The Renaissance, a period of profound cultural and intellectual transformation, is often associated with a specific birthplace – Florence, Italy. However, the concept of the “birthplace” of the Renaissance is more complex than a single geographical location. This essay will delve into the intricate factors that contributed to the emergence of the Renaissance and explore whether attributing it solely to Florence is a comprehensive perspective.
Florence: The Heart of the Renaissance
Florence undoubtedly played a pivotal role in the Renaissance. During the 14th to 17th centuries, the city was a thriving hub of artistic, literary, and scientific innovation. The Medici family’s patronage of the arts, the establishment of art academies, and the presence of renowned figures like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Botticelli contributed to Florence’s reputation as a cultural epicenter.
Humanism and Revival of Classical Culture
One of the defining characteristics of the Renaissance was the revival of classical culture and humanism – an emphasis on human potential and achievements. This intellectual movement originated from the study of ancient Greek and Roman texts. While Florence played a crucial role in promoting humanist ideals, the dissemination of these ideas extended beyond its borders. Humanism’s influence was felt across Europe, from the courts of France to the universities of England.
The Role of Printing Press
The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century significantly accelerated the spread of knowledge, fostering the intellectual environment that fueled the Renaissance. While Gutenberg’s press was developed in Mainz, Germany, it had a profound impact across Europe. The accessibility of printed materials facilitated the exchange of ideas, enabling thinkers and artists to engage in cross-cultural dialogues that transcended geographic boundaries.
Renaissance in Other Cities
Attributing the birthplace of the Renaissance solely to Florence oversimplifies the complex network of intellectual and artistic exchanges that characterized the period. Other Italian cities, such as Rome, Venice, and Milan, also played integral roles. Rome, for instance, drew scholars and artists to study classical ruins and manuscripts. Venice’s strategic location as a trading hub facilitated the exchange of ideas between East and West. Milan, under the patronage of the Sforza family, nurtured artistic innovation.
Northern Renaissance
The Renaissance was not confined to Italy alone. The Northern Renaissance, a parallel movement, emerged in regions like Flanders, Germany, and England. Influenced by humanism and the Italian Renaissance, Northern European artists and thinkers developed their own distinct styles and contributions. The works of Jan van Eyck, Albrecht Dürer, and Erasmus of Rotterdam exemplify the unique characteristics of the Northern Renaissance.
Conclusion: Beyond Geographic Boundaries
In conclusion, while Florence holds a significant place in the narrative of the Renaissance, attributing its birthplace solely to this city overlooks the broader context of the period. The Renaissance was a multifaceted movement driven by a confluence of factors – the revival of classical culture, the invention of the printing press, and the exchange of ideas across borders. It was a phenomenon that transcended geographical boundaries and was not confined to a single birthplace.
The Renaissance’s impact was felt in various cities across Italy and Europe, each contributing its unique elements to the overall cultural transformation. To truly understand the birthplace of the Renaissance, one must recognize the interconnectedness of cities, scholars, artists, and thinkers that collectively shaped this pivotal period in human history. Therefore, attributing the Renaissance to a single birthplace oversimplifies its complexity and diminishes the global nature of its influence.
The Renaissance period, spanning from the 14th to the 17th century, marked a significant shift in human history. This epoch of cultural, artistic, and intellectual rebirth brought about transformative changes that reverberate through time. From reshaping art and education to fostering new philosophical and scientific perspectives, the Renaissance era was a catalyst for profound societal evolution. This essay will explore and argue how the Renaissance period brought about crucial changes that shaped the course of Western civilization.
Revival of Classical Learning
One of the foremost changes that the Renaissance brought was the revival of classical learning. After centuries of relative stagnation in the Dark Ages, scholars and humanists of the Renaissance rekindled the study of ancient Greek and Roman texts. This renewal of interest in classical literature, philosophy, and science sparked a cultural awakening that fundamentally transformed the way people perceived the world.
Humanism and Individualism
The Renaissance’s emphasis on human potential and achievements led to the emergence of humanism and individualism. This shift away from the strict religious focus of the Middle Ages encouraged people to explore their talents, interests, and abilities. As a result, the concept of the “Renaissance Man” – an individual skilled in multiple fields – became a hallmark of the era. This celebration of human intellect and creativity laid the foundation for modern individualism.
Artistic Revolution
Perhaps the most iconic aspect of the Renaissance was its impact on art. The shift from medieval art characterized by religious symbolism to a focus on realism, perspective, and human anatomy was revolutionary. The works of artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael captured the essence of human emotion and beauty, setting the standard for art to come. This transformation paved the way for modern artistic techniques and aesthetics.
Scientific Revolution
The Renaissance also heralded the Scientific Revolution – a paradigm shift in how humans perceived the natural world. The exploration of empirical evidence and the questioning of established dogmas marked a departure from the authority of the Church. Figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler challenged the geocentric view of the universe, leading to the eventual triumph of heliocentrism. The Scientific Revolution laid the groundwork for the development of modern science and the Age of Enlightenment.
Education and Print Revolution
The Renaissance fostered an emphasis on education and knowledge dissemination. The invention of the printing press by Gutenberg facilitated the mass production of books, making knowledge accessible to a wider audience. The rise of humanism also led to the establishment of educational institutions that championed critical thinking and the liberal arts. This focus on education was instrumental in shaping the intellectual landscape of the Renaissance and beyond.
Challenges to Authority
The Renaissance period witnessed a gradual erosion of traditional authority structures. As humanism and the scientific mindset flourished, people began to question established religious and political doctrines. The Reformation, fueled in part by the printing press, challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, leading to the fracturing of religious unity in Europe. These challenges to authority laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason and individual rights.
Conclusion: The Renaissance’s Enduring Impact
In conclusion, the Renaissance period was a crucible of change that reshaped every facet of society – from art and education to science and philosophy. Its impact on Western civilization is immeasurable, as it laid the groundwork for the modern world’s intellectual, artistic, and scientific achievements. The revival of classical learning, the promotion of humanism, the artistic and scientific revolutions, the expansion of education, and the challenges to traditional authority collectively transformed the trajectory of human history.
The legacy of the Renaissance persists in our society today, as the values of individualism, critical thinking, and cultural appreciation continue to shape our understanding of the world. The Renaissance’s transformative changes remind us of the enduring power of human creativity and innovation to break free from the constraints of the past and forge a brighter future.
Renaissance is a French word for rebirth and the term is used to describe the economic and intellectual changes occurring in Europe between the 14th to 16th Centuries. During this era, Europe came out from economic stagnation to experience a period of financial growth. Exploration was not common before Renaissance, but noteworthy voyages before the renaissance were that of Eric The Red, which saw him travel to Greenland in 982, and that of Leif Ericsson to Nova Scotia in 1000. The shaping of the modern world was largely influenced by the renaissance Voyage. The urge to discover new lands outside Europe between 1420 and1620 led to an increase in knowledge about the planet earth. The rise and fall of the nation in Europe were highly influenced by the discovery and colonization of settlements outside Europe. There was a new direction in art, science, and politics. People discovered new ways of doing things, new products, and new opportunism were discovered leading to the creation of new Nations.
The 15th century shows the resumption of population growth, the living conditions had now improved, there were a higher number of people in the financial system which resulted in a shrink production requirement, and this caused an urgent need to look for other territories to expand. Silk and sugar supply was low compared to the demand. The emerging economic structure of Mercantilism was pushing the rising Nations into looking for new sources of precious metal to advance the production of Currency. German silver mines could not meet the current demands and the gold deposits in Europe were exhausted. Commerce expansion was not possible without money. Gold bars were not just wealth but were also a means to acquire more wealth.
By the 15th and 16th centuries, Voyages were not an Individual affair. Besides sponsorship by major trading companies, the state came to be part of the big picture. This is demonstrated when Spain’s King Ferdinand V and Queen Isabella I sponsored Christopher Columbus’s voyage to India in 1491. The desire for cheaper spices also played a major role. Lack of refrigerators meant the only preservation method was through salting and to make the meat edible and conceal the taste of meat that had gone bad, spices were necessary. Peppercorns, mace, nutmeg, cinnamon, and mace were some of the much-needed spices from Asia. With a bad road network and an Overland trip between Europe and Asia cut when the Turks fought and defeated the Byzanite Empire in 1453, a sea route had to be found to link Europe to Asian countries like India. The navigator of Portugal Prince Henry encouraged sailors to explore the coast of Africa by setting up a school for sailors. His effort came to bore fruit later in 1486 when Bartholomeu Dias leading his crew reached the southern coast of Africa. Due to the unwillingness of the Dias crew not to travel further, the voyage was cut short and returned to Portugal. Later in 1496, Dias assisted Vasco Da Gama plan another voyage to India through Africa.
