Category: Reproductive Health

Introduction

Deserts make up close to a fifth of the earths surface, and they occur in areas where the annual rainfall is below 50cm. Most of these deserts, such as the Sahara of North Africa, occur at low altitudes though others occur at relatively lower latitudes and are referred to as cold deserts. However, such deserts are more deficient in life forms and species because of the freezing temperatures limiting plant life. The United States has four significant deserts located in the western part of the country. It collectively covers about 500,000 square miles from Oregons and Nevadas lonesome sagebrush backlands to central Mexicos cactus groves. Their location is attributed to their distances from moisture sources, rain shadow-casting mountains, permanent sub-tropic high-pressure zones, and combinations of the factors above. Each gets lower than 10 inches in annual precipitation. These deserts are the Great Basin, Mojave, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan. Therefore, this paper focuses on the unique features of each of the deserts and comprehensively discusses their geographical composition, including their climates, topography, and flora and fauna.

The Great Basin Desert

The Great Basin Desert is the largest in the United States, and it is the northernmost and highest-elevation of them, all covering about 200,000 square miles. The desert is often freezing, and the precipitation recorded in it is snow due to its location at high altitudes of up to more than 6,000 feet (Puckett 67). This is why, unlike the preconceived perception that deserts are hot, the Great Basin Desert is very cold with equally cold winters (Jones and Luna 98). However, the precipitation varies with latitude seasonally, with temperatures inhibiting the growing season to the summer.

The deserts location stretches between the Sierra Nevada and the Southern Cascades to the West and the Rocky Mountains on the east. To the south, it borders the lower hotter region of the Mojave Desert and Columbia Plateaus bunchgrass steppes and semiarid sagebrush, including the Snake River Plain to the north (Puckett 80). Despite this comprehensive geographical coverage, most of it is in Nevada though specific minutes parts are in Oregon, California, and Utah states (Jones and Luna 99). There is very little rainfall in this region, primarily because of the shield formed by the Sierra Nevada Mountains, which inhibits the Pacific Oceans winds from moisturizing the area.

Additionally, the deserts topography is characterized by basins and mountain ranges hence its name. This arises majorly from its reliefs separation with high mountain crests below intervening bosons that form major drainage to the outlets (Puckett 84). There are also ephemeral lake beds located on the basins floors with specific permanent water sources like the Pyramid and Great Salt lakes (Jones and Luna 89). They are considered the remnants of the numerous and more significant Pleistocene Great Basin lakes.

However, the desert lacks botanical variety though its animal and plant communities define its uniqueness. Shadscale and sagebrush are the most common plants in the desert, with the bristlecone pine considered one of the unique plants to grace the area (Puckett 85). The tree is arguably the oldest known living organism globally, with other trees estimated to have existed in the area for over 5,000 years (Jones and Luna 95). Nonetheless, the big sagebrush dominates the site, so the desert is often referred to as the Sagebrush Sea. There are also saltbushes, greasewoods, salt grasses, and salt-tolerant plants which cover the saline regions. Moreover, it is segued by a black brush realm with its steamways lined by willow and scrawny cottonwood gallery forests. Furthermore, its mountainous areas are covered in non-desert woodlands and forests. Despite the variety presented, the site is still dominated by the gray sagebrush.

The Great Basin Desert is also characterized by vast public lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), which serve as get-ways to the deserts adventurous iconic destinations. These include the Bonneville Salt Flats and Nevadas Black Rock Desert (Jones and Luna 96). Moreover, the Great Basin National Park lies within the wetter Snake Range area with lower elevations covering the more delicate wild desert regions (Puckett 85). Additionally, some of the open sources accommodate some known long-distance animal movements such as the Sheldon National Antelope Refuge, pronghorn migration route, and the Hart Mountain National Antelope Refuge. These take place in northwestern, winter ranges, and southeastern Oregon, respectively.

Despite the relatively adverse climatic conditions, the desert still serves as a home to several endangered and threatened species. The threat is brought about by its vast expanses, which render it vulnerable to extinction since the species occupying high peaks cannot interbreed due to isolation (Puckett 85). Moreover, grazing, groundwater pumping, mining, and home and road construction also affect the habitats of these species. These species include the most miniature tern birds, Utah prairie dogs, desert dace, Lahontan cutthroat trout, and White River spine dace fish (Jones and Luna 99). The Ute ladys tresses and soda Ville milkvetch also fall in this category. These plants have to be protected as required lest the desert loses such rich organisms.

The Mojave Desert

The desert is essentially the northernmost of the four, and it is more of a transition land between Sonoran and the Great Basin. It covers about 54,000 square miles making it the most minor, and this spans across Nevada, California, and Arizona (Klinger et al. 10). The desert has extremely high elevations ranging from a low point of 282 feet at Death Valley to a high of 11,049 feet at Telescope Peak (Clair and Hoines 197). These high elevations get extremely cold at night. However, at the Death Valley, the low points are always boiling. This area is considered the hottest in the United States, with a temperature high of 134 degrees Fahrenheit and an average rainfall of below 2 inches. However, the precipitation generally is similar to that of the Great Basin Desert, with most of it coming during winter, though, in the Mojave Desert, it falls as rain (Clair and Hoines 199). Moreover, it is characterized by ephemeral Mojave wildflowers springtime blooms which make its climate rather unique.

Additionally, the desert is yielded by the creosote bush, which is a defining shrub for most hot deserts in America. However, Mojaves trademark plant is the Joshua tree which maps out its geography (Klinger et al. 11). The outsized yucca flourishes in this region, hitting its developmental peak on its peaks and the bajadas and foothills middle slopes. The land is also covered in grasses, though sparsely, with the creosote bushes complementing these grasses (Clair and Hoines 200). Additionally, the desert is home to various animals such as rabbits, scorpions, lizards, the Mojave ground squirrel, pronghorns, the kangaroo rat, and snakes.

The soil types in the desert are volcanic, especially the parts in the state of California. However, the particle sizes decrease as the topography goes down, where there is also relatively low alkalinity. This forms a good breeding ground for plants around the erosional gradient. However, alluvial fan and pediment soil up the deserts slope, with the flora being mostly succulents (Klinger et al. 12). Moving down the gradient, the area is encompassed the lower and upper bajada and into the saline and playa, ending up at the river (Clair and Hoines 230). The lower bajada mostly has evergreen perennials though some parts of the upper bajada exhibit the same. Nonetheless, most plants are adapted to buried bulbs, waxy leaves, deep taproots, ephemerals, spines, and photosynthetic stems due to harsh conditions.

Further, the desert is defined by xeric conditions created by the multiple mountain ranges surrounding the region. As a result, the contents lead to seasonal saline lakes, valleys, salt pans, and endorheic basins, especially when the precipitation rate is significant. However, most of these are part of the Great Basin and the Basin and Range province, which are geologic areas of crustal thinning, leading to the opening of various valleys (Clair and Hoines 233). Nonetheless, most of the valleys drain internally such that not all the precipitation that falls within the region flows to the ocean. It is also essential to note that a section of the deserts domain is in a different geographical field known as the Colorado Plateau (Klinger et al. 14). This is the part around the Virgin River George and Colorado River, which is towards the East.

Further still, the desert is among the most popular tourist destination locations in the United States. This is brought about primarily by Las Vegass gambling destination. Moreover, it has particular scenic sites like the Mojave National Preserve, Death Valley National Park, and the Joshua Tree National Park (Klinger et al. 15). Additionally, it houses three California State Parks and lakes, Havasu, Mead, and Mohave also attract tourists, primarily due to their provision for water sports recreational activities (Clair and Hoines 240). Furthermore, various natural features in the Calico Mountains, such as the Calico Ghost Town, also serve as essential attractions. The desert is indeed full of scenic and attractive sites, and its location accords it the tourists traffic that it deserves.

The Sonoran Desert

The Sonoran Desert occupies about 100,000 square miles, and over two-thirds of this is located along the Mexico-U.S. line covering the State of Sonora and Baja California. It mainly occupies southern Arizona in the U.S (Bradley and Colodner 110). The Sonoran Desert has sub deserts within it, including the Yua Desert, Yuma Desert, Colorado Desert, and the Tonopah Desert. Additionally, rivers Gila and Colorado flow through it complemented by the mountains and broad valleys which get extremely hot in the summer.

Furthermore, the desert is ranked among the worlds excellent deserts because of its scenic and botanical splendor. This plantlife stems from two rainy seasons prevailing in the southern and eastern sectors, winter and summer precipitation (Sosa et al. 65.). It is known chiefly for its saguaro cactus, which grow up to above 60 feet tall with arm-like branches. It is often referred to as the Arboreal Desert based on these cacti (Bradley and Colodner 115). Apart from these, several other species with unique shapes and sizes, such as the mighty cardoon, the Mexican portion, the multi-pillared organ pipe cactus, the wild-armed ocotillo, mention a few. Over 2,000 plant species have been collectively identified in the desert, with each of the physiological vascular plant groupings dominating more than one major biotic communities (Sosa et al. 67). This is why it is considered to have the most significant diversity when it comes to species with relatively fine spatial scales.

