Category: Reproductive Health

Introduction

I believe that all women are the same, regardless of race or ethnicity. There should not be any stereotypes of any kind directed at any woman based on their gender, sexual orientation, color, shape, or size. However, in many countries within the Atlantic world, specifically, European, South American, and North American women of color lack identity (Hernandez 2017). Black ladies in particular still face discrimination and neglect in terms of maternal, gynecological, and obstetric care, medical sexual violence, and perception of reproduction grounded on race.

Neglect and Discrimination

Historically, the sexual and reproductive health of African women has been compromised because of racism that started with slavery activities and continued through the post-Civil Rights period to today. Females have always faced discriminatory actions, which included healthcare practices. Scientific racism, as a philosophy that was anchored on social Darwinism theory, placed the white race as superior to those of color. This created the wrong notion towards black people, and as a result, women considered to be dark colored-have been looked down upon (Kendi 2017). The negativity brought about by this narrative of racial inferiority worsened everything about women of color, including their health. In turn, they got and continue to get poor-quality care. Being seen as second-hand humans, today, black women still experience high maternal mortality rates, infant deaths, sexually transmitted diseases, and poor reproductive and obstetric care (Prather et al. 2018). On many occasions, when ladies or girls of color visit health facilities, they are usually neglected or receive poor services because medics have racial prejudice against them.

Medical Sexual Violence against Black Women

Colonization and scientific racism gave birth to eugenic movements in Europe and the Americas. The effects of these ideologies were the forceful coercion of black women to undergo sterilization without their knowledge or consent. Those who refused were threatened with denial of medical care or termination of welfare benefits (Taylor 2020). These inhuman acts left many females in the Atlantic world infertile for the rest of their lives.

Perceptions of Reproduction Based Upon Race

Additionally, many black women and poor black women in these counties have gone through unwarranted hysterectomies for medical students in several hospitals. All these were perpetuated as a way to eliminate women of color from the reproduction cycle because they were deemed abnormal and unwanted species (Prather et al. 2018). Taken together, these negative experiences have anchored poor sexual and reproductive health results for black women in the Atlantic world from one generation to the next.

This must change, and I have to say this to black women, baseless historical racial stereotypes continue to shape how you are viewed, and this has adversely impacted your sexual and reproductive health. Although there are not many women of color who can change this perception, you all need to stand up for your rights without fear (Adichie 2017). Those in strong positions to get elected as representatives must take the fight to the various parliaments and push for the enactment of legislation to correct this inhuman treatment. Lastly, black women need to fight for what is rightfully theirs.

Outreach Assignment

This section addresses the issues raised in the personal manifesto in part one of this essay. It involved five women, ages 20, 28, 33, 37, and 42, respectively. The five were approached in a face-to-face conversation and were taken through the purpose of having them on board for this assignment. After they were convinced about the whole process and gave their consent, they were given a copy of their personal manifesto to read. Further, they were given three open-ended questions that touched on topics addressed in the personal manifesto, to which they responded based on their reading.

Questions

1. Do you agree that black women are neglected and discriminated against (Hernandez 2017)? If yes, would you elaborate?
2. Are there medical sexual violence against black women as claimed in this personal manifesto (Ibram, 2017; Prather 2018; Taylor 2020)?
3. Do people have perceptions of reproduction based on race (Adichie, 2017; Taylor 2020)?

Reflection on the Outreach

According to their understanding, all five respondents agreed that they were neglected and discriminated against. It was coming out clearly that black, minority, and marginalized women are looked down upon even by males within their communities who take them as inferior. This has had a devastating effect on their ability to fully enjoy their equality and fundamental human rights in both the public and private spheres over the years (Hernandez 2017). One of the respondents (33 years old) said this: I think white women are taken as superior, intelligent, clean, beautiful, and more deserving than blacks, this happens even among black men who treat white ladies with a lot more respect than women of color.

It was equally evident that all the ladies resonated well with the claim in the manifesto that racial prejudices against blacks started in the slavery era and still exist. Today, it defines how women of color are offered services, including healthcare, both in public and private facilities (Prather et al. 2018). A participant, aged 42, who happened to be a victim at some point, said, I was mistreated on several counts in a public hospital when I went for my normal pregnancy check-ups. The majority of doctors in that facility were white. Each time I went, I was forced to wait for hours, and sometimes I would be told to come back the following day because the medics were busy. What I did not like was the fact that fellow white women would come later and be ushered in as I was made to wait.

Further, all the five respondents upon reading the personal manifest were convinced that people have perceptions of reproduction based on race. It was clear that some people feel black people are ugly, not intelligent, not educated, not professionals, and lacking identity (Hernandez 2017). Therefore, they should not be respected nor honored, and this community should be left extinct. In addition, it was evident that it was very rare to find a white man engaging and even marrying a black woman in the Americas or in Europe.

Conclusion

This was seen as a way of their objection or rejection of cross-breeding with people of color. The Participant aged 37 years said, I have a feeling that men both whites and those of color disregard black women. Black men would prefer sexual intercourse with white ladies to get a mixed of the breed, while white men just dislike even the whole idea of having a child with black women. Importantly, it must go on record that 4 of the respondents were black women, while the remaining one was a Latino. Thus, their backgrounds might have influenced their strong positive responses after reading the manifesto.

References List

Adichie, Chimamonda, Ngozi. 2017. Dear Ijeawele, or a feminist manifesto in fifteen suggestions. Web.

Hernandez, Maria. 2017. The Latina Manifesto. Latina Vida. Web.

Kendi, X., Ibram. 2017 A history of race and racism in America in 24 chapters. New York Times. Web.