The passion to spread the gospel was also a major factor that contributed to Voyaging. Much European government and people believed that it was their responsibility to spread the gospel of Christ to the people around the world and convert the Infidels, there was a close co-operation between the Portuguese state’s leaders and the Vatican to the extent that Roman Pontiff gave the Portuguese leader permission to subdue and enslave any Muslim or Pagan whom they came across in their voyage.
The building of ships capable of long sea voyages contributed towards the voyages of discovery. Sea travels vessels were named caravels; these strong ships were known for being reliable and easy to control. Unlike old ships, the caravels had sails powered by oarsmen. Weighing between 50 to 100 tons and about 30 meters long, the ships could carry large cargo and over 40 crew. To keep the course, a compass was used. With a lead lowered into the water to measure the depth of the sea. This major invention in building hardy ships gave sailors confidence in their voyage unlike in the past when they were propelled by rowing.
European invention of gun powder motivated voyage as ships could carry cannons for defense. This meant that there were relatively secure when at sea or when attacked by Chinese vessels which depended on ramming and boarding tactic to conquer. Europeans established fixed positions and forts to serve as defense posts from where they could launch the military scheme.
Another chief factor that motivated voyages during the renaissance was that life was relatively short. Though sailors had less than 30% chance of returning from sea voyage his chances of living to the age of 30 in European Cities was also very slim. furthermore, the voyage was mostly financed by state and wealthy people, the sailors aboard a ship on the voyage had a much higher salary than that of a sailor on a simple voyage doing trade on the Mediterranean sea.
The evolving states forming Europe conglomerate i.e. Portugal. Spain. France etc were jealous of each other and each state was determined to be the pioneer of the modern economy and lead in the race for wealth. Portugal and Spain had an upper hand. This competition bred a generation of people who were both aggressive and expansionist.
The Voyages of discovery exposed an amazing tendency on the Europeans part to enslave the national culture which they dominated. Slavery was a thing of the past in Europe in the renaissance, but the new culture of conquering and taking control of a nation was a form of slavery in disgusts.
Christianity as opposed to paganism was another concept that bestowed Europe. Together with the concept of Savage, Europeans had this feeling of superiority toward non-n Christians, to the extent that non-Christians would be killed and maimed by the Christians. The same idea was carried across to America and Africa, with Americans of Indians origin being enslaved by the Spanish. The issue of civilized and uncivilized was brought about by the concept of savage. This spelled out and drew clear guidelines on the expected behavior of a civilized person.
References
Anthony Parr (2000) the Travels of Three English Brothers, Manchester University Press, Manchester.
Bartolome De Las Casas (1992) Destruction of the Indies, Penguin publishers, UK.
Richard Eden, Pietro Martire d’ Anghiera (1555) The Decades of the Newe Worlde or West India, Powell publishers, America.
Harlem Renaissance also called the Black Literary Renaissance or the New Negro Movement was essentially a challenge against white paternalism and racism. The focal point of the renaissance was the suburb of Harlem in New York City. The movement began with the end of World War I in 1918, flourished around 1920, and faded away in the mid-30s. It had its nemesis with the start of the Great Depression. This also marked the birth of Afro-American or African American literature. Although it was primarily a literary movement, it was closely related to developments in African American music, theater, art, and politics and the whole nation began to seriously take cognizance of the happenings. It was during this period, a group of talented Afro-American writers produced a sizable body of literature in the four prominent genres of poetry, fiction, drama, and essay.
At the turn of the 20th century, there was general unrest among Afro-Americans due to an increase in their population. The Afro-Americans, hitherto confined to the southern states as slaves, began to expand their economic prosperity. Gradually they had become a middle-class society spurred by their increased education and employment opportunities following the American Civil War (1861-1865). This also made the Afro-Americans migrate from the economically poor southern states to the more prosperous northern ones. The end of World War I had created immense job opportunities and they began to take advantage of this. For once, they were considered to be urban and not rural, since they started to settle in all the major American cities. It was during these migrations that they began to slowly settle around the suburb of Harlem in New York City. When many educated and socially conscious Afro-Americans started settling in Harlem, it developed into a major political and cultural center of black America. For a lot of colored people, the whole idea of being in Harlem brought to them a sense of belonging, a feeling of oneness with their kind. However, there were quite a few Afro-Americans who felt that they would be misfits in Harlem! A strange feeling, but certainly one that was also in existence.
The Harlem Renaissance – a few basic facts
The origins of the Harlem Renaissance have a major say in the abolition of slavery. It was the cultural, social, and political upheaval of the blacks. The failure of Reconstruction and the Jim Crow laws were vital blows to the Afro-Americans since their civil and political rights were denied. This in turn made them migrate to the richer northern parts of America. Most of the participants of this movement that consisted of a literary awakening descended from a generation that had gone through the rigors of Reconstruction and the American Civil War. The liberated Afro-Americans began to strive for civic participation and political equality. The improvement in their economic status and the reaffirmation of their cultural self-determination were also responsible for the Harlem Renaissance (Helbling, 6).
It was around this time that they began to advocate racial equality with the Americans and with the birth of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 their struggle for the advancement of their rights began to gather force. Marcus Garvey’s, Back to Africa movement inspired racial pride among the Afro-Americans. It went against the grain of the majority of the while population to acknowledge the contribution of colored writers and thinkers on one hand and being able to deal with the proliferation of the blacks into their territory on the other. The end of World War I heralded the arrival of the black soldiers to their homeland and much to their dismay their achievements were not acknowledged. This in turn led to major racial riots during the year 1919 and also other civil injustices.
Harlem by now was becoming a hotspot for Afro-Americans and their music; Jazz and Blues were in full flow in the clubs and cabarets of Harlem. White people also became interested in Afro-American music and literature and began to offer them help. Afro-American literature began to gain importance and a lot of writers began to write about their plight.
Literary milestones
In the literary world (in the early 1920s) three works signaled the arrival of Afro-Americans (Cary, 6) on the writing scene. Harlem Shadows by McKay became the first literary work to be published by a mainstream, national publisher (Harcourt, Brace, and Company). It was followed by Cane, by Jean Toomer (a novel that combined poetry and prose in documenting the life of American blacks in the rural South and urban North) and finally, There is Confusion by Jessie Fauset, which depicted the life of Afro-Americans from a woman’s point of view.
If there was one person who could be considered the anchor of what could have become a runaway literary storm, it is W.E.B Du Bois. A scholar and a writer, in his own right, he was recognized as a person who brought out the angst of a people who had been suppressed for far too long. Apart from being the editor of a magazine called Crisis, he was the author of various works like The Souls of Black Folk, John Brown, Black Reconstruction, Then and Now, and The Negro. Du Bois, in his lifetime, spurred a lot of other young black writers to express their views on the American way of life in general and those of their black brethren in Harlem, in particular. He was a person who realized that there was no single solution to the problem of racial discrimination. Any kind of solution would have to be a broad-based integration of politics, religion, and of course, social life (Wikipedia, 6).
Another great literary star who paved the way for many behind him was Langston Hughes. His poetry was music: this is not an empty claim when you realize that he was able to capture the mood of a group of people whose lives had been shaped by the color of their skin. What set him apart from most of the other black writers of his time was the fact that he celebrated life and urged people like him to do the same. His sense of pride in being black was brought out in all his works; black to him, was always beautiful and something to be eternally thankful for, even though it meant having to face a great deal of hardship. This was best exhibited in his poems that spoke about the travails of black people in America. In his poem Merry-go-round (also called Colored child at a carnival) he speaks of a little boy who is trying to find a suitable horse on a merry-go-round that he could ride, without being blamed for sitting in white man’s territory. The boy wonders where the Jim Crow section is on the merry-go-round, as he is not able to find the front or the back portions of the wheel! It is a poignant piece of literary art that brings out the reality of the situation that the black boy is in, while also pointing out the futility of discrimination based on the color of a person’s skin. Similarly, in his seminal work titled A Dream Deferred, Hughes brings out the injustice of racial discrimination against a backdrop of changing political and economic scenarios. This work is also called Harlem; it has become a bible of sorts for people who have to tread the difficult path of writing on Afro Americans, after him (Hughes, 6).