To add to that, it is also home to multiple animals, which adds to its species diversity. Researchers have identified over 350 bird species, 100 different reptiles, 20 amphibians, and about 30 fish species within the desert (Sosa et al. 68). Such species include owls, lizards, jackrabbits, snakes, bats, turtles, and sparrows (Bradley and Colodner 117). These species also show tremendous variability in life forms attributed to various factors such as the varied geology, subtropical climate, bimodal precipitation, continental physiography, and wide-ranging topography.

The regions climate is also somewhat unique as it receives frequent low-intensity winter rains and violent summer monsoon thunderstorms. These contradicting climatic conditions are borrowed with the former from the Mohave Desert and the latter from the Chihuahuan Desert (Sosa et al. 72). These distinct patterns support the vast array of flora and fauna, and it is the foundational cause of the species diversity experienced in the region. Annually, precipitation in the area averages 3 to 20 inches depending on the location, with substantial variability in quantity and timing. Nonetheless, the Sonoran is still a hot desert with summer air temperatures exceeding 104 degrees Fahrenheit, which interact with the cool, moist air in the region to produce violent summer monsoon thunderstorms (Bradley and Colodner 120). Still, the surrounding mountains in the area have dense snow cover with valley bottoms free of frost and mild winter temperatures. Nonetheless, the deserts vast vegetation often reradiate the daytime heat overnight into the atmosphere leading to diurnal swings.

As a result of the vast array of species, the desert is a prime tourist attraction site. Moreover, there are various national parks, reserves, monuments, parks, botanical gardens, history museums, desert landscape gardens, and science research institutes that contribute to its vast tourism (Sosa et al. 72). Apart from tourism, it is also a location for illegal migration from Mexico into the United States due to low security levels. Most of this unauthorized entry takes place at night due to the harsh daytime conditions.

The Chihuahuan Desert

The Chihuahuan Desert is the largest in North America, covering about 250,000 square miles. Only about 10% of the desert is in the United States, with the other 90% in Mexico (Hruska 270). The portion that is in the U.S. covers parts of southeast Arizona, southwest Texas, and southern New Mexico. It resembles the Great Basin because it is above 3,500 feet, even though the southern part has tall cacti (Hruska 270). The desert is isolated from the neighboring arid regions by the Sierra Madre Oriental, and the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain ranges to the east and west, respectively.

When it comes to flora and fauna, it is considered the most diverse desert in the Western Hemisphere though it is also one of the most endangered areas in the world. This threat arises from urbanization, overgrazing, invasive exotic species, water diversion and depletion, fire regime changes, and native plants and animals over-collection (Hruska 270). Despite these issues, the deserts eastern boundary is the wealthiest plant evolution center. The vegetation ranges from conifer woodlands and desert shrublands depending on elevations though the creosote bush is the most dominant plant. It also has prickly-pear cactuses, yuccas, grasses, and agaves, contributing to its over 3,500 plant species (Hruska 276). However, about 1,000 of these grow in its Ecoregion (Minckley et al. 457). Moreover, the Chihuahuan Desert has given unique habitats like the gypsum dunes, freshwater habitats, playas, and yucca woodlands, making it very diverse.

Furthermore, the desert houses over 170 reptile and amphibian species, with about 18 of these endemic to its Ecoregion. There are also over 110 fish species in the region, with most of these being endemic. The relic ones are found in the closed basins where the isolated springs lie (Hruska 280). Moreover, the desert supports over 130 mammal species such as the jaguar, grey fox, mule deer, javelin, and pronghorn. Historically, it was among the few regions where the wolves and grizzly bears would be found. It is also home to about 400 bird species, and its grasslands serve as wintering grounds for the birds (Minckley et al. 460). The birds include Bairds sparrow, mountain plover, and the ferruginous hawk.

However, the deserts climate is unique compared to that of the Mojave and Sonoran deserts. This is because it has colder winters and receives a lot of summer rain during monsoon thunderstorms. Therefore, it is characterized by cold, dry winters and hot summers with annual precipitation of about 6 to 20 inches (Hruska 290). However, most of the rain falls in the summer months in the form of monsoonal showers. Its range and basin topography consists of mountain ranges, basins bordered by terraces, and mesas (Minckley et al. 461). The bays provide a suitable location for the drainage of rainwater internally, contributing to the formation of playas. Dune fields made of gypsum sand and quartz are also standard features.

The region has various protected areas which are prime for tourism. These areas include the Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge, Apache National Wildlife Refuge, and the Franklin Mountains State Park (Minckley et al. 466). Moreover, the Big Bend National Park is home to over 800,000 acres of the deserts wildlife and plant (Hruska 295). The park offers a vast, spectacular backcountry for exploration from the grand existent canyons and the Chios Mountains. There is also the Rio Grande River which flows through the desert down to the Gulf of Mexico. These features accord the desert the tourism traffic making it ripe for revenue collection for both the Mexican and U.S. governments.

Conclusion

The United States has arguably the most diverse types of deserts. These deserts present unique characteristics ranging from the nature of the climatic conditions, flora and fauna, and even topography. From the preceding, it is clear that the four, the Chihuahuan, Sonoran, the Great Basin, and Mojave, also have similar characteristics. These features mainly arise because of their proximity to each other in the United States. This shows the significance of immediacy when it comes to the geographical study of deserts despite the differences highlighted regarding the hot deserts and cold deserts. Nonetheless, the deserts still serve as important tourist sites and prime locations for research, a sound source of revenue, unlike the contemporary perception of deserts being non-economic features. Therefore, the government needs to continue protecting these sights from any interference to ensure the given flora and fauna within flourish.

Works Cited

Bradley, Curtis M., and Debra Colodner. The Sonoran Desert. Encyclopedia of the Worlds Biomes, 2020, pp. 110-125. Elsevier, Web.

Clair, Samuel B., and Joshua Hoines. Reproductive Ecology and Stand Structure of Joshua Tree Forests across Climate Gradients of the Mojave Desert. PLOS ONE, vol 13, no. 2, 2018, pp. 193-248. Public Library of Science (Plos), Web.

Hruska, Tracy. Evolving Patterns of Agricultural Frontier Expansion in Mexicos Chihuahuan Desert: A Political Ecology Approach. Journal of Land Use Science, vol 15, no. 2-3, 2019, pp. 270-289. Informa U.K. Limited, Web.

Jones, Mark C., and Marcos Luna. Geography Deserts: State and Regional Variation in the Formal Opportunity to Learn Geography in the United States, 20052015. Journal of Geography, vol 118, no. 2, 2018, pp. 88-100. Informa U.K. Limited, Web.

Klinger, Rob et al. Contrasting Geographic Patterns of Ignition Probability and Burn Severity in the Mojave Desert. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, vol 9, 2021, pp. 10-15. Frontiers Media SA, Web.

Minckley, Thomas A, et al. Novel Vegetation and Establishment of Chihuahuan Desert Communities in Response to Late Pleistocene Moisture Availability in the Cuatrociénegas Basin, NE Mexico. The Holocene, vol 29, no. 3, 2018, pp. 457-466. SAGE Publications, Web.

Puckett, Neil N. Combining Underwater And Terrestrial Research Approaches In The Great Basin Desert, Walker Lake, Nevada. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, vol 16, no. 1, 2020, pp. 64-85. Informa U.K. Limited, Web.

Sosa, Victoria et al. Climate Change and Conservation in a Warm North American Desert: Effect in Shrubby Plants. Peerj, vol 7, 2019, pp. 65-72. Web.

Strategies to elicit student misconceptions

Students often have misconceptions regarding the principles of reproduction and heredity. To elicit these misconceptions and develop strategies to overcome them, it is necessary to encourage the students participation in discussions. Furthermore, a teacher can receive important information regarding possible mistakes and wrong ideas while asking students about their visions of some aspects related to reproduction and heredity.

In addition to asking questions and initiating discussions in the class, it is also possible to use short questionnaires similar to the tests that are often proposed by researchers (Driver, Rushworth, Squires, & Wood-Robinson, 2005). Students answers to such questionnaires will be helpful to demonstrate their visions of reproduction and identify misconceptions.

Moreover, teachers can initiate discussions to elicit misconceptions while asking children to explore examples, describe and explain what they observe, and compare pairs of living and non-living beings or cases of sexual and asexual reproduction (Driver et al., 2005). Besides, teachers prefer to show children different types of photographs and encourage the students involvement in a discussion of reproduction and heredity.

Typical student misconceptions regarding reproduction and heredity

It is important to note that students are inclined to develop a range of misconceptions regarding reproduction and heredity. For instance, children can think that babies are manufactured or that they can be found by parents in a shop or a hospital (Driver et al., 2005). These misconceptions are associated with the lack of knowledge regarding the processes of reproduction.

When children learn basic aspects of reproduction, they can confuse the following concepts: a human ovum and a birds egg or sexual and asexual reproduction, for instance (Driver et al., 2005). Also, children can draw wrong conclusions while discussing processes of reproduction that are based on their misconceptions. Thus, students can conclude that eggs are not alive because they have no features typical of beings. They also can state that male animals are usually bigger than female ones.

Furthermore, children can see asexual reproduction as a weaker process than sexual reproduction (Driver et al., 2005). Many misconceptions are also associated with childrens visions of heredity. Students are inclined to state that inheritance depends on natural processes and environmental factors. Thus, children often avoid focusing on the role of genes even if they know about the process (Driver et al., 2005). Furthermore, children do not understand the principles of adaptation associated with inheritance and features of the community, and they choose to discuss adaptation as related to individual capabilities.