Prather, Cynthia, Fuller, Taleria R., Jeffries, William L., Marshall, Khiya J., Howell, A., Vyann, Belyue-Umole, Angela, and King, Winifred. 2018. Racism, African American Women, and Their Sexual and Reproductive Health: A Review of Historical and Contemporary Evidence and Implications for Health Equity. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., publishers. Web.

Taylor, K., Jamila. 2020. Structural Racism and Maternal Health among Black Women. Sage Journals, 48 (3). Web.

Male and Female Reproductive Systems: Similarities

1. Male and female reproductive systems have several similarities including the fact that most of the reproductive organs are developed from similar embryonic tissue that make these organs homologous (penis and clitoris).
2. Male gonads are testes, and female gonads are ovaries. Tunica albuginea is a connective tissue capsule (Krstic 2012).
3. Maturation of reproductive organs becomes functional during puberty.
4. In male and female reproductive systems, gametes are produced from gonads by means of meiosis (four sex cells) and mitosis (two identical daughter cells).
5. Both systems respond to FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone). In the male reproductive system, FSH produces sperm, and LH produces testosterone that helps to promote spermatogenesis.

Anatomical Structures

External Genitalia:

• There are two testes are responsible for the production of sperm and testosterone.
• The epididymis is the structure that connects a testis with a vas deferens.
• The scrotum is a skin-covered fibro-muscular sac where male testes are located (McCance & Huether, 2015).
• The penis is the sexual organ that delivers sperm and eliminates urine. It consists of the urethra, two corpora cavernosa, and the corpus spongiosum (McCance & Huether, 2015). It fills with blood, and the erection and/or ejaculation may take place.

Internal Genitalia:

• Ducts  vas deferens (a tube where sperm is carried from the epididymis to the ejaculation duct), the ejaculation duct opens and expels sperm to the urethra), and the urethra (a muscular tube that passes through the prostate gland).
• Glands  the prostate (produces fluid to create semen), the seminal vesicles (produce a source of energy for ejaculation, fructose, and promote muscle contraction by means of secrete prostaglandins), and two Cowper glands (produce an alkaline fluid to lubricate urethra and neutralize urine acid).

Physiological Mechanisms

Spermatogenesis

This process starts at the puberty period and lasts during a mens life (Sengupta, 2011). Its essence lies in the production of sperm and takes place in two organs, the testicles, and epididymis. Spermatogonia cells undergo a mitotic division process and become primary spermatocytes. Primary permatocytes undergo meiosis and result in secondary spermatocytes. The second round of meiosis leads to the creation of spermatids.

Fertilization

This process of combination of sperm and egg cell results in the production of a fertilized zygote.

Production of semen

Semen is the result of the combination of fluids and sperm. It is a milky liquid that is ejected from the male penis during the process of ejaculation.

Physical Assessment

It is hard to give a definite and constant numbers that can be associated with the male reproductive system because the size and weight usually depend on the weight of a person. Some men are eager to change their physical characteristics to correspond with the norms. Still, even each country may have different standards to strive for (Veale et al., 2015).

Cellular Anatomy

Each compound of the male reproductive system has its function. A number of seminiferous tubules are in each testicle that promotes the development of the process of the production of male reproductive cells, spermatozoa, takes place. Ducts and glands produce the secretions that help to transport spermatozoa to the next level with the help of smooth muscle contractions. As soon as spermatozoa pass through spermatogenesis, it leaves the organism through penis in a form of sperm.

Physiology

Every organ in the male reproductive system performs its function that makes the work of the whole organism possible. There are four main functions the male reproductive system completes:

Hormone regulation: LH and FSH are the main hormones that control male reproduction.

Sperm production and transportation: sperm is the main reproductive cell that can be found in the system under consideration. Its production and transportation are the two important processes that touch upon different cells of the organism.

Erection: a number of psychological, vascular, and neural factors may cause sexual stimulation and lead to the changes of penis length.

Ejaculation: this is the process when sperm moves through the urethra and leaves the organism.

Male Sex Hormones

Sex hormones promote the majority of changes in a male body. They define such process as puberty and the production of sperm.

In testes, the adrenal glands are responsible for the production of testosterone and androgens. As a rule, the production process is constant.

Androgens perform a number of physiological actions that promote growth and development of organs and secondary sex characteristics. Fetal differentiation also depends on the quality of androgens produced.

Testosterone has an impact on the nervous and skeletal tissues (McCance & Huether, 2015). It also influences the growth of musculature and the increase of libido (a kind of sex drive for men).

Changes in the Male Reproductive System

Puberty is the stage of male development that begins at the age 9 and may last till the age 16.

1. Testosterone production is increased in the testes;
2. Enlargement of testes and the scrotum may be observed;
3. The length of penis is changed;
4. Public hair appears;
5. The scrotal skin may darken;
6. Spermatogenesis begins.

The changes caused with aging is also the concern that has to be discussed. Though the reproductive capacities of men last longer than women do, there is also a possibility of andropause (that is similar to female menopause). The main characteristics are:

1. Testosterone deficiency;
2. Hypogonadism;
3. Erectile dysfunctions;
4. Prostate gland disorder.

It may happen that some chronic disorders, harmful habits, or the frequent use of medication may influence the quality and duration of changes in the male reproductive system.

References

Krstic, R.V. (2012). Illustrated encyclopedia of human histology. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.

McCance, K.L. & Huether, S.E. (2015). Pathophysiology: The biologic basis for disease in adults and children. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.

Sengupta, P. (2011). A scientific review of age determination for a laboratory rat: How old is it in comparison with human age? Biomedicine International, 2, 81-89.

Veale, D., Miles, S. Read, J., Troglia, A., Carmona, L., Fiorito, C., Wells, H., Wylie, K., & Muir, G. (2015). Phenomenology of men with body dysmorphic disorder concerning penis size compared to men anxious about their penis size and to men without concerns: A cohort study. Body Image, 13, 53-61.