Musical signposts
The phrase ‘stark reality’ best suits the song “Strange Fruit” written by Abel Meeropol, who was a.k.a. Lewis Allen. A radical thinker, she had scant respect for the so-called racial equality that the southern states purported to have. Produced and sung by Billie Holiday, yet another important symbol of Harlem, this song brought to light the actual picture of intense disquiet among the Blacks, that led to violent events such as lynchings. This song was a cry from the collective heart of society for racial equality, one that heralded the others that were to come during the Civil Rights Movement.
Southern trees bear strange fruit Blood on the leaves Blood at the root White bodies swinging in the southern breeze Strange fruit hanging from the poplar trees Pastoral scene of the gallant south The bulging eyes and the twisted mouth The scent of magnolia sweet and fresh Then the sudden smell of burning flesh Here is a fruit for the crows to pluck for the rain to gather for the wind to suck for the sun to rot for the tree to drop Here is a strange and bitter crop (Penncharter.com)
If “Strange Fruits” painted a grotesque scene, “Take the ‘A’ Train” was a lot milder. Written by Billy Strayhorn and sung by Duke Ellington‘s band, it was a Jazz piece that became quite popular for its lilt and lyrics. VOA used this piece as a signature tune in its program The Jazz Hour. For Duke Ellington, this was the piece that his band was best known by. This was a song that the upper crust among the blacks liked to identify with (Wikipedia).
You must take the A Train To go to Sugar Hill way up in Harlem If you miss the A Train You’ll find you’ve missed the quickest way to Harlem Hurry, get on, now, it’s coming Listen to those rails a-thrumming (All Aboard!) Get on the A Train Soon you will be on Sugar Hill in Harlem
Landmarks in art
Aaron Douglas portrayed the resilience of the Black people and endeavored to spur them on to achieving recognition, through all their sorrows, hopes, and disappointments. His painting titled Into Bondage depicted a long line of people, some still in fetters, looking toward a possible brighter horizon. Some of the figures showed despondency and resignation, whereas the figure in the foreground seemed to be looking at a better life through all his pain and suffering. An important contributor to the Harlem Renaissance, Douglas brought out the ‘New Negro’ in his works.
An artist who tried to bring out the beauty and the severity of life in Harlem, William H. Johnson is best known for his many works that show the common desire of a race who wants to be accepted as they are. He used a kind of “folk” style in his painting that was attractively combined with the thoughts of Black tenacity and the will to survive against all odds.
Whether it was an artist, a writer, or a musician, every star in the Harlem Renaissance sky, spoke of a people who had to face subjugation by another race; the reasons for this subjugation were penury on the one hand and the cultural heritage of slavery on the other. The one common agenda that they all had was to combat the social evil of discrimination and rise, victorious. Over the years, it has been seen that literature, art, and music have contributed a great deal in shaping the political face of many nations; the Harlem Renaissance is no exception. Though racism has colored (pun intended) the views of writers and thinkers, it has also strengthened the resolve of Afro-Americans to become an integral part of a great country.
References
Cary, D. Wintz. Black Culture and the Harlem Renaissance. Houston: Rice University Press, 1988.
Rhetoric has formed and organized human understanding of the language nature and literature purpose for hundreds of years. It is considered to be of great importance in recognition and exploration of the literary history development together with the elements of politics, philosophy, and culture. The practice and nature of rhetoric have always been central to Renaissance, Enlightenment, and Classical cultures; its value and significance still take one of the central positions in our postmodern world in order to provide inspiration for further debate. It should be noted that political official documents and rules accepted in the Declaration of Independence, Constitution, and Federalist papers are merely based on the rhetoric principles of Renaissance and Enlightenment. Great theorists of previous centuries devoted their works to the exploration, development, and study of these major principles.
Main body
In the Advancement of Learning by Bacon, the intervention is regarded from two points of view. The author developed his theory concentrating on the scientific and speech aspects of the intervention. He stated that this notion could be defined as the process of discovering and exploration of something new rather than recovering the well-known information. He pointed out two major courses as Suggestion and Preparation. The preparatory aspect of the theoretical point concerns both rhetoric and logic side; it provides the stage of preparation for the information analysis. Suggestion directs our thoughts and mind to certain places which are the central points of the data and knowledge reproduction. According to Bacon the process of knowledge retaining or custody could be observed in Memory or Writing. The content of the memory containing prenotion and emblem examines human abilities to the knowledge remembering and information recycling. It provides intellectual images to strike the memory and stimulate the process of remembering. The theory of Bacon discloses the main aspects of the Renaissance period containing the principles of the Art of Rhetoric. The rhetorical side of his study confirms the aspect that no one in the world can be fair in his words and speech, no matter what field of social life is covered, either politics or culture. The points covered by Rhetoric as a science and Logic highlight similar problems though differing in nature and character. Rhetoric in the theory of Bacon treats reason as a set of popular manners and opinions, while Logic understands it in truth and exact.
Thus, the theory of the Advancement of Learning developed in the Renaissance period by Bacon was concentrated on the rhetoric aspects of learning underlining the main positions of the knowledge and its components; Bacon managed to highlight the methods of rhetorical study which characterized all the representatives of the Renaissance culture. (Bacon, 740).
The culture of Renaissance and Enlightenment of Rhetoric study contributed to the nature of the official papers of the USA. The Federalist Paper by James Madison highlighted the principle points of the Constitution and the official state of the USA from the rhetoric point of view. The paper discloses the faction violence of the country, its control, and possibilities of the breakage. The author stated that injustice, instability, and introduced social confusion among the publicity were considered to be the so-called “mortal disease” of the state influencing the actions of the popular governments. The Constitution improvements made on the ancient and modern popular models were rejected by society. The citizens expressed complaints and caused global conflicts in the country; they try to unite under the common positions and impulse of passion in order to back their rights in the community. The paper taking into account the main principles of rhetoric is merely concentrated on the following methods of the faction curing:
The providing of the faction control;
The process of its causes removing that is the liberty destruction being the background of the problem and providing the citizens with common interests and passions.
James Madison stated that the faction causes have been rooted in the nature of people. The reason is the difference among people as to their opinions in the positions of religion, governmental power, and politics. James Madison underlined the fact that no one could be allowed to be a judge; the reason being can be explained by the interests of every person. The opinions of people differing in nature would bias their judgments.
The analysis of the paper showed that even enlightened statesmen would not be able to adjust the public interests without taking into account social indirect considerations which may be found as those disregarding the rights of others’ opinions. The causes of the faction are based on the indifference of the society which cannot be substituted or even removed. This position enables people to defeat their opinions with the help of voting. It may cause the clog of administration and social convulsion but nevertheless, it would never mask and execute the violence under the Constitution forms. The inquiries are merely directed at the public security and private rights defeat. The author proved that this object could be attained with the help of the following positions:
The prevention of the similar interests and passion in the society happening at the same time;
The rendering of the majority with common interest or passion by means of local and number situation being unable to concert and fall under the effects of the oppression. (Farrell, 2006).
Taking into account the main positions of the rhetorical study the author highlighted the major differences between the republic and democracy depending on the spheres of the country and number of citizens. The great majority of citizens are responsible for the support of their rights in a democratic state being able to avoid and resist oppression. The author stated that the smaller the social group is the fewer number of parties supporting particular interests will be. Nevertheless, the advantage of the republic over democracy is the complete control over the faction effects. Thus, it is important to stress that the main aspect of the work by James Madison is concentrating on the faction resistance of the society which is the background of all social problems and misunderstandings. The character of Federalists being based on the Renaissance and Enlightenment rhetoric contains the major aspects of the social remedy providing public unity avoiding debts and property division which are the major reasons for social inequality in the United States. (Madison, 1787).