Strategies to correct misconceptions

The teachers task is to correct misconceptions developed by children regarding reproduction and heredity. It is rather difficult for children to change their visions even in the context of Science lessons and the received knowledge. Educators can correct the existing misconceptions while demonstrating different diagrams, models, and maps that explain reproduction processes in humans, animals, and plants (Driver et al., 2005).

This illustrative material is important to help students develop their correct visions of reproduction and heredity instead of ideas that were promoted by their parents or other adults. When children describe aspects associated with reproduction and heredity in living beings, educators need to correct their mistakes and develop discussions of real factors that influence these processes. Furthermore, it is important to use various exercises and experiments to involve students and demonstrate how their wrong visions differ from the observed processes or changes in plants and animals.

Reference

Driver, R., Rushworth, P., Squires, A., & Wood-Robinson, V. (2005). Making sense of secondary science: Research into childrens ideas. New York, NY: Routledge.

Introduction

Reproductive technologies have the capacity to revolutionise lives. For instance, through the use of in-vitro fertilisation IVF, assistance has now been given to those who have problems in conception; also the use of PDGs prevents conception of severely abnormal children. Despite all these advantages, reproductive technologies have received immense levels of scrutiny from policy makers and other stakeholders. Consequently, advancement in these technologies has not been fully applied. Reproductive technologies present a series of challenges in terms of health and safety of parents and their offspring; they also pose several ethical dilemmas such as multiple births and costs. Given the complexity of such medical interventions, it is critical to offer custom made regulations to separate problems in reproductive technologies since sweeping regulations can cause unintended consequences. The paper will therefore argue for case by case regulation of specific reproductive technology issues.

How new reproductive technologies should be regulated

One issue that has brought a lot of concern in this field is prenatal screening. Many have associated this procedure with selective abortion claiming that potential parents are put in a position where they can choose to terminate a pregnancy if they realise that they might bear a child with severe deformity. The latter matter has generated a lot of heat and brought people back to the fundamentals of bioethics. Matters of conception and the right to life have been put forward. (Crowley, 2010) But it is essential to acknowledge that certain deformities may place weighty burdens on parents’ shoulders. Consequently, these parents should have the choice to decide whether or not they should keep a severely deformed child. To this end, parents who opt to forego prenatal screening need to be allowed to do so as the procedure may be objectionable to some. The United Kingdom has gone a long way in acknowledging the right to life of all individuals and it should therefore continue engaging in greater support to those who feel that they are okay with bearing a child with severe deformities. Nonetheless, the issue of screening has also been associated with voluntary termination of children without desirable features such as having the ‘wrong’ sex. A number of Asian countries have been known to carry out abortions as a result of their children’s sex. Policy makers need to step in and prevent subsequent termination because of such non health related reasons. In other words, regulation should be encouraged only to a slight extent i.e. when prenatal screening leads to voluntary termination as a result of non health related reasons (Human Genetics Commission, 2006). This will go a long way in ensuring that indiscriminate destruction of young lives does not occur. However, it may undermine the quality of life of the affected child because he or she may be born into a home where he/she was not wanted in the first place.

The latter mentioned issues are closely associated with PDGs or pre implantation genetic diagnosis where doctors carrying out in vitro fertilisation examine the genetic predisposition of the embryos that have been created and then choose the one with the least genetic complications for implantation. As a result, parents are prevented from having to suffer while raising a child with severe genetic disorders or having to be aware of the impending death of their child. Nonetheless, the issue of designer babies has arisen as a number of parties have chosen to select children on the basis of desirable traits. (Mehlman, 2007) This has raised eyebrows on the possibility of using PDGs as a means to only bear children with high intellectual abilities, musical talents and the like. Although PDGs currently detect basic traits, there are possibilities that this kind of technology can be used to make babies in a tailor made fashion. If these become realities, it would be more appropriate to regulate. In a world where perfection becomes the norm, the rights of those who fall short of such standards may be severely limited. Consequently, higher authorities need to step in and protect children who possess those undesirable traits as they are all entitled to their unique identities. (Ott, 2008). To this end, designer babies should be disallowed and only accepted for medical reasons alone.

Regulation should also be allowed in so far as the health issues of unborn children got from reproductive technologies are concerned. Currently, the Human fertilisation and embryology Act does not provide for set and structured follow up of these children’s lives. For instance, those born out of the use of IVFs need to be analysed throughout their life cycles so as to detect any possible oversights that may have been made and so as to curb possible complications later on. (Deech, 2008) This needs to be made possible for medical research teams that are working in the area of IVFs.

In vitro fertilisation has generated a lot of controversy in recent times especially after the case of an American mum who gave birth to octuplets in early 2009. The public was highly alarmed by her case because they realised that she was unemployed and unmarried – having to support fourteen children on her own. Although this was an extreme case, it does indicate some of the ethical dilemmas that can arise from reproductive technologies and therefore present new opportunities for regulation. Assisted reproductive technologies have the potential to impose difficult financial and health risks upon the lives of parents. In vitro fertilisation has been known to place parents in situations where they are likely to go through multiple births yet these children and mothers are at greater risk in multiple rather than single births. (Cahn, 2009)To this end, it is critical to acknowledge that regulation in terms of the number of births one can have through IVF can substantially reduce the risks to these respective individuals. The UK government has already acknowledged this fact and regulated the number of children that can be born through IVFs. The latter regulation is highly welcome because it minimises preterm delivery and all the problems to foetal growth that can occur due to multiple births. One must not also forget the fact that having numerous children can present a series of financial challenges to the concerned parent(s). (Asch and Marmor, 2010) On the other side of the coin is the fact that a mother has the right to decide what to do with her body and embryos that emerge from them. Since such a parent is often aware of the risks that may emerge from IVF, then it is her prerogative to decide to keep the multiple pregnancies or not. Besides, in certain circumstances, a parent may have been trying to conceive for a long time and may not have the financial resources to carry out several IVFs, she may therefore opt to implant more than one so as to maximise her chances of conceiving. Having examined the disadvantages and advantages of regulating multiple births in IVFs, it is evident that a parent does have rights to her own body, however, those rights are limited by health and safety concerns which should never take second place to preferences and opinions of the mother. To this end, regulation of multiple births to two should be allowed.

The provision of reproductive technology services needs to be regulated more heavily than it currently us. First of all, there have been cases of a number of individuals choosing to undergo procedures by clinicians who have not been fully ascertained in foreign countries. This is especially common in stem cell research in India which has grown as a hub for medical tourism from western nations. The problem with visiting such locations is that sometimes some preclinical studies on procedures may not have been carried out. Additionally, those said practitioners may not reveal any potential financial conflicts that could arise out of the problem. (Hyun, 2008). There may also be injuries that arise from treatments offered. Stem cell research still falls under reproductive health technologies because although its outcomes are used in treating non reproductive illnesses, the source of those stem cells has been through reproductive means. This area needs a lot of regulation since quality control is quite evasive here. A lot of these cases are being reported from outside of the UK where desperate UK patients opt to go for assistance in the hope of some miracle cure. The government needs to collect and publish information concerning any stem cell research centres with special emphasis given to those who downplay potential risks and who overstate possible cures like enhancing sexual performance. Peer review studies should be expected for these stem cell institutes for their procedures so as to ensure that items like case reports are not the sole source of accreditation. The major advantage with this kind of regulation is that the public will be made aware of what they could be getting into and scientists could be more cautious in engaging in risky treatment. On the other hand, it may be difficult to implement such regulations since practices are not just restricted to the United Kingdom.

Conclusion

A number of ethical issues revolve around the use of reproductive technologies. This is because creation, selection and implantation of embryos has its repercussions. In almost all controversial cases, the choice to regulate or not should be done based on the health of the embryo and the mother. Embryos have rights just as older children and these should be preserved as much as possible.

References

Deech, R. (2008). 30 Years: From IVF to Stem Cells, Nature 454 (1): 280-81.

Human Genetics Commission (2006). Making Babies: Reproductive, Decisions and Genetic Technologies. Web.

Hyun, I. (2008). Stem cells. London: Mc Millan Asch, A and Marmor, R (2010). Assisted Reproduction in From Birth to Death and Bench to clinic. Web.

Crowley, M. (2010). Bioethics matters –acknowledgements and introduction. Web.

Cahn, N. (2009). Test tube families. NY: Routledge

Ott, K. (2008). Religious ethics on reproductive technology. Web.

Mehlman, M. (2007). Genetic enhancement in the future society. Cleveland: Case western university press

Masculine ideologies and impairment of our understanding of reproduction as a biological process

Masculine ideologies about gender have incredibly impaired people’s understanding of reproduction as a biological process. As Mikkola notes, “most people ordinarily think that sex and gender are coextensive: women are human females while men are human males” (Para.1). Over the years, feminists have either contended or widely failed to strike a common goal in matters to do with sex and gender. Literally, the term gender, as often used in the social contexts, means either women or men. On the other hand, sex, as categorically deployed in the biological perspectives, refers to men or women. Some biological determinists such Geddes and Thomson are to the opinion that metabolic states are chiefly responsible for behavioral, social, and psychological differences observed among people.