The reproductive system is formed by organs in an organism. These organs function together for the reason of reproduction. It is found in both sexual and asexual organisms. The reproductive system of human beings is similar to that of many animals. A male and female come together during sex and if the male sperm and the female egg meet then fertilization take place. After fertilization the fertilised egg is implanted into the females uterus for a gestation of nine months; a period called pregnancy. At the end of the gestation period birth takes place. This paper will explain the reproductive system in sexual organisms, the major endocrine glands and the most important hormones they produce.

Both males and females have different reproductive systems. On the one hand is the male reproductive system contains a number of organs that are located outside the body. The male reproductive system provides sperms or male gamete for fertilisation. The male gametes are produced in the testes that are found in sac called the scrotum that hangs outside the body. The reason for the reproductive system being outside the body is to provide the right temperate for the gamete formation. After the gametes are produced in the testes they move to the epididymis for maturation as well as storage. The male reproductive system contains glands that produce ejaculatory fluids; the semen. The organs involved are the prostrate gland, vas deferens and seminal vesicles. The Cowper gland, vas deferens, urethra and the penis are used to transfer the sperm to the female body during copulation (Pillitteri, 69).

On the other is the female reproductive system. It contains organs located within the body. The system has three major parts. There are the ovaries that produce the female gamete and also act as the storage. The vagina is an organ that receives the male gamete during copulation for fertilization. The other part is the uterus that acts as a house for the fertilized egg where it develops until birth (Pillitteri, 73).

The endocrine glands produce hormones that are useful in many processes in the human body for example: reproduction, metabolism, growth and so on. The pituitary gland produces some of the hormones used in reproduction. It produces hormones like the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) which stimulate the production of the oestrogen hormone that is involved in the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females. This hormone also prepares the body to be able to hold a pregnancy in case fertilization occurs. When a pregnancy occurs these hormones play a major role in it. In the males FSH is involved in spermatogenesis (Endocrine Glands, 1). The luteinizing hormone (LH) is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It stimulates ovulation in females so that fertilization can occur with the release of an egg from the ovaries to the fallopian tubes where fertilization takes place. It is also involved in secretion of progesterone a hormone that prepares the endomentruim in case of a pregnancy by thickening the walls of the uterus ready for implantation of the fertilized egg. LH aids in testosterone synthesis in the males. On the other hand the posterior pituitary gland produces the hormone oxytocin which facilities in the transportation of sperms through myometrical contractions during copulation as well as milk ejection during nursing (Pillitteri, 73,)

If a baby is born the pituitary gland secrete a hormone called prolactin that stimulates milk formation and releases. It also influences the maternal instincts of the females to enable them take care of their young one (Endocrine Glands, 1).

The other endocrine gland is the hypothalamus. It helps in the secretion of Gonodotropic Releasing Hormone (GnRH) which stimulates the release of LH and FSH by the anterior pituitary.

The ability to reproduce offspring is a characteristic that is common among all living organisms. Through reproduction there is continued supply of organisms which ensures continuity of living organisms. Therefore the importance of the reproductive system cannot be overemphasized it is the only way that protects organisms against extinction.

References

Endocrine Glands and Hormones. 1999. Oklahoma State University. Web.

Pillitteri, Adele.Maternal & child health nursing: care of the childbearing & childrearing family Ed.5. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.

Testes and ovaries  both testes and ovaries are called gonads, which are the primary reproductive organs. They produce gametes, where the testes in male and ovaries in female produce sperms and ova respectively.

Rete testis and rete ovarii  these reproductive organs are homologues where the rete ovarii is the primary sex cord in females at which the vessels and nerves enter the ovary. Rete testi connects the testis tubules with the efferent ducts (Kulibin and Malolina 1486). Both of these organs are called Wolffian ducts whose function in reproduction is to transport the sperms and ovaries.

Efferent ducts and epoophoron  these organs are classified as mesonerphric tubules, which can be described as genital ridges next to the mesonephros. In males, the efferent ducts are thin tubules connecting rete testis to epididymis. In female, the epoophoron opens into the Gartners duct and are nonfunctional.

Epididymis and Gartners duct  epididymis in males and Gartners duct in females are classified under the Wolffian duct. Gartners duct is a remnant of the development of mesonephric duct and is located along the anterolateral wall of the vagina. Epididymis is the convoluted duct behind the testes and connects and transports sperms to the vas deference.

Scrotum and labia majora scrotum in males and labia in females are categorized as genital swellings. Labia encloses and protects the external genital and reproductive organs in females. The scrotum holds the testicles and the nerves and blood vessels in them.

Glans penis and clitoral glans  the glans organs are the glans penis in males and clitoral glans in females. Both are erectile organs whose reproductive functions include sexual pleasure. In mal, the glans penis is where the semen come out.

Work Cited

Kulibin, ANdrey and Ekaterina Malolina. Formation of the rete testis during mouse embryonic development. Developmental Dynamics, vol. 249, no. 12, 2020, pp. 1486-1499.

In June 2022, the United States Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade in an anonymous decision written by Justice Samuel Alito. Before that, Roe v. Wade had been the cornerstone of federal protection of womens reproduction rights for four decades. By overturning Roe v. Wade, the Supreme Court, women in states across the US were left with little protection against reproductive health restrictions that some states had started to enact. Immediately after the Supreme Court decision was announced, some states moved to severely restrict womens access to abortion services. Like all other issues in the US recently, womens reproductive rights have been politicized with Republican states coming in favor of more restrictions while states run by governors from the Democratic party support a womans right to choose. In essence, womens reproductive rights in the US have become a political and civil rights issue.