The principles of the Renaissance and Enlightenment rhetoric left a print on the interpretation and the nature of the Declaration of Independence. This paper is considered to be one of the most masterfully and properly written official documents. The political prose style and extraordinary merits are regarded as the background for the Declaration assessment. The characteristic of Stephen Lucas’ time contributed to the paper of the Declaration analysis. He stated that the major and principle word in the introductory part of the document was considered to be “necessary” which identified the mood of the 19th century. It explains the function of persuasion of the document; it is aimed to declare the publicity the main positions and aspects of the US, to inform the society about the causes of the state objectivity. The notion “necessary” dominating in the document means the desire frustration prevailing in the society. The author of the paper under analysis understood the beginning of the Declaration as the address to the British American conflict directly. This official document refers to the general governmental philosophy making the revolution between two states justifiable. It should be noted that the document is thoroughly written making each word aimed at achievement of the strong social impact. The well constructed sentences are the characteristic of the Enlightenment prose style of the 18th century. It expresses directness, simplicity and the highest literary and rhetoric virtues. The tone of the document, according to the position of the Lucas’ study refers to the principles of rhetoric. Thus, Hugh Blair in the work “Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Letters” stated the following:
“…the composing manner of the document is quite pompous and musical giving the idea that the dignity and gravity are reinforced by the principles of rhetorical perception… ” (Lucas, 538)
The analysis of the Declaration by Lucas is considered to be the approval of the fact that this set of rules had a powerful meaning of structural unity. The author of the paper managed to show that the document is directed against the tyrannical authority from the rhetoric point of view. The structure and the nature of the document are merely based on the major principles and aspects of the Enlightenment culture. It is important to stress that the text of the declaration as it was underlined by Lucas is merely directed at the conflict of British America’s character. The notion of “facts” dominating the structure of the Declaration sentences is considered to undergo a lot of different connotations; nevertheless, the major one referred to the eighteenth century meaning the thing being already done. This position proves the Renaissance’s impact on the nature of the document. Jefferson and Congress accepted the meaning of the “facts” reflecting it in the character of the Declaration principles.
Thus, the detailed analysis of the Stylistic Artistry of the Declaration of Independence written by Stephen Lucas is considered to be the reflection of the methods and rules used in the rhetoric study. The exploration of the document showed the print of the 18th century and Renaissance features left not only on the structure of the paper but on the character and sense of the words used in it. (Lucas, 540).
Conclusion
To conclude the analysis of the Enlightenment and Renaissance cultures based on rhetorical principles it should be stated that the political side of the United States of America, its official documents, and federalists’ papers reflect the major aspects of the 17-18th centuries highlighting the nature of the cultures. The great theorists as it was discovered in the essay devoted their work to the rhetoric aspects of the American official papers. It allowed seeing the main features of the Renaissance and Enlightenment principles. The theoretical points and views on the political life of the society from the rhetoric side disclosed the major principles of the government position and documental place in the community. Thus, the Renaissance and Enlightenment rhetoric principles appeared to take a significant place in the official political life of the USA.
References
Bacon, F. The Advancement of Learning. The Book II. pp. 740 – 745. n.d.
Madison, J. The Federalists No. 10. The Utility of the Union as a Safeguard against Domestic Faction and Insurrection. Daily Advertiser. 1787.
Lucas, S. Stylistic Artistry of the Declaration of Independence. Close Textual Analysis. pp. 531 – 546.
Swift, J. A Modest Proposal. London, 1729.
Farrell, J. The science of Suspicion. Panorama and Modernity. Chapter 6. 2006.
As we begin to read the history of art in Italy one finds some examples of homosexuality among the notables of the time. In fact it was at its peak in the Renaissance Italy (Rocke, 1998, pg. 3). Many celebrities of the time had their male partners that too became known to the world since their name became associated with them. Among the notables the names of Marsilio Ficino, Leonardo da Vinci, Benedetto Varchi, Michelangelo, Pope Julius III, Benvenuto Cellini and Prospero Farinacci are quite prominent. The literary figures of the time used the medium of art to express their feeling for their partners. Michelangelo used both the medium of art and poetry to express his feelings for several young boys. The most prominent name associated with him is that of Cavalieri. The poet has written a number of sonnets in which he has talked about his love for the gentleman.
Here it would be pertinent to discuss the term homosexuality. Rocke points out in his book that the word “homosexual” was not in use until the nineteenth century, and in the Renaissance there was no exact equivalent of it; indeed, it can be (and has been) disputed whether homosexuality existed as a social identity in the sense that it does today. “Sodomy” was the term regularly used to describe same-sex relations, although this word was not synonymous with “homosexuality.” There were certain erotic acts that were considered unnatural and any person found guilty for such acts with his or her own or opposite gender was considered a sodomite (Rocke, 1998, pg. 12).
Rocke defines sodomy as a term usually referred to having sexual relationships among males and includes all those sexual activities that according to Catholic dogma do not result in procreation which is believed to be the sole purpose of having sex. In renaissance Italy the vice of sodomy became so common that most of the men did not feel ashamed to disclose their relationship with other males. In 1376, Pope Gregory XI commented about sodomy among Florentines as an “act so abominable that I dare not mention it.” It was a period when Italy was considered the “mother” of sodomy. Sexual activities of Italians were much talked about in the local and foreign publications and it went to such an extent that in Germany “to sodomize” was most commonly known as “florenzen” and a sodomite was called a “Florenzer” (Rocke, 1998, pg. 3).
The aim of this paper is to discuss the prevalence of homosexuality in the Renaissance Italy. I would like to reflect on its prevalence in the literature of that period. My focus would be on the poetry of Michelangelo who used this medium to talk about his homosexual emotions and in some cases his unfulfilled love for a number of male partners. It would be interesting to see the neoplatonic imagery of his poems as a form of “sublimation” due to the repression of same-sex relations in society.Towards the end I would like to analyze if Michelangelo comes across as a “typical” male homosexual or not.
Because of the continued prevalence of the “unmentionable vice” (as was dubbed by the Italians themselves) homosexual love made its way in the literature of that period. Dante’s “Divine Comedy” discusses homosexuals in hell and paradoxically given respect and affection. Likewise Boccaccio’s witty tale about the sodomite Pietro di Vinciolo in the “Decameron” became the trendsetter for other poets to talk about their homosexual love in poetry. Various novels, elegies, anecdotes and poems talked about same-sex love. Several artists also attempted to compose songs about same-sex love. However several laws were enforced which strictly forbade them to do so (Rocke, 1998, pg.4).
Historians have recorded the names of a number of notable figures who were known to be homosexuals in the Italian Renaissance. Some of the notable names included artists and scientists such as Marsilio Ficino, Leonardo da Vinci, Benedetto Varchi, Michelangelo, Pope Julius III, Benvenuto Cellini and Prospero Farinacci. Each had his own respected partner who too became famous because they had a relationship with the above-mentioned notables of the society (The World History of Male Love, n.d.).
Michelangelo was disliked for his rude temperament and homosexual yearnings. Still he is considered to be one of the greatest lyric poets of renaissance Italy. It is believed that his poems and sculptures are the only proof of his being homosexual. He paid special attention to male beauty and celebrated it in his art. Most of his poems belong to the period when he was in his fifties or sixties. It was during that period that his homosexual yearnings became known to those who admired his poetry. A majority of poems written in 1530s are a reflection of his frustration and unfulfilled love for a twenty-three-year-old male named Tommaso de Cavalieri whom he met in Rome (Singh, n.d.).
Michelangelo has written approximately 300 sonnets and madrigals for Cavalieri. Since homosexuality was socially unacceptable at that time his poems were edited by his followers in order to protect his image. Despite editing, his love for Cavalieri could still be seen in his poems. Cavalieri on the other hand was heterosexual and was just a friend of Michelangelo. That was the reason why Michelangelo’s love for him remained unfulfilled. It is stated that Cavalieri was not the only person who was interested in Michelangelo. There were a number of young boys belonging to the elite class of the society who posed nude for Michelangelo. The poet has written a number of poems about them. Among these boys a notable name is that of Cecchino dei Bracci, a sixteen-year-old boy, whose death inspired the poet to compose 48 epigrams. However, most of these boys used Michelangelo only for their selfish interests (Singh, n.d.). At Cecchino’s death Michelangelo wrote the epitaph stating that his youth is “as a flame that consumes me” and “My love has ratified the agreement which I made of myself to him.” He further writes:
he earthy flesh, and here my bones deprived Of their charming face and beautiful eyes, Do yet attest for him how gracious I was in bed When he embraced, and in what the soul doth live. I was only alive; but dead, I grew Dearer to him who lost me when I died. He loves me more than when I lay beside him; Then good is death if love, for it, grows too (Norton, 2008).
Michelangelo’s sonnets are a reflection of his homosexual desires against the background of a society that condemns it and considers it a sin. In one of his sonnets written for Cavalieri he writes:
If one chaste love, if one divine compassion, If one destiny is equal for two lovers, If one hard fate of the one is felt by the other, If one spirit, if one will guide two hearts; If one soul in two bodies makes itself eternal, Lifting both to heaven with a single wing, If Love in one blow and one golden arrow The hearts in two chests can burn and tear; If the one loves the other and neither loves himself, With one pleasure and one delight, to such a measure That one and the other desire to reach a single end: Thousands and thousands would not make a hundredth Of such a knot of love, or of such a faith: And only anger could break and untie it (Hooker, 1996).