They argue based on how “Women supposedly conserve energy (being ‘anabolic’), which makes them passive, conservative, sluggish, stable and uninterested in politics” (Mikkola Para.6). On the other hand, they argue, “Men expend their surplus energy (being ‘katabolic’), which makes them eager, energetic, passionate, variable and, thereby, interested in political and social matters” (Mikkola Para.6). These arguments exclude gender determination from biological process. They rather look at the issue from masculine perspectives. Because of the identified masculine characteristics, men stand out right and capable to execute political roles based on the intrinsic biological construction of this trait within them. As Mikkola posits, considering this frame of reasoning, “It would be inappropriate to grant women political rights, as they are not worth getting such rights. It would also be futile since women, based on their biology, would not show interest in exercising their political rights” (Para. 8). This masculine ideology, based on metabolic differences, substantially deter people’s perceptions about gender characteristics as being a result of biological processes.

Feminists’ research on conception and sex differentiation, however, has led to the creation of better paradigms and models for each biological process of reproduction. According to Wassrman, “In humans, it is the presence or absence of Y chromosome that determines manliness” (Allen 2). This perhaps gives, a better explanation of how a male or a female offspring comes about from biological perspectives, the paradigm saw the female development as a byproduct of passiveness of the Y chromosome. In fact, as Allen observes, “A 1973 biology textbook discusses sex determination without mentioning the possibility of femaleness” (3). People viewed female development as a passive process. Hence, the genetics of development never bothered about it. “Rather, it seemed logical and easier to try to identify the gene for manliness from the Y chromosome since it conferred an attribute that was easily measurable” (Allen 4). Consequently, conducting studies concerning the masculine gender (man), development stood as a more appealing and crucial endeavor.

Early 1990s saw the discovery of SRY. Allen points out how “…the discovery of SRY gratified the expectations created by the dominant Y model…reinforcing it substantially” (5). The written bundles of articles indicated a breakthrough in the sex determination and differentiation studies. However, all these studies recorded and detailed the masculine gender development while negating to provide any information on the ‘passive gender’. Based on arguments, this breakthrough only served to reinforce the earlier model of metabolic states differentiation of genders. Was there nothing to learn about female development?

Despite the existence of masculine-focused paradigms for explaining sex development and differentiation process, a growing body of knowledge documents developmental pathways for both genders in an active way. With the inputs of the research on gender differentiation and determination from feminists, these pathways stand out as parallel. However, the late 1990s biology textbooks retain an earlier version of masculine ideologies in gender determination and differentiation. As a way of example, Raven and Johnson stipulates, “if the embryo is a male, it will have a Y chromosome with a gene whose product converts the indifferent gonads into testes. In females, who lack a Y chromosome, this gene and the protein it encodes are absent…the gonads become ovaries” (Allen 7). Emergence of femaleness revealed here lacks a certain trait that is present in the masculine gender. Consequently, one can describe females based on accounts of absence of such traits in the masculine gender. Hence, the study of their developmental process was not necessary.

Modern paradigms postulate that the observable differences among different gender solely rely on the evident differences in the male and female gametes. These differences are evident right from the onset of the fertilization process. Priory, sperms appeared as, not only active, but also competitive as compared to eggs, which people viewed as passive. Examining the roles of the eggs and the sperms reveals the vitality of an active involvement of the two cells for successful fertilization (Allen 8). According to Keller, “feminists biologists have recognized how rigid cultural distinctions between male and females can interfere with scientific objectivity by layering cultural expectations about masculinity and feminist onto biological data concerning sexes, or even onto biological systems seen as analogous to sexes” (30). In fact, it proves hard to raise alarms that every person has certain intrinsic constructions about his or her preconceived perceptions about gender and sex. Those biologists who predominantly live in a world with systems embedded on gender associations or sex, therefore, have the task of incorporating subtle strategies to ensure the elimination of such preconceptions. A more rigorous approach would entail absolute elimination of the perceptions of masculinity dominance while people approach issues entangling gender and sex. As the feminists claim, existence of one gender is equally essential for the purpose of the existence of the other.

Population control and eugenics

Population control policies and eugenics ideologies in both pro- and anti-natalist forms have a close connection in the states that promote and practice each. The United States between 1910 and 1930 and Singapore in 1984 practiced eugenics as a methodology that proved vital for the improvement of the society through science. Petchesky defines eugenics as “the concept of selective breeding in humans to achieve improved genetic qualities that will strengthen and improve the gene pool” (23). Eugenics concerns itself with the prevention of transmission of negative genes thought as a grand threat to the existence of the human race. Most of its proponents concur that the most crucial human trait is intelligence that they can control through selective breeding of human beings. However, protagonists who are essentially antiracists of this method of population regulation claim that it bases itself on racist grounds.

Population policies focus on the regulation of population through the provision or deprival of incentives such as extended maternity leaves, job preferences for those bearing children in accordance with the aims of an established population regulation policy among others. However, eugenics concerns itself with the production of better human species. Like many legalized child birth controls, it aims at ensuring the rationalization of population, concepts of eugenics deployed in Singapore and the United States had similar intents focusing much on ensuring the reproduction of more productive human population.

In the United States, the 1920s compulsory sterilization policy perhaps well portrayed “two-sided character of eugenics as a means of social sex control” (Petchesky 45). The law advocated for the sterilization of individuals found to possess a hereditary illness including insanity and feeblemindedness. Despite the hefty argument that the decision on which a candidate qualified for sterilization did not rely on racial foundations or economic status, scholarly evidence shows that wide and discriminatory perceptions on who qualified as insane or feebleminded. Taylor reckons that “economically dependent men and women were three times as likely to undergo sterilization as those who were more prosperous” (138). Higher-ranking members of the work force were rarely sterilized compared to the unskilled workers whom people regarded as insane and or feebleminded. Despite the argument that the number of sterilizations conducted among Latinos was in proportion to their numbers in terms of those who exhibited feebleminded traits, according to Taylor “Latinos were more likely as whites to qualify as feebleminded” (139).

With these disparities, it is arguable that the objectives of the population control policies and eugenics more often than not coincide in many ways. As Taylor notes, “during the depression, proponents of sterilization talked more about preventing the feeblemindedness from placing a burden on taxpayers than about preventing the transmission of genetic defects”(142). In addition, young girls, based on their enhanced sexual involvement in activities, their young age, and or poverty stood out as incompetent mothers, hence, subtle candidates for sterilization. This is directly congruent with population control policies, which encourage delayed marriages in an endeavor to reduce the number of births before menopause. The focus of population control policies determines the concepts of ethical parenthood. The poor people lie in the category of the bad parents. More often, they carry the blame of putting more pressure on national budgets. This is perhaps holds since the poor have more children than the rich even today. Similar to early 1930s American experience with eugenics approaches, population control policies target this group of the economically incapacitated people.

In 1965, Singapore had a population growth rate of 2.5 percent with a population amounting to 1887000 (Palen 3). There was, thus, the need for a remedy for bringing population growth to control. This saw the establishment of Singapore Family Planning and Population Board (SFPPBO). The government initiated the aims of attaining the goals of two child family as a strategy that would, by 2030, end up resulting to a zero population growth. Mass media campaigns so launched addressed the problem of rapid population growth, chiefly focusing on spreading the disadvantages associated with large families.

Palen posits, “To further reduce the population in 1970, the government introduced legislations to encourage virtually cost-free abortion and sterilization” (4). Equally crucial was the establishment of disincentives of fertility. The then prime minister linked the limitation to continued homogeneous existence of productive workforce to an appropriate eugenic combination of genes of parents who possessed the dual combination of the undesired traits- escalated fertility and low education. Genetics, in the prime minister’s view, “increasingly determined who will constitute the nation’s future leadership. To provide a dynamic and stable society, it was necessary for Singapore’s most educated women to have more children” (Palen 4). Arguably, these educated women emerged as the rich women in the island nation.

In 1983, the prime minister Lee Kan Yew placed a warning that “the eugenic quality of the nation was declining since less educated women were having more children than well educated mothers” (Palen 4). The repercussions of this warning were the enactment of two population control policies: “sterilization and graduate mums scheme” (Palen 7). The graduate mum’s scheme conferred educated women having three or more children immense state benefits including tax deductions and admission opportunities to institutions of higher learning among others. Mothers possessing “less than 0- level education (high school)” (Palen 7) could not enjoy such benefits.

The second eugenic reasoning: instigated population control policy introduced in 1984. It provided grants amounting to US. $ 4,400 for sterilization between the low-income earner and low educated family members. In case an individual reversed the sterilization decision, he/she returned this grant with an interest of 10% discounted on compound interest basis. This policy has suffered a massive downplay today. However, it depicts immense similarities with today’s population reduction policies, which have faced hefty scholarly criticisms like discriminatory in terms of economical endowment and social status of target groups. Therefore, based on the afore-made discussion, the issue of population control and eugenics stands out as a broad subject. While one can have as many children as he/she wished, ranging from zero to infinity, there is a need to regulate the rate of birth. Therefore, policies need to be in place to persuade people to give birth and or to limit the number of children that one can have based on the state of the country’s population from where he/she comes.

Works Cited

Allen, Caitilyn. Is It A Boy! Gender Expectations Intrude On The Study Of Sex Determination. Gender Expectations and Sex Determination 3.2 (1998): 1-10.

Keller, Francis. Reflection on Science and Gender. New heaven: Yale University Press, 1985. Print.