In the immediate aftermath of the Overturning of Roe v. Wade, 26 of the 50 states in America announced their intention to ban abortion at various stages of gestation. Of the 26 states that announced a ban, at least 13 of them had trigger clauses that immediately came into force once Roe was nullified (Gostin). The potential impact of the ruling on women will be monumental. According to estimates, it will have a direct impact on 40 million women in the US who are in the reproductive age bracket. In some of the laws passed by the states, there are no exceptions for incest, rape, or non-fatal health risks to women. Other states that have not introduced a complete ban have imposed comprehensive and sweeping restrictions that restrict access to abortion. Additionally, the most severely impacted group is the low-income and rural women who have to travel great distances to access abortion services. To health workers, an abortion ban prevents them from open and frank advice counseling of patients. In some states, physicians face a multi-year prison sentence if they help with an abortion while other states have laws that punish anyone for abetting an abortion.

The reaction from politicians in the US has been mixed and mainly reflects the position of their party on the issue. Generally, the Republican party is pro-life while the Democrats support womens right to choose. The debate on abortion featured prominently during the just concluded mid-term elections. During that election, the Democrats were projected to lose both houses of Congress but they performed better than expected. Accordingly, the Democrats stand on the abortion staff was regarded as one of the key reasons why the democrats were able to maintain their control of the Senate and lose control of the House of Representatives by a very thin margin. The performance of the democrats in the 2022 mid-term elections is a definitive revocation of the Republican stance on the issue. However, none of the sides want to be seen as unprincipled by abandoning their stance on the issue. Additionally, a significant number of people are pro-life making them an ideal constituency to tap.

In Congress, there have been heated debates on whether or not to codify some of the Roe v. Wade to offer federal protection to women seeking abortion services. However, as expected, the stance of most republicans ensures that none of the proposed legal initiatives to protect womens right to choose passes both houses. In the past, some levels of cooperation and cordial interparty relations. However, the election of Donald Trump in 2016 altered this relationship between republicans and democrats. Trump de facto designated democrats as his public enemy number one. During his presidency, he directed his attacks and vitriols against the democratic party and its elected member and leadership destroying any goodwill that may have existed between the two parties. Under this brand of toxic politics, it has been nearly impossible to work together and find compromises on the issue of fundamental importance to the American people. Unfortunately, codifying Roe v. Wade has been made impossible to political polarization that has not been conducive to compromises.

Roe v. Wade was by nature a constitutionally protected right that gave women the choice of what to do when they got pregnant. For decades, it ensured that women had unrestricted access to reproductive health. In particular, federal protection against states restrictive abortion laws was especially important for low-income groups, especially Black women and people leaving in rural areas making it a civil rights issue. The civil rights Act was enacted into law in 1964 and introduced sweeping changes in American society and institutional and company performance (Bardes et al.). One of its provisions disallowed all forms of discrimination against anyone irrespective of their ethnicity, race, sexuality, or any other conceivable grounds. At the time it passed, it represented a monumental shift in the American public which was used to segregation and outright discrimination against Black people.

Abortion is a civil rights issue because when it is banned, women and especially low-income Black women are forced to endure problems that have a cascading effect on their economic, social, and health well-being. In addition, the subsequent bans on abortion by the states violate body integrity, autonomy, and have a net negative effect on equality between men and women. Abortion restrictions disproportionally impact young, Black women from a low-income background or living in the rural areas. Further, it exposes those living in abusive relationships to further abuse. Thus, without the protections offered by Roe v. Wade, women in vulnerable situations will be forced to keep unwanted pregnancies which is exposes them to economic and health risks. Thus, access to abortion is a crucial civil right, economic, and racial justice issue. When women are able to decide when or if to keep a pregnancy, they are also able to make other decisions on work and education.

The US Supreme Court decision to overturn Roe v. Wade set women in some states across the US decades behind in their provision of equal rights between men and women. In particular, 26 of the 50 states declared that they would ban abortion while 13 of the 26 states that announce a ban had a trigger clause that effectively made it illegal to procure or perform an abortion. Immediately after Roe v. Wade was overturned, there was a flurry of political statements from lawmakers who supported and those who opposed the court decisions. Democrats were particularly adamant that women should have a right to choose whether or not to continue with a pregnancy. On the other hand, the republicans were elated that the court finally Roe v. Wade was overturned. However, the republican stance led to a dismissal performance in the 2022 Mid-term election. The unrestricted access to womens reproductive rights is also a civil rights issue.

Work Cited

Bardes, Barbara A., et al. American Government and Politics Today: The Essentials. Cengage, 2022.

Gostin, Lawrence O. The US Turns Its Back on Womens Reproductive Rights. BMJ, 2022, Web.

Spider Mating Ritual Research

As shown in picture 1, male peacock spiders have a bright and colorful appearance, designed to attract females (Antonsen, 2019). However, their fascinating looks are only the tip of the iceberg, as these creatures have a whole slew of moves and signals aimed at gaining the attention of a potential mate.

The mating process starts with finding a female, which can be done by signaling with the legs, as shown in picture 1. Once a female is found, the male has to impress her, or she will consume him (Peacock Spider Mating Dance, 2017). The male begins the ritual by attracting the attention of the female. Once she is focused on him, he begins his dance, which consists of showing different parts of his body until the female returns a response (Bailey, 2019). The males of these species are known to be aggressive in their pursuit of a partner, so they often try to court a female that is not interested in mating. If that is the case, she might simply signal that by showing her abdomen, or she might eat the male if she is feeling hungry or annoyed (Bailey, 2019). If the female is satisfied with the males performance, they will mate. However, she might still eat the male afterward, as she needs the nutrients to produce and feed her offspring.

