breathe and drink around 30 to 50mg of aluminium, that’s 20 times more than the amount of aluminium that is allowed in vaccines. Plus the aluminium gives so many beneficial effects such as; it helps boost our immune response, it makes the vaccine more effective, it makes the vaccine last longer, it reduces the amount of antigens needed – which was already covered – and it can even potentially decrease the dosage amount required to become immune. The mercury in the vaccines is actually ethylmercury, which is in a substance called thimerosal. Thimerosal is added to vaccines to prevent the growth of germs – leading to a large decreased risk in infection, and the large claim that the thimerosal was what caused autism is completely false as the vaccine that allegedly caused it – the MMR vaccine – never actually contained it. The formaldehydes contained in vaccines are also found naturally in our blood stream – in much higher levels than you can find in the syringe, the purpose of them is to kill the toxins in the bacteria or virus, this happens by diluting the antigen when the antigens are deactivating it, making it totally safe.

Let me put it to you straight. Vaccines save lives. Members of the ‘anti-vaxx’ movement are delusional, and think they are right for conspiring against the better judgement of the government – thinking the government do not care about our wellbeing. Their immense claims about vaccines causing autism due to the toxins that are in them and if you give them too much of those toxins it might overload the child’s immune system is all bollocks. If people put their own research into important matters like these this wouldn’t happen and children wouldn’t die.

Introduction:

Social Justice promotes opportunity growth and social well-being. It refers to promoting justice, equality and diversity in terms of the distribution of wealth opportunities and privileges within the society. The concept of Social Justice is to achieve fair and just relations between the individual and society. Every person in society has a claim, freely on the basis of equality of opportunity and benefit. Social Justice is the manifestation of human rights in day to day lives of people at every level of society.

Education and research has taken a prominent position in society in establishing social justice because they can take actions to address socio-scientific issues for improving the well-being of individuals and society. The goal of conducting research is not only to learn, but to use the knowledge to provide meaningful lives which intern influence friends, family, community and environment that surround the investigator. Hence there is every need to integrate scientific, technological, economic, ethical, legal and social knowledge gained for achieving social justice. The emerging Complex challenges as to sustainability demand for new approaches in involving integrated intellectual capital of researchers to build more strong linkages between research and society to enhance sustainable wellbeing of the society. Integration of natural and social scientists and also policymakers and public can Foster more sustainable society by enhancing resilience and human well-being.

Knowledge acquired in the research arena in model form gets translated and used for public interest. The translational research converges fundamental and basic Research and innovation diverges the final product for the use of the public. In translational research researchers conduct studies with direct social relevance such research is not to preserve in bookshelves but to accomplish social justice. The process of translational research needs much effort were in a combination of researchers from diverse disciplines and skills has to come together, the variety of subject areas of basic science, engineering, Public Health, social work, Law and gender has to combine and engage in research and results must be used for the betterment of society. Basically objective of translational research is from bench to bedside and some of the experts say that it is from bedside to bench and to bedside this is because clinical observations and basic research outcomes are to be translated to reach the patients.

Translational research is the application of basic findings to the beneficiaries for who is the subject of research. Translational research is a translation of intellectual work to public benefit, hence research should not be conducted for scientific curiosity or for funding, grading or for academic scores but must be for the benefit of society. Research in universities and research centres must reach down to earth. Apart from clinical therapeutics and novel healthcare services every kind of research in any discipline must be useful to society otherwise there is no purpose or objective in conducting research. Translational research should go beyond the classical approach. Nonlaboratory translational social researches though have certain limitations like sampling, behavioral data and cannot be a factorial experiment but have greater social relevance in achieving social justice in social sciences as it is a field of action in the world in which we live. If there is an integration of laboratory and fieldwork the goal of translational research may be successful for any action research. Researchers knows the general laws and also must know the specific fact finding using both scientific methods the results of research conducted must be for greater good and should effectuate social change. Hence translational research need not be limited to medical field or sciences but any research even if it is social sciences the results of research is meant for public good and must be applied to the society. In this connection legal research conducted for public interest and if it reaches policymakers which are for well being of the society might be called as translational research.