Mikkola, Mari. Feminist Perspectives on Sex and Gender:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2008. Web.

Palen, John. Fertility And Eugenics: Singapore’s Population Policies. Population and Policy Review 5.3 (1986):3-14.

Petchesky, Rosalind. Abortion and Women’s Choice. Boston: North Eastern University Press, 1984. Print.

Taylor, Molly. Saving Babies And Sterilizing Mothers: Eugenics and Welfare Politics In The Inter War United States. Social Politics 1.1 (1997):137-152.

How does infertility affect the multigenerational family?

Infertility affects the multigenerational family particularly in how members of the older generation relate with the individuals that are directly affected (Hutchinson, 2003).

In essence, infertility will be regarded as the death of one branch of the family tree and as such the relations towards this side of the family will be strained.

In most societies, the process of life is ongoing and repetitive at the same time, with children being taught that procreation is the only way in which a culture can persist.

According to Hutchinson (2003), “children in many segments of today’s society are taught that one of their major goals in life should be to become a parent.”

This makes it easy to see why infertility will bring disharmony in a multigenerational family. The situation is further worsened in communities that have not wholly embraced the concept of adoption.

This is because even children who are entrenched in the family by adoption will not be fully regarded as direct descendants of the original genetic roots. On the positive side, infertility can come with some benefits to the family.

This is because it forces a halt in the growth of the family and therefore the younger members can adequately take care of their aging parents and grandparents.

What is the impact of social class on assisted reproductive technologies?

The costs of conducting the procedures are generally on the higher side, and only a few of the affected couples can afford to access such medical services (Hutchinson, 2003).

The prohibitive nature of the costs for assisted reproduction directly contributes to filtering out of would-be candidates whose financial status do not allow for such expenses.

This, therefore, ends up making the procedures available for a given social class at the expense of another (Hutchinson, 2003).

The upper class of any society more often than not comprises individuals with higher academic integrity, and these are individuals who have a clear understanding of what assisted reproduction entails (Hutchinson, 2003).

The lower class members, on the other hand, are more traditionalistic in how they view things and it becomes very difficult for example to convince a couple that a surrogate mother will not contribute to the genetics of the child.

How does maternal health care reflect the power structure of the United States?

According to the state of the child progress report, maternal healthcare is one of the child well-being indicators of a maturing nation (Children Services Council, 2008). The availability of this form of care to a great majority of the population reflects well on the power structure of the United States.

This is mainly because the ruling class has been placed in such a position that it can influence change in the way the society regards pregnancy.

Since the level of development of a country is determined by among other factors the quality of health care it offers its citizens, the United States has come to be regarded as a well developed and powerful state in the world.

It is no wonder the country is seen as the land of opportunity in the eyes of other nations. Finally, the growth of a nation is dependent on its women.

The better the health care mothers receive throughout the pregnancy and during childbirth, the healthier the children born, and therefore the lesser the resources the government will dedicate to the provision of health services to the population at large (Children Services Council, 2010).

This translates well to the ranking of the United States in terms of power structure because of the perceived effectiveness in the utilization of public funds.

Reference List

Children Services Council. (2010). Prenatal screen. Retrieved May 21, 2010 from, www.cscpbc.org

Children Services Council (2008). State of the child in Palm beach county 2008 progress report. United States: Children’s Services Council, Palm Beach County.

Hutchinson, E.D. (2003). Dimensions of human behaviour: The changing life course. Washington: SAGE.

Organization and History

International Center for Reproductive Health (ICRH) is a global legal advocacy organization dedicated to advancing women’s fundamental reproductive and sexual rights. The organization has expanded internationally and operates across five continents: Africa, Europe, Asia, the United States, and Latin America (ICRH, 2021). ICRH has successfully partnered with other organizations in the last 18 years to implement quality reproductive health among women (ICRH, 2021). This organization’s collaboration and experience have enhanced efficient and robust financial and programming management of donor funding. The organization has, over the past, designed and implemented innovative and cost-effective evidence-based interventions on research in the reproductive and sexual fields of women and young girls (ICRH, 2021). The organization has continued to achieve its intervention success through stakeholder engagement which ensures policy dialogues and delivery on promises found in promoting positive change and scientific evidence for local and global output in reproductive and sexual health (ICRH, 2021). ICRH has critically played an essential role in advancing laws, policies, and legal victories that improve women’s reproductive and sexual rights (ICRH, 2021). These reproductive rights promote material health, life-saving obstetrics care, contraception, and safe abortion services.

The Problems that ICRH Intended to Address

ICRH is focused on addressing the gap in quality health care for women. Quality healthcare improves available services and facilities to enhance positive outcomes. An improved healthcare system is a sure way to ensure women get access to standard healthcare facilities (Comfort et al., 2022). Besides, the organization facilitates assisted reproduction care and maternity services to uphold safe deliveries. This aspect has helped to reduce high infant mortality rates experienced over the past decades worldwide (ICRH, 2021). Minority groups have also been protected by the organization’s approach to equality in healthcare (Prather et al., 2018). Universal healthcare services are now equally disseminated to everyone, including those with special needs. ICRH has pioneered the fight to create enabling environment that favors people with disabilities to access health services comfortably (Comfort et al., 2022). The organization creates programs to provide services to those at home who cannot physically avail themselves of healthcare facilities.

ICRH has spearheaded the call for women’s decision-making concerning their healthcare. Women were prohibited from making reproductive decisions because men had dominated the community in the recent past. Luckily, ICRH has helped many women globally to make their own decisions that benefit their healthcare (Kyilleh, Tabong, & Konlaan, 2018). Effective birth control measures help women effectively live productive lives in society (ICRH, 2021). Further, the organization has facilitated the move toward abolishing illegal and unsafe abortion (ICRH, 2021). It champions human rights and thus does not support violations of women and adolescents. Thus, ICRH has influenced decisions that support human survival by discouraging unsafe abortion and human trafficking (Kyilleh, Tabong, & Konlaan, 2018). These decisions have helped to give the organization a positive public name worldwide.

Mission Goals of the Organization

Over the past, women have faced problems regarding healthcare services and access to quality services. Maternal health has received less attention in most healthcare facilities and home-based care (Comfort et al., 2022). Furthermore, women have had little enjoyment of society’s reproductive health decisions and rights. Health is considered the universal human right provision in the bill of rights (Comfort et al., 2022). Thus, concerns have been raised defending women’s access to quality health with effective services and equipment. The organization aims to promote women’s dignity, well-being, and equality of inclusivity without gender bias.

ICRH is on a mission to address issues that promote the protection and advancement of women’s self-determination, reproductive health, and dignity regarding basic human rights. This mission guides ICRH in defending the sexual and reproductive rights and health of girls and women globally with the aid of the power of law (ICRH, 2021). The organization’s mission has remained on the course of protecting the health and rights of women and girls. This approach has helped many nations to achieve equal and effective women’s health. The organization envisions an equal world where everyone participates with dignity as equal people in society, irrespective of personal differences such as gender. Thus, women enjoy equal access to quality health and make productive decisions today (Kyilleh, Tabong, & Konlaan, 2018). ICRH has worked to advance abortion rights by lessening restrictive policies and laws in Africa, Europe, Asia, the United States, and Latin America (ICRH, 2021). The organization’s abortion laws map the world; thus, support measures set that has been set toward accessing legal and safe abortion. More so, ICRH has countered efforts that undermine access to abortion care.

Adolescent reproductive and sexual health and rights is another mission that ICRH works globally to ensure that adolescents exercise their full reproductive and sexual rights and healthcare (SRHR). These rights comprise making informed decisions about their health in the reproductive and sexual healthcare services (Kyilleh, Tabong, & Konlaan, 2018). Women are further provided with assisted reproduction services without discrimination and non-violation of their human rights (ICRH, 2021). ICRH has met the goal of modern reproduction control among women and adolescents through the provision of affordable contraception means (ICRH, 2021). Modern contraception means have enabled women to manage their futures and lives.

Another mission goal of the organization has been humanitarian settings in maternal health during disasters and pandemics such as Covid-19. The transition of justice settings for the organization has guaranteed women’s vulnerability to be held accountable to governments’ implication of human rights obligations (ICRH, 2021). This obligation has helped to curb sexual violence, forced marriage, and human trafficking, which mainly contribute to an increased violation of human rights, unsafe abortion, unwanted pregnancies, and maternal mortality. The organization’s mission for maternal health aims to reduce disparities and improve the mother and child’s health. ICRH mandates governments to manage their human rights obligation and address failures and discrimination against women’s physical integrity and autonomy. Generally, women have the freedom to exercise their reproductive choices without fear of suppression.

Policy and Law Supported by ICRH

International Center for Reproductive Health policy promotes and advances sexual and reproductive health and the rights of women and young girls through litigation, advocacy, and fact-finding. The organization champions safe and legal abortion for all women through litigation measures and the rule of law (ICRH, 2021). ICRH has also promoted advanced adolescents’’ use of modern contraceptives and assisted reproduction in their decision to control their reproductive health (Kyilleh, Tabong, & Konlaan, 2018). The organization encourages the humanitarian aspect of maternal health to create respect for every human right. The organization supports this law because it is an internal universal right of every human being. The bill of rights is the core-basic guiding standard for spearheading the mission of promoting equality and quality healthcare for women.