The sonnet exposes his love in a neo-platonic language according to which two people are bound together to achieve God or eternity. The poet argues in the sonnet that his desire to achieve eternal is not carnal but spiritual and therefore pure (Hooker, 1996).
In another sonnet written to Cavalieri he writes: You know that I know, my lord, that you know That I draw close to taking pleasure in you, And you know that I know that you know who I am; So why do you delay our acknowledging each other? If true is the hope that you give to me, If true is the great desire that I’ve been given, Let the wall between them be broken down, For doubly violent are concealed woes. If I only love in you, my dearest lord, That which you love in yourself, do not scorn Because one spirit has fallen in love with another. That which I desire and learn from your beautiful face Is imperfectly comprehended by human minds: Who wishes to know it must first die (Hooker, 1996).
Once again the sonnet is a clear reflection of his homosexual love for Cavalieri. The sonnet clearly states that the poet wants his partner to accept his love and acknowledge it with full authority and force (Hooker, 1996). On another occasion the poet comments about his intense love for Cavalieri in the following words:
Why should I seek to ease intense desire With still more tears and windy words of grief? If only chains and bands can make me blest, No marvel if alone and naked I go An armed Cavaliere’s captive and slave confessed (Hooker, 1996).
Cavaliere was a happily married man. However the poems are a reflection of the mystical love that Michelangelo felt for his friend. Michelangelo termed his love for Cavaliere as pure and Platonic and composed a number of poems. He gave a religious touch to his poems where Cavaliere was depicted as a savior and himself as a bride of Christ (Norton, 2008).
In another sonnet which was left unfinished the poet writes: Over here it was that my love stole from me, In his mercy, my heart and, farther on, my life. Herewith his beautiful eyes he promised me help, And with the same eyes here he stole it back. Over here he bound me and here released me; For myself I wept here, and with infinite sorrow From this rock I saw him leave, He who stole me from me and never turned back (Hooker, 1996).
The above sonnet discusses the relationship between Michelangelo and another fellow named Gheraardo Perini. The poet has used the traditional technique of using antithesis which is a way to describe his unfulfilled love (Hooker, 1996).). His uses of words such as “bound me” and “released me” are a reflection of the agony that he has felt due to the intense love and departure of the lover. Perini worked with the poet around 1520s and their love for each other developed in 1522-25. It is believed that the following lines written by the poet were for Perini. He writes: ‘I had always thought I could come to terms with love, Now I suffer, and you see how I burn”. Their relationship continued till around mid-1530s (Norton, 2008)”. In another sonnet, left unfinished, the poet writes:
I live in sin, dying to myself I live; Life is no longer mine, but belongs to sin; My good is from heaven, the evil I give to myself, From my own unbound will, which has been stolen from me. My freedom is a slave, my divinity has made itself Mortal. Oh, unhappy state! To what misery, to what life I’ve been born! (Hooker, 1996).
Michelangelo has made nude male sculptures and written poetry celebrating his homosexual feelings. He believed that the highest form of love could only be for men and not for women. He writes in a sonnet that a woman “is not worthy of a wise and virile heart (Norton, 2008).” On another occasion he comments on his young apprentice in the following words: “Once you saw him, you’d chase him into bed the minute you got home (Norton, 2008).” Talking about his love for male body he says “Whose judgment would be so barbarous as not to appreciate that the foot of a man is nobler than his boot, and his skin nobler than that of a sheep, with which he is dressed (Norton, 2008)”In the above sonnet the poet expresses his sense of guilt, shame and sin. The poem has been written by the poet having his homosexual desires in his mind which were considered as unspeakable evil by the society. The poem gains its significance when read with such a background. It seems that the guilt of sin is too much upon the poet (Hooker, 1996).
Some other names associated with the poet’s homosexual behavior included his young servant Francesco Urbino, Bartolommeo Bettini and Andrea Quaratesi, a young boy with whom the poet’s extreme infatuation is reflected through the letters written to him. Michelangelo mentioned his relationship with Andrea as an arrow being shot by Cupid (Norton, 2008).
After reviewing the poetic themes and style of Michelangelo one can safely conclude that he was quite vocal about his feelings for various people belonging to the same gender. We have studied the evidence that shows that he did have sexual relations with a number of guys who either used him for their selfish interests or really felt the same about the poet. His sculptures of naked men further support our conclusion that he did have relationship with men. Sodomy, as was the term used by the Italians in the renaissance, is reflected through Michelangelo’s work and he did not feel the need to hide it from the world. Michelangelo never got married and his views about women as being inferior to men and not worthy of highest form of love are also convincing. Whatever the case was, Michelangelo’s love for young men has led him to produce a number of masterpieces in poetry and also in the art of sculptures. The world remembers him more as a genius rather than a sodomite or homosexual in the modern language.
References
Hooker, R. (1996). “Michelangelo- Selected Poetry”, Web.
Norton, R. (2008). “The Passions of Michelangelo”, Gay History and Literature, Web.
Rocke, M. (1998). “Forbidden Friendships- Homosexuality and Male Culture in Renaissance Florence.” Oxford University Press. United States. Pg. 1-5.
Singh, S. (n.d.). “Michelangelo: The Love Poet,” Zeenews.com, Web.
This paper presents a vivid discussion on renaissance papacy which was experienced in Western Europe. It is important to understand that papacy represents perpetual rule by the Pope in the catholic community. This role of Pope is divided into time period spanning from the early church, the middle ages and ultimately the present times. In brief, the Pope lacked power during the early church and only served as the bishop. The Middle Ages span from the 14th century until 1870. It was during this period that rule by Pope reached the maximum point of uniting churches in Western Europe and subsequently infiltrating many geographical areas. During the 19th century, Pope’s power declined to mark the beginning of modern age. Major role played by the Pope in the modern age is leading the church in a spiritual orientation only. The essay paper will focus on these time periods in order to understand well papacy rule in Western Europe. It will also involve a chronological description of the office of the Pope making reference to various occupiers like Nicholas V (1447-1455) to Leo X (1513 – 1521). Furthermore, critiques of the power structure of the Catholic Church are worth evaluating for its effectiveness and efficiency in Europe. Finally, the paper will highlight on the strengths and weakness of the papacy rule with reference to reformation age.
The Renaissance Papacy
This was a ruled by Popes and took place in time period between Western Schism and the Protestant reformation. Starting with the election of Martin in 1417 to the protestant age, Christianity in the West was not influenced by schism. Disputes which arose in the course of Papal rule was evaluated and settled by adhering to due processes of dispute resolution of papal conclave. The Popes of the renaissance period were elected by a constituted cardinals dominated by relatives to the Pope, members of the powerful Italians and the representatives of the catholic monarchs in the Europe (Janz, 21). The two Popes were each sourced from houses of Della Rovere, Medici and Borgia. Popes who were wealthy supported art and architecture therefore reshaping Rome.
There exist distinguishing features of renaissance in Western Europe. In a study by Norris (43), ‘‘The first one is the focus on new learning which prompted people to shape their artistic skills, knowledge of architecture, poetry and even literature’’. Boccaccio and Michaelangelo were among the contributors to the new beginning which saw the formation of magnificent art. The second distinguishing mark for the renaissance period was the increasing immorality in the community. Boccaccio, a prolific writer and artist brought forward the discussion on immoral act by the Popes ad other religious personnel.
Another distinguishing mark for this renaissance period was a diversion of attention from the divine to paying attention to creatures by worshiping them (Spielvogel, 32). This was an inexcusable violation of the moral rules and regulations. Furthermore, the trait where people strayed away from teachings and descriptions of Godly acts described vividly the insurgences of new way of life. Nicholas V (1447-1455) advanced his artistic work by using the funds which belonged to church. This is clear demonstration of immoral and absolute infringement of a regular course of Christian life which should have be free of corrupt practices. After the rule by Nicholas came Callixtus III (1455-1458) from the Borgia family who further practiced nepotism. This is well expressed when he appointed two nephews as cardinals.