The pregnant female eventually lays a sack of eggs, where her spiderlings continue to develop until they are ready to burst into the outside world. Seeing as adult peacock spiders are already among the smallest creatures found in nature, their newly hatched children are too small and weak to survive on their own. The female guards and feeds her brood until they grow enough to be able to live independently (Bailey, 2019). The male spiderlings mature quicker than the females, who need more time to grow to their larger size. Relatively quickly, the males become ready to reproduce, and the cycle repeats itself.

Mating Dance and Song

For my own spider mating dance, I have chosen the popular Despacito by Luis Fonsi as the music. This song has a gradually accelerating rhythm that fits the intense nature of a spider-mating dance. The lyrics are also perfect for this application, as they express affection and desire, not to mention that they are written in the language of passion. A spider mating dance is much more primal than any product of human culture can ever be, but this song captures the excitement and suspense of this ritual and transforms them into human emotions.

References

Antonsen, A. (2019). Show or Tell? Testing Peacock Spiders Multi-Modal Mating Display. Entomology Today. Web.

Bailey, R. (2019). Peacock Spider Facts. ThoughtCo. Web.

Nature on PBS. (2017). Peacock Spider Mating Dance. Web.

The article involves a survey to show the experiences of reproductive coercion among Latina women and strategies for minimizing harm. The study reveals that Latina women disproportionately experience reproductive coercion. These are set of behaviors that interfere with autonomous reproductive decision-making (Grace, 2020). Reproductive coercion is associated with unintended pregnancy and intimate partner violence; however, it helps women achieve safety, autonomy, and a reproductive life plan. Reproductive coercion mainly occurs when an individual exerts much power and control over another individuals reproductive health and decisions associated with a persons reproductive health.

According to the research, many Latina women receive service at the urban clinic by listening to the experiences of other females. This research aims to understand the context of reproductive coercion and the use of reproductive coercion safety strategies. The study utilized a qualitative descriptive methodology to conduct the investigation. In this case, semi-structured interviews among 13 Latina women recruited from a Federally Qualified Health Centre in Washington were exercised (Grace et al., 2020). The results of the investigations show how important it is to understand reproductive coercion. The researchers also found that less detectable methods of contraception are helpful as a competent and effective method in reducing harm to women experiencing reproductive pressure.

The survey provides vital information that can be used to improve healthcare services. However, along with all the successes and strengths, weaknesses also exist. Furthermore, many investigations have different gaps that may impact the validity of the examination findings. In scientific research, there are various practical and ethical limitations. Identifying the flaws and boundaries in a study is encouraged since it enables surveyors to avoid repeating mistakes when conducting another survey. One of the significant strengths of the investigation is that the descriptive methodology utilized provides an in-depth view of the research topic. The approaches involved in the descriptive study methodology are vital since adequate data is acquired from the participants.

Purposive sampling is an additional strength technique used in the research study. The method encompasses one of the most cost-effective and time-effective sampling techniques in surveys. Purposive sampling is also known as the judgment technique, where the researcher is entirely dependent on his judgment when choosing members of a specific population to participate in the study. Additionally, it is a critical technique that aims to fulfill the research objectives, hence enhancing the severity of the investigation and its reliability. In this type of sampling, personal judgment needs to be utilized to choose a compelling case that helps answer or achieve the research questions.

Therefore, the research has some strengths that enabled the surveyors to obtain information regarding reproductive coercion among Latina women and strategies for minimizing harm.

One of the significant weaknesses of the research is the method of interviewing used, the semi-structured interviews. The approach is broadly utilized in surveys, whereby, unlike formal interviews, investigators concentrate more on particular topics, which they address in an informal technique. The semi-structured interviews regularly deliver valued data that the scholars may not have acquired. However, it is sometimes a weakness since invalid information may be obtained. Semi-structured interviews are time-consuming since an investigator has to interact with all respondents and exercised an open-ended discussion. Correspondingly, it requires many resources as it can be challenging to find the right interviewer with adequate skills to conduct the interview properly and acquire valid information.

Another limitation of this study is the small sample size used. Data were obtained from 13 women, which could result in the collection of inadequate information. Furthermore, a small sample size increases the likelihood of an error in the results, diminishing the studys validity. Similarly, using few participants negatively impacts the reliability of the research studys products because it leads to enhanced inconsistency, which may lead to bias.

The limitation of utilizing a time-consuming technique to collect information can be improved by using a less inefficient process. For instance, using close-ended questionnaires is one method of gathering information, which is encouraged in investigations since it is time-saving. To manage the limitation of having errors in the studys results, researchers should collect information from a large group of people and then make the comparison to have much more accurate results. Additionally, having a larger sample size is of great significance to have more precise and quantitative results.

I strongly agree with the researchers that midwives should prioritize honoring patients requests when any woman wants to change the contraception method. It is essential that researchers interacted with the participants in the study, enabling them to acquire adequate information about reproductive coercion. Midwives play a significant role in enhancing healthy practices for women and babies from before pregnancy until birth. I believe this study supports midwifery as it provides essential information to midwives about utilizing less detectable contraception methods as a reduction strategy for women experiencing reproductive coercion. Many women experience challenges when making various decisions involving their reproduction and pregnancies. Therefore, the research contributes to midwifery since it encourages midwives to assist women in achieving safety, autonomy, and reproductive life plans.

References

Grace, K. T., Alexander, K. A., Jeffers, N. K., Miller, E., Decker, M. R., Campbell, J., & Glass, N. (2020). Experiences of reproductive coercion among Latina women and strategies for minimizing harm: The path makes us strong. Journal of Midwifery & Womens Health, 65(2), 248-256.

Introduction

The rate of infertility among modern couples has increased significantly. This has caused most young families to turn to fertilityinduced reproduction. Infertility refers to the inability to conceive for more than a year of unprotected intercourse. Induced or assisted reproduction refers to a treatment against infertility that involves clinical manipulation of both the egg and sperm.