Opinion

The organization has been successful in achieving its mission in the promotion of quality healthcare and equality. It has achieved inclusivity for all people with different diversity, such as marginalized groups. Facilities have been created in healthcare centers that provide sufficient help to patients. Some laws prohibit women and girls from terminating the lives of innocent unborn babies. Individuals who carry out abortions are supposed to follow legal and safe approaches. ICRH has achieved its mission of protecting and eliminating barriers that hinder women through advocacy, litigation, and fact-finding.

References

Comfort, A. B., Rao, L., Goodman, S., Raine-Bennett, T., Barney, A., Mengesha, B., & Harper, C. C. (2022). Assessing differences in contraceptive provision through telemedicine among reproductive health providers during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. Reproductive Health, 19(1), 1-13.

International Centre for Reproductive Health (ICRH). (2021). Our history and issues. Center for Reproductive Rights.

Kyilleh, J. M., Tabong, P. T. N., & Konlaan, B. B. (2018). Adolescents’ reproductive health knowledge, choices and factors affecting reproductive health choices: a qualitative study in the West Gonja District in Northern region, Ghana. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 18(1), 1-12.

Prather, C., Fuller, T. R., Jeffries IV, W. L., Marshall, K. J., Howell, A. V., Belyue-Umole, A., & King, W. (2018). Racism, African American women, and their sexual and reproductive health: a review of historical and contemporary evidence and implications for health equity.Health Equity, 2(1), 249-259. Web.

The selected article is “Future Harms of Reproductive Technologies Are Worth Opposing Now,” written by Sujatha Jesudason, who is a scholar, organizer, and activist with a specialization in social justice movements regarding violence against women. It is important to know the author of the writing to understand the main message and the underlying idea of the essay. The given rhetorical analysis will primarily focus on the author’s claim, supporting evidence, and the reason for writing the essay.

The essay by Sujatha Jesudason was written in 2007, which is almost 14 years ago. The date of publication is critical to consider since the majority of the information provided in the paper, especially examples, is outdated because the current technological advancements in biotechnology and reproductive science progressed even more. In other words, the author’s claims may be more relevant today than it was in the past since many such technologies became more advanced.

Moreover, the central claim of the author is that advancements in reproductive technologies, such as MicroSort, are potential causes of violence against women. Such technologies allow people to sort through sperm and egg cells before the conception process takes place, which means that the randomness of an offspring is no longer random but rather controllable and measurable (Jesudason 2). These technologies have potential benefits in terms of preventing many genetic disorders through early prevention and detection, but they can also be used to enhance offspring, which raises major concerns regarding equality and gender oppression. The technology enables market-driven eugenics and poses a threat to equality because, for example, in India, male offspring are more preferred than female ones (Jesudason 1). In other words, certain traits of human beings will become considered undesirable, whereas certain qualities will become a golden standard. In addition, women will most likely become raw materials for these procedures as egg sources, which will undermine their rights and dignity. Therefore, the author’s claim revolves around imposing boundaries and control over reproductive technologies to avoid their potential harm in propagating violence against women and inequality among various groups.

Subsequently, it is important to note that the type of claim made by the author is both factual and policy-driven. Based on ethical considerations, the author raises awareness and concerns about the potential harms of reproductive technologies, where she states that “without regulation or oversight, these technologies, will violate our fundamental human rights and the very foundation of human equality that makes possible the functioning of any democracy” (Jesudason 3). The claims are supported by factual evidence from a wide range of sources, such as books and periodicals. The warrant that connects the claim and the support is manifested in the overall logicality of the argumentation through real-world examples based on facts.

In conclusion, the essay can be considered an effective argument since it has a strong stance on the issue with a clear claim of strict regulation of reproductive technologies, which is backed and supported with factual evidence from a wide range of sources. In addition, at the beginning of the essay, the author also utilizes anecdotal evidence from her own life experience, which makes the overall writing both personal and evidential. She reveals that human beings can be inherently ignorant and unethical, and thus, technology will be able to proliferate these undesirable attitudes, which will result in new forms of inequalities and violence against women.

Work Cited

Jesudason, Sujatha. ” Future Harms of Reproductive Technologies Are Worth Opposing Now.” Gale, Web.

Introduction

I believe that all women are the same, regardless of race or ethnicity. There should not be any stereotypes of any kind directed at any woman based on their gender, sexual orientation, color, shape, or size. However, in many countries within the Atlantic world, specifically, European, South American, and North American women of color lack identity (Hernandez 2017). Black ladies in particular still face discrimination and neglect in terms of maternal, gynecological, and obstetric care, medical sexual violence, and perception of reproduction grounded on race.

Neglect and Discrimination

Historically, the sexual and reproductive health of African women has been compromised because of racism that started with slavery activities and continued through the post-Civil Rights period to today. Females have always faced discriminatory actions, which included healthcare practices. Scientific racism, as a philosophy that was anchored on social Darwinism theory, placed the white race as superior to those of color. This created the wrong notion towards black people, and as a result, women considered to be dark colored-have been looked down upon (Kendi 2017). The negativity brought about by this narrative of racial inferiority worsened everything about women of color, including their health. In turn, they got and continue to get poor-quality care. Being seen as second-hand humans, today, black women still experience high maternal mortality rates, infant deaths, sexually transmitted diseases, and poor reproductive and obstetric care (Prather et al. 2018). On many occasions, when ladies or girls of color visit health facilities, they are usually neglected or receive poor services because medics have racial prejudice against them.

Medical Sexual Violence against Black Women

Colonization and scientific racism gave birth to eugenic movements in Europe and the Americas. The effects of these ideologies were the forceful coercion of black women to undergo sterilization without their knowledge or consent. Those who refused were threatened with denial of medical care or termination of welfare benefits (Taylor 2020). These inhuman acts left many females in the Atlantic world infertile for the rest of their lives.

Perceptions of Reproduction Based Upon Race

Additionally, many black women and poor black women in these counties have gone through unwarranted hysterectomies for medical students in several hospitals. All these were perpetuated as a way to eliminate women of color from the reproduction cycle because they were deemed abnormal and unwanted species (Prather et al. 2018). Taken together, these negative experiences have anchored poor sexual and reproductive health results for black women in the Atlantic world from one generation to the next.

This must change, and I have to say this to black women, baseless historical racial stereotypes continue to shape how you are viewed, and this has adversely impacted your sexual and reproductive health. Although there are not many women of color who can change this perception, you all need to stand up for your rights without fear (Adichie 2017). Those in strong positions to get elected as representatives must take the fight to the various parliaments and push for the enactment of legislation to correct this inhuman treatment. Lastly, black women need to fight for what is rightfully theirs.

Outreach Assignment

This section addresses the issues raised in the personal manifesto in part one of this essay. It involved five women, ages 20, 28, 33, 37, and 42, respectively. The five were approached in a face-to-face conversation and were taken through the purpose of having them on board for this assignment. After they were convinced about the whole process and gave their consent, they were given a copy of their personal manifesto to read. Further, they were given three open-ended questions that touched on topics addressed in the personal manifesto, to which they responded based on their reading.

Questions

1. Do you agree that black women are neglected and discriminated against (Hernandez 2017)? If yes, would you elaborate?
2. Are there medical sexual violence against black women as claimed in this personal manifesto (Ibram, 2017; Prather 2018; Taylor 2020)?
3. Do people have perceptions of reproduction based on race (Adichie, 2017; Taylor 2020)?

Reflection on the Outreach

According to their understanding, all five respondents agreed that they were neglected and discriminated against. It was coming out clearly that black, minority, and marginalized women are looked down upon even by males within their communities who take them as inferior. This has had a devastating effect on their ability to fully enjoy their equality and fundamental human rights in both the public and private spheres over the years (Hernandez 2017). One of the respondents (33 years old) said this: “I think white women are taken as superior, intelligent, clean, beautiful, and more deserving than blacks, this happens even among black men who treat white ladies with a lot more respect than women of color.”

It was equally evident that all the ladies resonated well with the claim in the manifesto that racial prejudices against blacks started in the slavery era and still exist. Today, it defines how women of color are offered services, including healthcare, both in public and private facilities (Prather et al. 2018). A participant, aged 42, who happened to be a victim at some point, said, “I was mistreated on several counts in a public hospital when I went for my normal pregnancy check-ups. The majority of doctors in that facility were white. Each time I went, I was forced to wait for hours, and sometimes I would be told to come back the following day because the medics were busy. What I did not like was the fact that fellow white women would come later and be ushered in as I was made to wait.”

Further, all the five respondents upon reading the personal manifest were convinced that people have perceptions of reproduction based on race. It was clear that some people feel black people are ugly, not intelligent, not educated, not professionals, and lacking identity (Hernandez 2017). Therefore, they should not be respected nor honored, and this community should be left extinct. In addition, it was evident that it was very rare to find a white man engaging and even marrying a black woman in the Americas or in Europe.

Conclusion

This was seen as a way of their objection or rejection of cross-breeding with people of color. The Participant aged 37 years said, “I have a feeling that men both whites and those of color disregard black women. Black men would prefer sexual intercourse with white ladies to get a mixed of the breed, while white men just dislike even the whole idea of having a child with black women.” Importantly, it must go on record that 4 of the respondents were black women, while the remaining one was a Latino. Thus, their backgrounds might have influenced their strong positive responses after reading the manifesto.