Pius II (1458 – 1464) is recognized as the third to rule the catholic community. He was identified as a humanist hence classified as a better ruler. Contrary to teachings of the church, Pius revealed his immoral self by fathering illegitimate children. His extraordinary work was in poetry although he was criticized for practicing nepotism by appointing one of his nephews as a cardinal. The nephew later occupied the office of the Pope as Pope Paul II in 1464 – 1471. Paul was uncivilized and therefore employed the policies used by Pius. He subsequently disregarded humanistic theories perpetuated by Pius. One of the substantial contribution made by Paul was the establishment of German printers in the Vatican (1467) and the construction of building projects, a pragmatic aspect (Rabb, 70).
Sixtus IV (1471 – 1481) is agreed by historians as a person who succeeded Paul II. He showed support for artist who produced excellent work of art but on a large scale practiced nepotism by appointing relatives to various positions of authority. This was a significant contrast to his description as a scholar and teacher. Sixtus also gave an order for the destruction of archaeological evidence (ancient temples and tombs) to pave way for the construction of Sistine Chapel which was made holy in 1483. In the year1484 – 1492, Innocent VIII took over as Pope when Sixtus died. Contrary to previous Popes, Innocent revealed having a legitimate child and many illegitimate ones. On a positive note, Innocent showed assistance to painters. Rodrigo Borgia took over as Pope after the death of Innocent. He assumed the name Alexander VI (1492 – 1503). To succeed Alexander was Pius III who only ruled for 26 days because of his poor health status. Julius II took over the office (1503 – 1513), after returning from exile. His main point of contention was in punishing those guilty of simony. ‘‘Julius also can be identified as a warrior after leading papal armies into an encounter and an astute supporter of art when he hired Michaelangelo to paint Sistine chapel ceilings’’ (Spielvogel, 50). A further contribution made by Julius was his role in laying the foundation for St. Peter’s Basilica. Leo X, who had less spiritual commitment, came in next as a Pope in 1513 – 1521. It was during his papacy that Protestant reformation took its roots in the system of rule.
Contribution of renaissance/ strengths and weakness
Renaissance encouraged practical reformers demonstrated by Nicholas of Cusa when he paid much attention to reshaping monks who had dismissed their monastic vows (Norris, 54). Monasteries in Paris also went through major change during the 16th century. One of the outstanding contributions to reformation was made by cardinal Ximenes who set the prerequisite for teaching and instilling discipline in the church leaders. The stated changes acted as a trigger for widespread transformation. Although the background of the renaissance period is marked by weak religious conditions, people expressed their hope for a better tomorrow.
The work of a German writer and monk formed a basis for teachings in schools. Churches and chapels which were built during the renaissance period formed a ground for people to worship and exercise their devotion. In the 15th century, printing press introduced in Europe assisted in production of religious books and subsequent distribution to ready market. This made people to be aware of the church which was run as an institution. John Wycliffe who was a British philosopher substantially attacked the institution of the church in his writings.
The general objective of the renaissance period was to link the classical form with the Christian faith which made people to observe Christianity in a different angle. Educationally, the task of renaissance was to uphold a rigorous study in order to improve a Christian way of life. Many reformers who aimed at changing the existing context of the church were a complete description of the renaissance. Influential theologians like Jean de Gerson supported conciliar theory. The theory simply was intended at reforming the Roman Catholic Church by emphasizing on authority placed on a general council instead of the executive authority of the Pope. Spiritualist intended to enrich the religious life of the people while on the contrary, humanist emphasized on educating the general public through a detailed curriculum instead of use of faith.
Conclusion
It is now apparent from this discussion that renaissance papacy was a period of rule by the Pope between western schism and the protestant reconstruction. They demonstrated a strong religious base in addition to their political orientation. The paper presented a chronology of rule by Pope beginning with Nicholas V (1447-1455) to Leo X (1513 – 1521). Each Pope had personal interests and weakness but it was obvious that their basis of operation was family, Rome and Italy. Some of the major achievements made during the renaissance papacy included; construction of chapels and printing press in the 15th century. Attackers on church emanating from prolific writers like John Wycliffe and Jan Hus contributed to change from running a church as an institute to its management as a religious ground for worship and devotion.
Works cited
Janz, Denis. A Reformation Reader. Pottstown, PA: Fortress Press, 2008.
Norris, Michael. “The Papacy during the Renaissance”. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000.
Rabb, Theodore. The Last Days of the Renaissance. New York: Perseus Books Group, 2007.
Spielvogel, Jackson. Western Civilization: Alternate Volume: Since 1300. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing, 2008.
“For Jewish historians Zionism is, of course, one of the pre-eminent facts — for most, it is the crucial issue — of Jewish life in the modern age, and it therefore engages their complete attention”.– (Hertzberg, 15).
The ideas underlying the numerous institutions of Israel are not new to the idea of the Jewish state: that sees sovereignty as a tool for the solution of the Jewish crisis. National independence, as the defined means for solving the Jewish crisis, is an idea revealed in all the institutions of Israeli society and in the political construction of the Jewish state.
Thus the rationale of Israel, embodied in its economic, cultural, as well as social institutions, comprise the following: to build up Hebrew as the national language; to take up mass immigration of Jews who cannot or do not wish to be located in other countries; to set up a community in Israel free from the social as well as cultural ills that in the past attended the Jewish position as a minority people dispersed all through the world; and to perform necessary transformations in social as well as economic distribution, create suitable socioeconomic institutions, and promote cultural changes necessary for the understanding of such a revolutionary program.
In all these efforts, the original myths of Jewish independence–the will to declare the right as well as obtain the ability to control one’s own national destiny and freely express one’s own national individuality–is disguised, though with varying comprehensibility and in various forms (Shimoni, 81).
Main text
Israel is one of those modern societies whose early institutions were evidently shaped by an ideological movement. Israel is identical to other new states whose political institutions straightforwardly obtain from the nationalist movement that won their sovereignty. But additionally, a wide variety of economic, social, as well as cultural institutions of the new Jewish state were originally developed by the Zionist organization along with its associated bodies. In these respects, Zionism had a remarkable impact among nationalist movements. It must rather be compared to social revolutionary as well as radical reform movements.
The Zionist movement and the rise of Israel are terrific exceptions. Jews did not face the common nationalist circumstances of being exploited in their own land by a foreign ruler, the national enemy, who infuriated all of them, whatever their category or kind, by the same agonizing contact to the point where they could focus their various hostilities in a single legend image. The Jewish people lived as a minority in many countries all over the world, among many diverse ruling nations as well as under different regimes. The oppressions they suffered were different in kind, varying from intense to barely visible and no single foe could reasonably be held accountable for all Jewish frustrations.
Hence, when Jewish nationalism arose, rival beliefs did not surrender to it. They engaged instead in a sharp polemic through which their own positions became more entirely complicated as well as well defined. Nor did the whole nationalist movement think upon the principal purpose of national sovereignty. Many nationalist factions arose, each maintained that its individual goal was most significant and all others secondary.
Zionists detested the idea of restraining distinguishing Jewish qualities as well as aspirations for the sake of approval in gentile society. Yet they proposed to press on to many of the very social, cultural, as well as economic reforms started by earlier modernists; but by relating them to a diverse purpose, the immigration in Zion, they distorted the nature and enlarged the range of these reforms (Almog, 125).
In addition to the objective of political sovereignty, Zionists announced the following precise aims: to build up Hebrew as a spoken language and the base of a national consensus; to transfer to Palestine all Jews who could not or did not desire to live in Diaspora countries; to institute a community in Palestine free from the peculiar social, economic, as well as cultural problems that overwhelmed the Jewish position as a dispersed minority people. When Israel arose, the Zionist idea of the auto-liberation of the Jews was realized in the clearest, most accurate form, through the institution of the Jewish state. This was a topmost accomplishment, the capstone of an institutional structure exemplifying many other, nonpolitical, Zionist aims.
In the year 1948, Hebrew was a spoken language in Palestine, and the language of teaching in Jewish schools from the kindergarten to the university. Jews had established that they could be farmers as well as workers–and soldiers, if requirement be–as well as scholars in addition to merchants.
They had an economy resolutely established on a base of Jewish labor in agriculture as well as industry as well as the service trades; the community had established its ability to absorb immigrants as well as expected rapid growth in the future The commencement of Zionism may be traced to the generation of European Jews who experienced the increase of political anti-Semitism on the continent since the 1870s, oppressive anti-Jewish nationalism in Rumania, pogroms, and, in particular, the overlooking of pogroms by Russian radicals, in the 1880s.