The main aim of research is to solve a problem, apply basic principles beyond theory to address various social problems therefore meeting the challenges existing in society. Instead of compartmentalizing different studies in isolated manner by individual researchers of a particular discipline, it is better to adopt coordinated collaborative cross-disciplinary studies. In this regard according to emerging trends of research there is changes in forms of research and also assessment which led to paradigm shift from a single discipline to an integrated discipline approach. In present-day multidisciplinary, transdisciplinary or interdisciplinary research is conducted jointly by investigators integrating from different disciplines to create novel concepts, theories, methods and innovations to address the societal problem and also to bridge the translational gaps, therefore collaborative research synthesize new knowledge and in essence will be sustainable.

The word translational research might be new to legal scientists but to address any issue with negative impact is possible through interpretation of statutes, finding gaps and loopholes in laws using it in more appropriate way to maximize the benefits and minimise its implications to raise awareness and improve the availability to the common man. It has been mentioned that the motto of translational research is from bench to bedside similarly the objective of legal research is from Law on paper to lay man and suggest its application to policymakers and other stakeholders of society ultimately to resolve a specific problem. Translational research along with evidence-based medicine in clinical medicine, Healthcare delivery and Public Health practice is being conducted, as per the recent need both legal scholars and lawmakers have called for evidence-based practice, also in legal services education, criminal justice, environmental regulation, gender laws and other many areas. This principle of evidence-based practice is based on the research which effect human welfare should be based on evidence. Evidence-based practice was basically focused on evidence-based medicine but scholars identified necessity in integrating research in practice not only in medicine but also in other practice areas The scholars already working on the challenges to evidence-based medicine indicate the need to unite scholars interested to develop effective approaches suitable for diverse purposes. One of the necessities of conduct of evidence-based research is impact of public policies on research and vice versa.

Translational research using a multidisciplinary approach on various contemporary legal impediments can use the path of translational research for societal change or use to achieve Social Justice the legal research involves study of general laws and its impact on society these principles which are elucidated from research has to be applied in solving societal problems this kind of legal research is not new in legal regime because the end product of scientific research has value to public and ultimately for public good and Social Justice.

Researchers need help in overcoming barriers and leveraging opportunities where translational science and the law will provide tailored legal support to researchers and create some bridges between intellectual folks University Of California San Francisco identify the significance of law in shaping effectiveness and impact of research translation and lobbying a powerful l e v e r for change hence initiated Hastings consortium on law science and health policy in 2016 Texas Christian University Institute of behavioural research has undertaken translational research on treatment process and technology transfer in 1989 women and children evaluations of treatment in 2000 criminal justice drug abuse treatment studies in 2002 criminal justice evaluations in 2008, seek, test and treat: A randomised controlled trial of an augmented test, treat, link and retain model for North Carolina and Texas Prisoners in 2010 Juvenile justice- translational research on interventions for adolescence in the legal in 2013 are completed projects and current ongoing project disease risk reduction strategies for criminal justice systems in 2014. National Institute of justice in Washington DC aimed to break down breakdown basic applied research barriers and to prevent reduce and manage crying scientific discoveries must be translated into policy and practice hence in that translational criminology and also conducted a conference on translational criminology- shaping policy and practice in 2011 hence there is series of translational legal research conducted to accomplish social Justice in the society

There is much wider scope in conducting translational research in cases of intellectual property where there is necessity in areas like drug discovery patenting, prevention of sexual harassment, juvenile crimes, cyber crimes, white collar crimes, gender conscience & consensus, administration of rule of Law.

Conclusion:

The translational research is the need of the hour in the society where in researchers will perform research for the betterment health and well being of the society unless the translational research not Limited only to medicine but expand to other disciplines like law social work gender education science technology integrating them in conducting the research will ensure social justice. Research rk will help create a world where we all learn to walk this Earth, safe, enlightened and free from the perils of cruelty, ignorance, and all the other dark and sinister forces.

The best insurance policy for the future of an industry is research, which will help it to foresee future lines of development, to solve its immediate problems, and to improve and cheapen its products.

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