References List

Adichie, Chimamonda, Ngozi. 2017. “Dear Ijeawele, or a feminist manifesto in fifteen suggestions.” Web.

Hernandez, Maria. 2017. “The Latina Manifesto.” Latina Vida. Web.

Kendi, X., Ibram. 2017 “A history of race and racism in America in 24 chapters.” New York Times. Web.

Prather, Cynthia, Fuller, Taleria R., Jeffries, William L., Marshall, Khiya J., Howell, A., Vyann, Belyue-Umole, Angela, and King, Winifred. 2018. “Racism, African American Women, and Their Sexual and Reproductive Health: A Review of Historical and Contemporary Evidence and Implications for Health Equity.” Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., publishers. Web.

Taylor, K., Jamila. 2020. “Structural Racism and Maternal Health among Black Women.” Sage Journals, 48 (3). Web.

Introduction

Anthropology of gender is a discourse that places focus on the social and the cultural construction of gender, and the ideologies surrounding the construction of gender. The field also features the flexibility of gender and the execution of the aspects of gender. Reproductive choices fall under the rights of individuals or groups, with regard to the subject of reproductive rights.

The entitlement to these rights fall under the lawful freedoms, related to the reproduction and the reproductive health of individuals. Reproductive choice, rests upon the regard, accorded to the basic rights of all individuals and couples, in the area of deciding liberally and responsibly, the timing, the number, and the spacing for the desired children.

Any individual is also entitled to the access to information, and the means necessary for their attainment of the highest possible standards of reproductive and sexual wellbeing. These choices, also guarantee that, any individual, will have full liberty to make any decisions about their reproductive nature, without the influence of discrimination, violence or coercion.

Some of the choices accorded, under the bracket of reproductive rights, include the choice to do a safe and legal abortion; the right to use birth control means; the right to receive superior reproductive health services; and the entitlement to access education; so as to reach informed reproductive choices.

Reproductive choices, also give individuals, the entitlement to information on STIs, contraceptives, and freedom from coerced sterilization. Reproductive choices, which fall under reproductive rights, began to be recognized as a subject under the human rights bracket, at the 1968 UN global conference on human rights (Edmeades et al., 2010; Gutmann, 1996).

Discussion

The area of reproductive choices is a central area in the study of gender anthropology, mainly because men are key contributors to the reproductive choices available to them, and their women. They also form a substantial aspect of the reproductive choice statistics.

Demonstratively, men’s reproductive health, has become a central area for development and population programs. Further, understanding the reproductive health of men, requires a clear evaluation of the biological and the cultural aspects surrounding the case.

For instance, there is an intersection between masculinity and health; as well as the availability of reproductive choices to women, with reference to their male partners.

For instance, different studies have portrayed a larger proportion of women, as not able to dictate the usage of contraceptives during lovemaking. In such cases, many of the women will cooperate with the demands of the men, though it may be putting their reproductive health on the line (La Font, 2003; Nyblade, Jeffreym, & Erin, 2010).

According to Jenkins (2006), women’s entitlement to reproductive choices is not restricted to whether or not; a woman is to continue a certain pregnancy. The available choices for the individuals in question include the capacity to choose a preferred health care administrator during pregnancy, birth, and after birth.

Some of the reproductive choices under dispute include abortion and the choice on where to give birth from. This is, especially the case, where Medicaid benefactors and other low-income earning women are deprived of the right to decide whether to use the services of a midwife; to deliver at their homes; or to use independent birth centers.

According to statistics, restrictions on women’s reproductive choices are a contagious issue – as governments try to dictate whether women may willfully terminate pregnancies, through withholding payments.

Also, governments use administrative powers to deprive low-earning women their rights, in the area of giving birth from the places, and in the way that they prefer, for example from using the services of midwives (Sinnott, 1975).

From a study carried out in India, Malhotra et al. (2009), the researchers start by noting that the ability of a woman to control their childbearing is a key component in reproductive wellbeing and rights.

In order to capture an understanding of the factors influencing women’s options regarding childbearing, the researchers explored the societal, domestic, policy-related and the service-related contexts – all surrounding the reproduction of women.

The study surveys were carried out between 2000 and 2002, to explore the following: the way in which the decision making of the women manifested determinants of contraceptive use, the incidence of unwanted pregnancies, and the resolutions offered to unwanted pregnancies.

The study also evaluated the circumstances that influence the decision making of these women – showing their capability in terms of deciding and acting upon reproductive health.

From the study, the findings showed that the greater proportion of women had limited reproductive rights and choices, despite the actuality that abortion had been legalized in India since 1972. The study also, pointed out that there was an evident link between abortion and contraceptive access.

The information, further, showed that the household unit played a great role in determining the level of reproductive choices available to the women, as well as the decision-making processes. The stud, further, indicated that women’s contraceptive and abortion needs change over time, though there is an evident link between past experiences and the use of these measures.

The results also pointed out, that there was a complex interplay between women’s reproductive experiences, these including still births and mistimed pregnancies; thus their respective changes in controlling their reproduction over time.

According to a 2008 study of Australian women, done by the Marie Stopes international, Australian women were evidently, very far from realizing and controlling their reproductive health in a sound manner. The study was carried out at the Melbourne area from a study sample of 2041 women.

The results were astonishing, a case that made the organization call upon the government; urging all authorities to focus on educating Australian women on contraception education. The findings from the study showed that the larger majority of these women were using contraceptives at the time of contracting unwanted pregnancies.

From the 2041 subjects, 1033 subjects were confirmed as having gone through an unplanned pregnancy. Surprising enough, was the fact that this group had been using a range of contraceptives before and after contracting the unwanted pregnancy. This proportion represented 60% of the total study sample.

From the findings of the inquiry, it was evident that there was a need to increase the range of the contraceptive options available to Australian women. Also, investing in research to facilitate the efficacy of contraceptive use would be of chief importance – as the biggest problem explicated from the findings is – that of knowledge and education on proper use of contraceptives.

Other significant findings included that among the women who had experienced a pregnancy while using contraceptives, comprised of 43% using pills and 22% on condoms. There was also, an indication that, nearly a half of all women did not take into account, protecting themselves from sexually transmitted diseases, during the choice of a contraceptive.

From all the subjects, one out of every ten women, were either – unable or not comfortable in asking their partners to use a condom during lovemaking. From the subjects, 36% of the women, who were not using any contraceptives at the time of the unexpected pregnancy, had not planned to have sex. The other 17% of the non-contraceptive users believed that they were infertile at the time they had sex.

The study also uncovered that 21% of the women who had experienced unwanted pregnancies, had been using more than one contraceptive method, during the time of contracting the pregnancy. In general, the information indicated that unplanned pregnancies were a key reproductive issue for Australian women – a case that truly portrays the reality of reproductive choices (Edmeades, Susan, & Anju, 2010).

From the statistics given by the Jenkins (2006), women’s reproductive choices are limited in the areas of getting an abortion done, through the delay of payments. This case clearly shows that the realization of a fully operational platform, from which reproductive choices can be exercised, has not been created.

This is especially the case, for the women who rely on accessing the health services of the government, in the areas of reproductive health. Also, from the case of Medicaid users in paying for delivery costs, it is evident that the funding system is used as a mechanism to deprive these groups of their reproductive choices.

This case simply tells of the fact that the realization of full reproductive choices, especially among low-earners has not yet been realized. From the information, it can be argued that reproductive choices are fully available, only to individuals who are able to fund their own reproductive healthcare needs.

This can be supported from the January 1997 figures, where 34 states were noted as enforcing restrictions on Medicaid financing for abortion services. Taking in the significance of this information, it is evident that state authorities are not in full support of availing full reproductive choices to the general public.

However, the question that may be put across, regarding the significance of this data, is whether the restrictions on reproductive health are only centered on the issue of funding, or if there are other areas where reproductive choices are restricted (Jenkins, 2006; Haas-Wilson, 1997).

From the statistics offered by Malhotra et al. (2009), many women in India had limited access to reproductive choices, despite the fact that abortion had been legalized many decades back, in 1972. The in-access to reproductive options, these including abortion, the choice not have children, birth control and the reproductive control measures to use, may be attributed to the gender inequalities of women in India.

Further, the cultural views of the Indians may be viewed as a contributor to the limited access and information on reproductive choices. The case of an existing link between – not accessing contraceptives and abortion facilities among Indian women may be cited to the control of men on Indian women – in the area of reproductive health and the choices to be made.

The religious and cultural observances of the Indians may also be viewed as a cause for the reproductive choice imbalance. The role of the household in determining the reproductive choices of Indian women may be traced to the common residence of the extended families, practiced in India.

This is the case, as the women within the family are subject to the directions of the family setup. As a result, most Indian women will arrive at reproductive decisions under the influence of the family setup. The changes in the needs and the patterns of the reproductive needs of Indian women may be attributed to the changing cultural affiliations as well as the shift towards modern lifestyles.

However, the question that may be put forward in this case, is whether these changing needs will serve to improve the reproductive choices of Indian women or not. The link between the women’s past and their choice of reproductive choices may be explained on the basis of the fears associated to the past experiences, as well as the knowledge gained from them.