The last struck home with disturbing effect among the Jewish intelligentsia: many who had hoped for a “coherent” solution of the Jewish problem on liberal lines now turned in aggressive disenchantment against attitudes as well as assumptions they had beforehand shared. They not merely denied the supposition that gentiles would kindly grant liberation to Eastern European Jews if Jews adapted themselves to Western humanism; they fervently rejected so obedient a Jewish policy as worthy of contempt.
Anti-Semitism, they contended, was not just an indication of historical backwardness among some gentile communities. It was entrenched in enduring features of the Jewish situation: in their homelessness, their worldwide minority status, or their incomprehensible, anxiety-provoking, millennial endurance in exile. As a result, anti-Semitism should be anticipated to continue wherever Jews lived in gentile society, whether or not liberalism was in fact the wave of the future.
The Jews could only in fact be free– and, indeed, only ought to have freedom–if they freed themselves by communal action: by an “auto-emancipation.” So, too, they would recover a true culture not by slavishly copying a general, Western Enlightenment but by refining their own significant tradition as well as national independence (Almog, 1987, 121-125).
Such stress on national independence and self-sufficiency is, of course, not exclusively Zionist. Similar ideas as well as feelings were widespread in nationalist revivals everywhere. From the French Revolution to pan-Slavism, there were many models whose influence could have created a Jewish nationalism, if Jews had been adequately susceptible to such influences.
But for most of the nineteenth century, Jewish receptiveness to a nationalist solution of their problem was efficiently blocked. Devout traditionalists observed the history of Jewish suffering as reparation to be affectionately borne until the messiah brought deliverance, and they suspected any suggestion for active efforts by Jews to finish the exile as unorthodox. Modernists who favored action to end Jewish disabilities as well as improve their social along with their economic positions had other reasons to refuse nationalist ideas: the argument that Jews were a separate nation was used as a disagreement against their liberation by anti-Semites throughout Europe.
Therefore, the nationalist revivals that Jews observed around them did not give birth to a noteworthy parallel movement of Jewish nationalism. Individual thinkers in the West developed a Jewish nationalist policy as well as some traditionalists saw messianic portents in the nationalist uprisings of the time, but no previously effective political movement arose until disenchantment with gentile liberalism set in among East European modernists (Shimoni, 78-81).
Conclusion
One further constituent that made Zionism striking to some Western Jews was their growing concern over the effects of the rationalist universalism of Jewish sacred reform and of secularist liberalism in Western countries. Young Jews brought up in such a setting too often troubled their parents by discarding their tribal loyalties; or, otherwise, the young might themselves find their parents’ secularism or reformed religion to be repugnant expressions of a bourgeois lifestyle.
Both situations could lead, among other divergence from the recognized Western Jewish consensus, to a heightened admiration of the solid ethnic-rootedness believed to typify the East European Jewish community. Zionism, as an expression of this class, drew some German Jews of Orthodox religious setting in the early years.
Later, particularly after closer contacts with Eastern Europe during World War I, an avant-gardist group of young Zionists in Berlin, Prague, as well as other centers of German modernist culture came to lead the German Zionist movement. Both there and in America and other Western Jewish communities, Zionism was taken up, like the fashion for neo-Hasidism enthused by Martin Buber and others, as part of a broader rebellion of the young in opposition to the older Western Jewish institution.
Works Cited
Almog, Shmuel. Zionism and History: The Rise of a New Jewish Consciousness New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987.
Hertzberg, Arthur. “The Zionist Idea: A Historical Analysis and Reader”. Jewish Publication Society, Philadelphia (1997): 15.
Shimoni, Gideon. The Zionist Ideology. Hanover and London:University Press of New England, 1995.
The Greek city-states had a distinctive political and social organization. The distinctiveness was mirrored in their democratic systems, citizen rights, understanding of justice and law and strong institutional features. These characteristics distinguished the city-states with others present in various jurisdictions around the world (Mathisen, 2006).
On the other hand, Mathisen asserts that the renaissance in Italy occurred after the devastating Black Death (2006). Unlike in Greece, Italy’s city states stressed the restoration of traditional forms of politics, literature and art. Italy’s city states were stable, had unique culture identity (MacCormack, 1977).
Conversely, the Greek city- states open democracy and leadership; hence, it was not transferred to a person outside the burgess family. However, in Italy, once a leader ascended to power, he would exploit and suppress other instruments of power to make his leadership look hereditary.
Discussion
The scale of the Greek city states was small. Aristotle, a philosopher showed that it was necessary for citizens to be small in number, so they can understand each other’s unique qualities (Saxonhouse, 1993). Besides his assertion, the small size of city state citizens enabled the population to know each other in electing officials for administrative purposes (Saxonhouse, 1993).
Citizens occupying city states were fixed; hence, fixing was determined by criteria that all citizens should know each other. The citizens in various city states were related by blood. Hence, a family tie was exceptionally strong. For example, boys formed friendships and mingled together in schools, men served in unity during times of wars.
Similarly, the citizens discussed and debated one another in public assemblies, elected magistrates and had a duty to vote (Saxonhouse, 1993). This, in other words, illustrates the city states influenced direct involvement of citizens in the affairs of governance, military service and politics. Hence, the city states were comprehensive and had close ties.
Evading one’s role was rare; in circumstances when it was noted, the offense was a punishable. Similarly, citizens did not have privileges or rights, but duties. A citizen who did not follow his duties was socially disruptive (Saxonhouse, 1993). The power system was made up of a legislative body of male citizens and various elected officials; the system was not purely hereditary.
According to Muir (2002) feudalism was not fixed in Italy, as a result, many city states stretched in the rural areas by subduing the aristocrats and taking their lands. The land owners took up abode in newly formed cities. In the cities, the land owners’ began asserting authority in matters of politics and governance (MacCormack, 1977). In a nut shell, the struggle for power was connected with the rise of new classes in the society.
Similarities of Greece and Italian City-States
Similarities
According to Spencer (2005) the invasion by the Dorians was one reason that strengthened the growth of the city states. The vantage position of Greece was conducive to establishing the city-states. The migration, growth and expansion, was aided by availability of sea transport. Similar factors were also noted to the development of Italian city states.
For security and defense, new immigrants had to live together in ‘polis’ in Greece (Spencer, 2005). Hence, this eased an inclusion of immigrants in the ‘polis’. ‘Polis’ was used to indicate ‘a castle’; however, it gradually evolved to mean a ‘city’. Similarly, in Italy, the availability of land and its closeness to peninsular created a favorable environment for migration and for fixing city states.
During the Renaissance, the city states in Italy enjoyed cultural, economic and political domination (Skinner & Strath, 2003). The five leading states political empires were persistent. However, they were vulnerable due to the extension the Ottoman Empire in Italy. The Ottomans swiftly extended their control to Greece and the Balkan peninsular.
Despite the challenge posed by the Ottomans, the Italian cities were incapable of overcoming their differences; this plunged them into an internecine variation that ruined the strength of political influence they had before (Skinner & Strath, 2003). This was similar to Greece city states; they were economically stable, enjoyed cultural plurality and had powerful political democracy.
Differences
In Greece, the polis was made up of autonomous communities. They were largely dominated by male and united by race. Also, membership in the city state was inherited. It was not transferred to an individual or person outside the burgess family unit (Yuval-Davis, 2006). Most of the city-states were comprised of different group of people. They included the elite, peasants, slaves and women.
The resident’s aliens did not form part of the body of citizens. In Italy, the city states membership was large; a member automatically belonged to given social class basing on his wealth, profession among other attributes. The administrative system was not hereditary; however, once a person seized power, he would suppress authority to make his leadership hereditary.
The economic development of Greek city states simplified the social classes. As an advance in trade and economic systems, and absent of labor; the common people in Greece mainland became free and the projected egalitarian element that was discontent with the prevailing political formation.
However, in Italy, the social characteristic of the citizens was determined by being a subscriber to guild, occupation and community organizations that imposed monopolies of production or trade. In addition, the social structure was not comprehensive.
At the top of the guild systems were bankers, wholesale merchants, and public administrators (Brucker, 2006). Down, the social ladder were experienced craftspeople and retail merchants while, at the bottom, unskilled and underemployed laborers completed the social system.
All the New Greek cities embraced the rule of self-government and autarky. Thus, the political system was not based on family ties, but on democracy or contracts. Compared to inland transport, where the whole household would be packed on a single cart, a ship was used to take only a certain number of people. Hence, the difficulty in exploration to new land broke the already weakened blood relation.