Assisted Reproduction Technology Description and Categories

It is an alternative propagation process turned to in the case of failed normal fertility. This method of reproduction has to be recommended by the doctor. This happens after a thorough medical evaluation of the female pelvic and male genital organs as noted by Peter Brinsden (2005, 16). The doctors take several tests including the microbiological test (Elder, Ribes & Baker, 2005). The method uses stimulating drugs to induce ovulation, egg fertilization, transfer of gamete in the fallopian tube and gamete cryopreservation. Several forms/ categorized of assisted reproduction got studied and documented. They are:

Surrogacy  This is when one needs another person to carry their unborn child for them. It is a contract-based legal agreement between the clients family and the surrogate parent. There are two types of surrogacy  gestational surrogacy or In Vitro fertilization and traditional surrogacy commonly known as artificial insemination (Erickson, 2005, p. 8). In both cases, either the female egg or male sperm get donated.

Sperm donation  There cannot be any conception minus the male sperm centrosome which incorporates with the female chromosomes about 3 to 5 hours after insemination. In this surrogacy, the clients family and the male surrogate legally agree to exchange the male sperm. The sperm gets used by the purchasing couple for either artificial or In vitro fertilization (Guelman, Tucker & Patrizio, 2003).

Egg donation  A female substitute either donates her egg or accepts the male sperm from the contracting family. The surrogate parties enter into a legal contract. This helps them to deal with legal disputes that may occur during separation or divorce. (Kindregan & McBrien, 2006). This practice is popular with gay marriages.

Clinical Procedures in Assisted Reproduction

The success of this alternative propagation process depends on the quality of clinical care provided. It gets clarified that the usage of this practice has led to many people seeking treatment (Serhal & Overton, 2004). When we talk about clinical procedures we mean both the diagnostic and treatment clinical procedures. The issue is infertility. The procedure may require several consultative meetings between the couple and their doctor. In the first visit, the doctor assesses the couples medical history, investigates their problem and determines the cause and cure strategy for their infertility. The medical history includes but is not limited to information concerning age, menstrual history, duration of infertility, use of contraceptives, and obstetric history. Assisted Reproduction Technology should be applied within the provisions documented for the economical and ethical intersection of reproductive medicine (Ryan, 2001). It is necessary to carry out treatment procedures on the woman. This reduces the risk associated with assisted reproduction technology (Ludwig, 2002). The mother and child should be protected.

Conclusion

Technology has become popular because of the increase in same-sex marriage and the rising cases of infertility among new couples. The administration of this technology should be cautionary to reduce incidences of post-treatment.

References

Brinsden, P.R. (2005). A textbook of In Vitro Fertilization and Assisted Reproduction: The Bourn Hall Guide to Clinical and Laboratory Practice. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis Group.

Elder, K., Ribes, J.A., & Baker, J. (2005). Infections, Infertility and Assisted Reproduction. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Erickson, T.M. (2005). Assisted Reproduction: The Complete Guide to Having a Baby with the Help of Third Party. United States of America: iUniverse.

Guelman, V., Tucker, M.J., & Patrizio, P. (2003). A color Atlas for Human Assisted Reproduction: Laboratory and Clinical Insights. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Kindregan, C.P., & McBrien, M. (2006). Assisted Reproductive Technology: a lawyers guide to emerging law and science. Illinois: ABA Publishing.

Ludwig, M. (2002). Pregnancy and Birth after Assisted Reproductive Technologies. Berlin: Springer  Verlag.

Ryan, M.A. (2001). Ethics and Economics of Assisted Reproduction: The Cost of Longing. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.

Serhal, P., & Overton, C. (2004). Good Clinical Practice in Assisted Reproduction. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Introduction

The documentary No Mas Bebes tells a frightening story of Latin American women being sterilized at Los Angeles County hospital without their consent after they gave birth to children. When the illegal actions of doctors were revealed, the mothers who were the victims together with a brave young Chicana lawyer and evidence collected from hospital records by a doctor who blew the whistle managed to mount a civil rights lawsuit.

The basic premise of the documentary is that every woman should have a reproductive choice. The reproductive justice movement struggles to provide every woman with a right to decide on having or not having children. This refection on No Mas Bebes documentary touches the issues of gender and sexuality, ethnic and racial problems in the context of reproduction, and analyzes the arguments presented in the movie.

Elements of Gender and Sexuality

The case investigated in the documentary explicitly reflects the issue of gender. Women became the victims of doctors who concluded they could decide who could or could not have more babies. Female patients were vulnerable when they were in labor and could not think of anything else but about the safety of their babies. As a result, they did not read the papers they were suggested to sign and involuntary agreed to have tubal ligation surgery that sterilized them. Evidently, this violation of womens rights resulted in immediate Chicana feminist resistance as soon as an immoral and illegal behavior of doctors from Los Angeles County hospital. The elements of sexuality are more implicit in the plot of a documentary. Nevertheless, it fades away in the context of sterilization abuse.

Ethnic and Racial Issues

The documentary is directly related to racial and ethnic issues. One of the important aspects is the fight for access to health care by representatives of the Latino population in the United States. The problem of health care disparities is not new in this multinational country and usually ethnic minorities such as Asian Americans, Mexican Americans, African Americans, or American Indians are deprived of high-quality care due to low income and the resulting lack of cost for health insurance. Consequently, they cannot afford private clinics and have to seek care at local hospitals that do not always provide high-quality care.

Still, even when representatives of ethnic minorities such as Latino on the whole and Mexican Americans in particular, are admitted to a healthcare facility, they frequently face discrimination and unequal treatment.