However, the areas of choosing when to have children and the birth control models to use is a contagious subject for Indian women, considering the religious and cultural integration of the Indian society (Susan, 2010; Jenkins, 2006).

From the 2008 study on Australian women, it is evident that, the women were lacking in reproductive choice knowledge and education. Among the subjects, the only known reproductive control modes included pills and condoms, a case that shows an acute reproductive choice imbalance.

Further, the statistics indicate that there is an imminent need for societal education and sensitization on the subject of reproductive choices. The areas that may be addressed in this reproductive awareness study may include sensitization on the available range of reproductive choices, as well as the proper usage of these choices.

This is evident from the information, which indicates that – even the subjects using such control measures were using them ineffectively or incorrectly. However, the study did not account for the groups surveyed, as considering the statistics of the study, the data may indicate that the subjects comprised of non-learned women (Malhotra et al., 2009).

Conclusion

Reproductive choices fall under the rights of individuals, in the aspect being able to choose a reproductive control model of their choice, deciding when to give birth, the number of children to get and the spacing to be used. From different studies, it is possible to tell that a disparity between the choices of the individual in reproductive choice may be greatly influenced by their cultural association.

Family setups and affiliations, also, constitute a substantial determinant in dictating the reproductive measures or the choices made. This case is evident from the study on the Indian women group. The lack of knowledge and education, also play a great role in determining the reproductive choices available to an individual, as well as different groups. This was the case from the study on Australian women.

From the study, it is clear that awareness and education in reproductive choices has a long way to go, before major groups within the society are addressed. Further, coercion into reproductive choices is still evident, as the case was with the Medicaid users.

Some of the areas that need to be understood and addressed extensively, towards the realization of an effective reproductive choice knowledge include the following: educating women on their autonomy regarding their reproductive choices, and informing them of their entitlement to such choices as well.

References

Edmeades, J., Susan, L., & Anju, M. (2010). Women and Reproductive Control: The Nexus between Abortion and Contraceptive Use in Madhya Pradesh, India. Studies in Family Planning, 41 (2), 75-88.

Edmeades, J et al. (2010). Methodological Innovation in Studying Abortion in Developing Countries: A ‘Narrative’ Quantitative Survey in India. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 4 (3), 176-198.

Gutmann, M. (1996). The Meanings of Macho: Being a Man in Mexico City. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Haas-Wilson, D. (1997). Women’s reproductive choices: the impact of Medicaid funding restrictions. Fam Plann Perspect, 29 (5), 228-33.

Jenkins, S. (2006). Expanding Reproductive Choice. Retrieved from https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/women/news/2006/10/31/2254/expanding-reproductive-choice-ensuring-a-range-of-birthing-options-for-women/

La Font, S. (2003). Constructing Sexualities: Readings in Sexuality, Gender and Culture. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Malhotra, A et al. (2009). Women’s Reproductive Choices and Behaviors: A Study in Madhya Pradesh, India. Retrieved from https://www.icrw.org/research-programs/womens-reproductive-choices-and-behaviors-a-study-in-madhya-pradesh-india/

Nyblade, L., Jeffreym, E., & and Erin, P. (2010). Measuring Self-Reported Abortion- Related Morbidity: A Comparison of Measures in Madhya Pradesh, India. International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 36 (3), 140-148.

Sinnott, M. (1975). Toms and Dees: transgender identity and female same-sex relationships in Thailand. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press.

Susan, M. (2010). Women’s Empowerment and Reproductive Experiences over the Lifecourse. Social Science & Medicine, 71 (3), 634-642.

Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive health (ASRH) is a very important subject that needs to be address differently from the normal Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH). The main reason being that adolescent are exposed to greater risk that come with sex and the possible negatives consequences afterwards.

Even though most adolescents are now getting a lot of information concerning sex, how to protect themselves from the sexually transmitted diseases or unplanned for pregnancies, they do not adhere to this knowledge (Schutt-Aine & Maddaleno 35).

A substantial number of adolescents till engage in unprotected sex, sex outside marriage and sex with stranger hence exposing them more to the risks. Besides, the adolescents have been observed to pay less attention to the reproductive health education, modes of transmission of HIV/AIDS and protection.

Besides, many youths hold irrational myths towards pregnancies and sexually transmitted disease (Schutt-Aine & Maddaleno 35). Consequently, the numbers of unsafe abortions among the youths has increased and other consequences like complications during pregnancy or childbirth. All these come because of inadequate education about reproductive health. These factors are causing more deaths among the youths.

The vulnerability that exist in young people because they are not prepared for the pregnancy, they do not have access to contraceptives, and risk of contracting STI because of unprotected sex always has a negative impact on their welfare. The position is worsened because ASRH is not one of government priorities in healthcare policy.

Because of inattention, adolescent have insufficient sexual education, therefore they do not know where to seek assistance or shy away because they are underage (Schutt-Aine & Maddaleno 37). They end up suffering consequences of STIs, dropping out of school, engaging in speedy marriages, some in unsafe abortions and more significantly the stress or psychological suffering.

ASRH Should be Given High Priority

With improved general healthcare systems in the developed nations, some pertinent factors of health have come to be very important in development of sexual and reproductive health. There is early sexual maturity among young people, there is increased emphasis on attaining good education before marriage and consequently late marriages have increased (Lauglo 6). This therefore has made adolescence a very unique stage in life.

Most health program have previously considered the adolescents to be the most healthy group hence given more attention to children and older people when it comes to healthcare plans. It’s this kind of overlooking the health needs of adolescents that bring more problems in the group. It is important to note that adolescent have become central to social problems like unplanned pregnancies, abortions, STI’s and more importantly the HIV/AIDS pandemic (Lauglo 8). It’s on these grounds that ASRH should be given high priority and careful attention.

Most of the behaviour that adolescents develop during that period could have life-long implications. For instance, early parenthood, aggression and risk conduct, health seeking behaviour and STDs have to be dealt with at this point in life under ASRH programs (Lauglo 8).

Human Rights Approach to ASRH

The human rights and gender model of dealing with the sexual and reproductive health is effective in making sure that the right of adolescents are protected in the government policies and practice (ILM advocates 9).

Many nations are signatories to the convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women this makes them to consider the human rights for young women and adolescents in high regard. Besides, many of tem are also in support of the convention of the rights of children and this makes then address right of adolescents more explicitly (Lauglo 22).

There are a number of instruments that are used to protect young people and uphold their rights; they include “American convention on Human rights” and the “declaration of right and duties of man”. Though these documents, the implementers of the ASRH have drawn important insights incorporating them into their programs (Lauglo 22). Some of the important aspects covered include social factors, cultural right, alleviation of violence against women and economic rights.

Compliance has been made mandatory because these are basic inalienable human rights (ILM advocates 9). There are consequently threshold standards of implementation, means of accountability, and reporting noncompliance; important issues against ASRH Include;

1. Discrimination against adolescents access to information and services due to age
2. Discrimination of marginalized groups like school drop-outs, poor children (Lauglo 23), migrants and street children in accessing services and information because they have poor connection with the society
3. Stigmatization and discrimination of pregnant adolescents, Young people living with AIDS and substance abusers access to services (Lauglo 23),
4. Non-consensual intercourse, Unsafe abortions that can cause Maternal mortality

The discourse around sexual and reproductive health and consequent right draw insight from women’s health and human right embedded in global declaration, conventions and covenant.

Examples Where a Human Rights Approach to ASRH Has Helped In Reaching Adolescents

In the US, the concerns of ASRH are being address systematically, consistently and more habitually than ever before. Because of the increased advocacy to adhere to human rights doctrine, the ASRH is now a major element on the policies of health especially the SRH (Breinhauer & Maddaleno 24).

The rights of young people are increasingly being emphasizes and safeguarded. This new changes are able to reach the adolescents in that the payment systems in health cover SRH services for all family members. This means that anyone can access emergency contraceptives, counselling and testing services, referral delivery and even post abortion care (Breinhauer & Maddaleno 24).

In the Caribbean region, AIDS is among the top five causes of death of young people and many of these infected are in the 15-24 age group. Besides, statistics show that one individual out of 20 is infected with STI. Unplanned pregnancies remain a major problem among the youths as about 25% of young women are mother by the time they get 20 year (Salas 13).

Human right approach has been able to identify vulnerable people and increasing access to information because there are increased sexual and reproductive health programs. These centres also promote cultural norms and social support.

In Latin American human rights approach has defined poor and vulnerable people and to reach many youths, the ASRH have specifically targeted the street children, school drop-outs, unemployed youths and those from the minority groups and drug users (Salas 13).

Works Cited

Breinhauer, Richard and Maddaleno Matilde. Youth: choices and changes; promoting healthy behaviours in adolescents. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 2005. Print.

ILM advocates. Analysis of Existing Laws and Policies That Impact on Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health (ASRH). UNFPA/AYA. 2003

Lauglo, Marilyn. Adolescent and Youth Sexual Reproductive Health- Opportunities, Approaches and Choices, Washington DC: Pan American Health Organization, 2008. Print.

Salas, Dominics. Preventing HIV/STIs among adolescents of Latin America and the Caribbean: current situation and recommendations for moving forward. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 2007. Print.

Schutt-Aine Jessie, and Maddaleno, Matilde. Sexual health and development of adolescent and youth in the Americas: program and policy implications. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 2003. Print.