These assertions contributed to the weakness of the kings. In Italy city states, the political system was dominated by five administrative units. The south was ruled by the hereditary monarchs, in the north was the Papal States governed from Rome (Muir, 2002).
Within the Papal States were many semi-independent cities seeking to aloof themselves from the religious government. The remaining three city-states were found in northern Italy.
City states in Italy differed with those in Greece in the level of urbanization, seven of the largest cities were found in the Italian peninsular while others were scattered around the region (Muir, 1999). Despite the decrease in the population, the city space was packed with men, animals and markets. The social association differed; mostly property association determined ones connection to the place he lived.
In Greece city states, the support for an absolute dictator was not guaranteed. This was because the king belonged to aristocracy class, and that kingship naturally disappeared without a need for revolution. Greek city-states formed a representative custom within the aristocratic class and evolved gradually into a system with a detailed structure and internal rules.
The democratic process formed the basis of the due process of the law. Also, the law represented the will of the aristocratic elite and the elites assumed priority over the will of an individual ruler. In Italy, there were constant conflicts between the kings. This contributed to the rise of repression. Muir (1999) gives an example of competition between grandi and popolo parties.
Popolo tended to elect its ruler from the nobility, and opposition party. This was because of the supremacy battles between the two parties. They granted the ruler title such as “captain of the people” (Spencer, 2005), once the party clinched the victory, its leader became the head of the city state.
As a ruler his objective was to make his power absolute; suppressing other sources of power and then proceeded to make his leadership hereditary.
Conclusion
The Greek city-states had an inclusive form of administration. This was illustrated in various strong institutions and rights of its citizens. The Greek city-states were small this ensured inclusiveness as citizens could understand each other. In Italy, the city-states authority belonged to rich and the gentries.
Different social classes were established thus; citizens were excluded in the administration process. However, despite the differences in political structures; both cities embraced economic activities such as trade and art among others.
References
Brucker, GA1999, “Civic Traditions in Pre-modern Italy.” Journal of Interdisciplinary, History, Vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 357-77.
MacCormack, S 1977, Sin, Citizenship, and the Salvation of Souls: The Impact of Christian Priorities on the Late-Roman and Post-Roman Society, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 39, pp. 644 – 673
Mathisen, R 2006, “Peregrini, Barbari, and Cives Romani: Concepts of Citizenship and the Legal Identity of Barbarians in the Later Roman Empire,” American Historical Review, Vol. 111, no 4, pp. 1011-1040.
Muir, E 1999,The Sources of Civil Society in Italy. Journal of Interdisciplinary History Vol. 29, no 3, pp. 379-406.
Muir, E 2002, “The Idea of Community in Renaissance Italy.” Renaissance Quarterly Vol. 55, no 1, pp. 1-18.
Saxonhouse, A 1993, “Athenian Democracy: Modern Mythmakers and Ancient Theorists”, Political Science and Politics, Vol. 26 no 3, pp 486 – 490.
Skinner, Q & Strath, B 2003, States and citizens: history, theory, prospects, Cambridge University Press, New York
Spencer, MG 2005, Hobbes, Thomas (1588–1679). Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and The Right, Sage Publishing, California
Yuval-Davis, N 2006, Belonging and the politics of belonging. Patterns of Prejudice, Vol. 40, no 3, pp. 197 – 214.
Peter Stuyvesant set up the Harlem village in 1658. The man who was a governor in the Dutch republic named the new establishment after a popular Dutch city known as Nieuw Harlem. The new village took almost 6 miles of Manhattan 96th Street.
In the first two centuries following its establishment, famous New York residents who had big tracts of land in the area took residence in the establishment. Towards the middle of the 19th century, the wealthy farmers abandoned the farms since they had lost their productivity. This opened the door for downtown New Yorkers to reside in the land.
This had been made easier by the newly laid railroad network. Within a short period, Harlem was transformed in to one of the trendiest neighborhoods in the whole of New York. There were many religious, learning and artistic establishments, which gave the area a rich cultural background. (Angelfire)
By the turn of the 19th century, people were so optimistic about an upgrade of the existing transportation network in the area. This gave rise to heightened speculation in the real estate industry something that led to exaggerated market rates and the subsequent disintegration of the sector at the beginning of the 20th century. Taking full credit of the collapse, an American by the name of Philip Payton entered into contracts that saw him acquiring property owned by whites for renewable leases of five years.
In turn, Philip and his friends rented the property to Black Americans who considered Harlem a better place to reside. Within a short period, Harlem had been transformed in to an establishment for blacks only. This was heightened by the animosity that existed between whites and Negroes in the period that preceded World War 1. (Poets. Org)
By the time the war had ended, blacks from every part of America were moving to Harlem. Among those who were moving to the establishment included black poets, critics, literary anthologists, painters, illustrators, musicians, composers and actors.
Within a short time, Harlem became a sort of an urban artistic center for black Americans. However, the increasing population and high demand soon gave way to skyrocketing rental prices. This left culture as the only prospering thing within Harlem. A few years after World War 1 ended, Harlem became to black artists what Mecca is to Muslims.
The activities that they engaged in are what came to be termed as the Harlem Renaissance. What influenced most of the participants was the style that Europeans and white Americans were using in their literature and music. To most of the artists within the renaissance, the only topic they addressed was the experiences of blacks within an American society that was predominantly white. (Hill 20)
The music and writing style within the Harlem Renaissance carried the same theme of black experience in light of a white society. Within the Harlem, all the club experience carried the same colored theme. This made African Americans to create a self-awareness attitude something that brought a greater rift between blacks and whites.
As a young man, Langston Hughes had settled in Harlem while pursuing his college education. From his early days, Langston had a flair for poetry and he read a wide collection of poems from various authors. By the time he settled in Harlem, he was on his way towards becoming an established poet.
Although Langston’s poems, spoke of the experiences of black Americans in light of a white culture, he took a different route from the rest of his counterparts in the Harlem renaissance. Where his counterparts would focus on only one genre of writing, Langston decided to mix two or more genres in a single work.
A good example is his first book of poetry known as The Weary Blues. In the book, Langston mixed jazz, blues and a light touch of traditional verses. This was a complete new level of writing that other poets in Harlem were not used to. This became a great influence for future works produced within the Harlem Renaissance. (Poets. Org)
Another thing that made Langston Hughes to be of great influence to the Harlem renaissance was the success he acquired as a poet within the movement. This especially came in 1930 after he published his first work of fiction known as Not Without Laughter.
This was achieved with the help of a rich white woman known as Charlotte Mason. The novel was such as success that Langston bought his first car. Considering that he was only 28 years at the time, this was a great inspiration to other writers in the Harlem to work hard.
During this time, most artists in the Harlem Renaissance were not doing very well and Langston’s success must have been a big morale booster. Besides poetry, Langston also wrote novels, short stories, newspaper articles, and drama. This ability to write in almost all genres made him acceptable across the cultural divide. (Solloway, Bacon, & Muscanell)
In his writings, Langston used simple plain language laced with jokes, insight, and intellect to express his thoughts. Instead of complaining about the plight of back Americans in his works, Langston praises the two important aspects of the African culture namely their dark skin and their rich music. Instead of seeking to become equal to whites as most of his black artists sought, Langston appreciated and praised being African.
This can be seen in some of his most famous poems like I, Too, Sing America. This acceptance of his being a black American received criticism from his fellow artists who claimed that he paid attention on living as a low-class black in America. Despite the widespread criticism, Langston Hughes influence was so immense such that upon his death in 1967 the street leading to his house that was formerly known as 127th Street was renamed Langston Hughes Place in his honor. (World Class Poetry)
Conclusion
After experiencing many upheavals in its history, Harlem has evolved in to a region of Manhattan where Black Americans live in an isolated manner. Although the standards of living were pathetic at the beginning of the 20th century, a bunch of artists managed to give Harlem a different outlook.
Their literary works defined Harlem way of life and the general black experience in the context of white tradition. It is widely believed that Langston Hughes gave genuine and loud voice to the black society. Although this is still an opinion that is open to criticism, one thing that is undisputed is that very few artists if any within Harlem could articulate the adversity of and lowliness of black Americans as succinctly and fittingly as Langston did.
Despite their somewhat direct manner, it is important to consciously analyze every single word in his poems since the words he uses are highly effective and often carry a hidden meaning. It is also true that Langston Hughes is a respected icon in Black American literature. It is therefore without doubt that he helped in ushering the Harlem Renaissance and gave the African-American voice a much-needed respect and acceptance.