Another issue to mention in the context of No Mas Bebes documentary is the impact of ethnicity and race on the production of difference. People become other due to the place of birth and origin or experiences they had. Thus, the women who were sterilized in the case that is discussed in the documentary were Mexican immigrants. Most of them worked at factories and some were housewives but all were mothers and wives (Perez). Although they lived and worked in the United States for years, they were different and other to some white citizens due to the origin or skin color. As a result, the doctors decided to interfere with their reproductive functions to have less other people in the country.

Analysis of Arguments

The arguments put forth in the documentary by the women and the medical staff contribute to a controversy of this case. There are certain contradictions between the arguments of women depicted in the film and those of doctors and nurses. The actions of doctors and nursing staff were prompted by attempts to restrict the population of Mexican immigrants. They explained that they sterilized Mexican females who already had children.

Moreover, they justify sterilization by the fact that they were warning the women about this surgery. Nevertheless, the majority of Mexican women did not speak English well and the doctors did not speak Spanish (Kolhatkar). Therefore, they could not understand the provided explanations both due to the language gap and to the lack of knowledge about the procedure. Also, the women admitted that they were threatened by the possible death of an unborn baby or squeezed by not providing painkillers in labor. On the whole, the arguments of women show that they were under pressure and could not make weighted decisions, which contradicts the arguments of medical staff who claim that the patients signed the necessary forms and agreed to be sterilized.

Summary and Conclusion

Summarizing, it should be mentioned that the main point presented in the documentary is that violation of any human rights is unacceptable. The particular focus is on the right of females to have as many babies as they want to have. The documentary can be related to past struggles about the reproductive rights that started with Roe v. Wade, a landmark legal decision of 1973 that legalized abortions, to contemporary movement for reproductive freedom.

The documentary is relevant today because despite significant progress in the aspect of reproductive rights, the issues of banning abortions or forced sterilization are still discussed in the society. Moreover, the experience described in the film should become an example of what should not be done under any conditions. A similar case can be avoided due to human rights education and further development of reproductive freedom movement.

Works Cited

Kolhatkar, Sonali. No Mas Bebes Documentary Highlights History of Forced Sterilizations. Truth Dig. Web.

Perez, Miriam Zolia. Sterelization Abuse Documentary No Mas Bebes Premiers on PBS. Color Lines. Web.

Introduction

Background of the study

Fertilization is the initial stage of human reproduction or procreation which involves the fusion of a females ovum or egg with the males sperm in the ampulla of the uterus (Cummings, 2009, p.165). The union occurs when a male and a female engage in sexual intercourse whereby during ejaculation, the sperms in the vagina travel through the cervix into the uterus and finally into the oviduct/fallopian tube. The whole process occurs within thirty minutes after the sperms are introduced into the vagina. Apart from ejaculation during sexual intercourse, the sperms can be introduced into the vagina through artificial insemination or the process of in-vitro fertilization; the union between the egg and the sperm cell can be initiated artificially (Cummings, 2009, p.165). The process through which the sperm cells move from the vagina to the oviduct also referred to as swimming is aided by the whip-like contractions of the tail of the sperm cells and the vigorous contraction of the muscular female uterine walls.

When the sperm cell encounters a mature egg, it releases enzymes found in the Acrosome which digest the outer layer of the ovum thereby allowing the sperm plasma to sail through and fuse with the ovums plasma membrane. This is followed by the disconnection of the sperm head from the rest of the sperm cell after which the fertilized egg moves from the oviduct into the uterus.

It is evident from the diagram above that only one sperm cell can cross the outer layer of the ovum and fertilize a mature egg. The other sperm cells aid in the chemical changes that occur on the outer layer of the egg that eventually block the entry of additional sperm cells. The subsequent processes after fertilization include implantation followed by fetal development or pregnancy and finally childbirth or parturition.

Aim

The report is aimed at outlining the processes involved in human reproduction starting from fertilization through implantation, pregnancy, and finally to childbirth.

Scope

The report entails a detailed insight into the process of fertilization, particularly the processes that occur before fertilization such as sperm capacitation and acrosome reaction. It also documents the process of hormonal release that occurs before implantation. The three trimesters of pregnancy are also discussed in detail. Finally, the report provides an account of all three stages of childbirth.

Human Reproduction

Fertilization

Fertilization entails the fusion of an egg and the sperm cell. However, fertilization in itself entails a chain of episodes whose interruption leads to the failure of the whole process. The process begins with changes in the sperm cell which prepare it for additional processes. Thus the process of fertilization entails sperm capacitation, sperm-Zona Pellucida binding, the acrosome reaction, penetration of the Zona Pellucida, the egg activation and cortical reactions, and finally the Zona reaction (Bowen, 2000, p.1 of 3).

Before fertilization, the fresh sperm cells introduced in the vagina through the process of ejaculation undergo several chemical and structural changes referred to as capacitation. This is the process of removing the seminal components protecting the sperm cells followed by the rearrangement of the lipid and protein constituents of the plasma membrane of the sperm cells (Bowen, 2000, 0.1 of 3). The purpose of capacitation is to increase the motility characteristics of the cells besides destabilizing their plasma membranes in readiness for the subsequent reactions. The interaction of the sperm cell with the Zona Pellucida layer of the ovum is a species-specific reaction that can as well be regarded as binding of the ligand to its specific receptor site. Specific glycoproteins on the surface of the ovum have been shown to act as the sperm receptors whose function is to bind to specific proteins on the sperm cell membrane.

The sperm acrosome consists of Zona-digesting enzymes which play a major role in the acrosome reaction which enables the sperm to sail through the Zona Pellucida of the ovum. The protein receptors on the surface of the ovum take part in a series of reactions that provide the sites for the fusion of the outer layer of the Acrosome to the plasma membrane of the egg. This process leads to the formation of vesicles and seepage of the Acrosomal contents through the process of exocytosis from the sperm head. Progressive Acrosome reaction leads to loss of the Acrosomal contents until the whole sperm head moves through the Zona Pellucida. In case a sperm cell loses its Acrosomal contents before reaching the inner surface of the egg, it fails to fertilize it (Bowen, 2000, p.1 of 3).

Egg activation entails the metabolic and physical changes in the egg which follows the binding of the sperm cell to the egg. The egg is thus activated from its resting state mainly in the second meiotic allotment phase into a zygote (Cummings, 2009, p.166). Subsequent reactions which follow sperm-egg fusion entail hardening of the Zona Pellucida and destruction of the sperm receptors thereby excluding the entry of additional sperm cells into the fertilized egg (Bowen, 2000, p.1 of 3).

Hormonal Release during Implantation

The processes which lead to the formation and maturation of the ova are collectively referred to as the ovarian cycle. They also entail the formation of oocytes and grounding of the uterine wall in readiness for implantation. All these processes are controlled by hormones from the ovary, anterior pituitary, and hypothalamus. The Hypothalamus secretes the Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) which acts on the anterior pituitary thus causing the production of the Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and the Luteinizing Hormone (LH) (Grudzinskas & Yovich, 1995). FSH mediates the development of the ovarian follicles and the production of another hormone known as estrogen from the follicles. Further growth of the follicles is maintained by the LH which also mediates the full production of estrogen from the follicles. LH further initiates and maintains the formation of female eggs in the ovary and the growth of the Corpus luteum. It also promotes the secretion of estrogen and progesterone among other hormones of the corpus luteum. Besides inhibiting the secretion of GnRH, FSH, and LH from the Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary, Estrogen promotes the development of female sex characteristics. Estrogen and Progesterone prepare the uterine wall in readiness for implantation. The two hormones also promote the growth of mammary glands for milk production. Another hormone, Relaxin produced by the Corpus luteum relaxes the contraction of the uterus thereby promoting implantation (Grudzinskas & Yovich, 1995).

The Three Trimesters of Pregnancy

Pregnancy or fetal development comprises the period between fertilization and childbirth. It is divisible into three stages also known as trimesters which can last up to 12-13 weeks each. These stages entail several rounds of mitosis within the 36-39 weeks of pregnancy involving the zygote that eventually leads to the development of tissues and organs in the fetus (Cummings, 2009, p.166). The first trimester takes 14 weeks during which period the fetus develops from being an embryo to having discrete webbed fingers. It also moves constantly and at the end of the trimester, it develops intact fingerprints and it measures about three inches as illustrated in the picture below.

The second trimester begins at the end of the 14 weeks and lasts up to the 7^th month of pregnancy. During this stage, the fetus grows in length and puts on weight and at the end of this period; it weighs about 3 pounds and about measures about15 inches by length. Additionally, the skeleton changes from the cartilaginous bones to hard bone. The skin also smoothens as it begins to store fats. The eyes begin to open and close depending on the direction of light as shown below.

The third trimester starts immediately after the 7 months of pregnancy and lasts until childbirth. During this stage, the weight of the fetus increases to about 5-7 pounds and it can measure up to 19 inches when stretched. All the body organs are fully developed and the fat deposited in its body gives it a more rounded and smooth shape. As it can be seen in the diagram below, its head is facing the vaginal opening indicating that it is ready to be expelled. However, it should be noted that babies differ broadly at this point.

The Three Stages of Childbirth

Childbirth or parturition marks the end of the pregnancy during which period, one or more infants are expelled from the uterus. Normal human birth is divided into three stages which are preceded by six major phases of changes to the cervix. Pregnancy labor takes up to 12-24 hours for those women giving birth for the first time or shorter than this period for those who have had children (Gjerdingen & Froberg, 1991, p.29). The first stage or the dilation phase can last up to 20 hours. It begins when the cervix dilates up to 3 centimeters wide and widens further up to 10 centimeters during contraction of the uterine muscles.

The diagram above shows the various stages of dilation that follow the initial dilation coupled with the active muscular contraction of the uterine muscles.

The second stage or the expulsion phase begins after the cervix has dilated fully and lasts until when the baby is expelled from the uterus. The stage is characterized by increased pressure on the cervix followed by placement of the babys head in the pelvis. Assisted by the downward pushing mechanisms from the mother, the head goes past the pubic arc to the outside through the introitus. Further contractions expel the lower body from the uterus. The third stage of childbirth or the placenta stage involves the expulsion of the afterbirth from the uterus. Further loss of blood by the mother is controlled by the uterine contractions after the placenta is expelled (Gjerdingen & Froberg, 1991, p.35).

Conclusions

The report has provided an in-depth account of human reproduction. It provides discussions on the activities which are involved in fertilization and implantation of the mature and fertilized egg on the endometrial wall. In addition, the report gives the details regarding the hormonal release which precedes implantation. Further, the three stages of pregnancy and fetal development are analyzed in this report. Finally, the report describes all three stages of childbirth. From the above discussion, it can be concluded that fertilization is a very important stage in human procreation. It entails a series of stages that lead to the fusion of the sperm cell and the oocytes to form an embryo. The embryo is maintained in the uterus through the process of implantation which enables the fertilized egg to fuse with the endometrial wall. Further divisions of the embryo give rise to tissues and organs observable in a full-grown fetus. The fetus is finally expelled from the uterus through the process of parturition.

Reference list

Cummings, M. 2009. Human heredity: principles and issues (8^th ed.), Yolanda Cossio Publishers, UK.

Bowen, R. 2000. Fertilization: fertilization and early embryonic development. Web.

Gjerdingen, DK & Froberg, D.G. 1991.The fourth stage of labor: the health of birth mothers and adoptive mothers at six-weeks postpartum. Fam Med. Vol. 23, no.1, pp. 2935.

Grudzinskas, J.G. & Yovich, J (eds.) 1995. Gametes: The Oocyte. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.