Category: Renaissance

Nicolaus Copernicus was a Renaissance-era mathematician and astronomer.

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473, in Torun, a city in north-central Poland. Nicolaus was the son of Barbara Watzenrode and Nicolaus Copernicus Sr. Technically, he was a German, but his parents immigrated to Poland before he was born. Then, Copernicus’s parents became official citizens of Poland.

Copernicus was the fourth and youngest child in his family. He had two sisters, Katharina and Barbra, and a brother, Andrew. He was the son of rich copper merchants but after his father died, Nicolaus was taken care of by his uncle, Lucas Watzenrode. Lucas was a bishop of the Catholic Church and this uncle was the most important person in Copernicus’s life. Nicolaus Copernicus didn’t get married and he never had children.

From his early life, Nicolaus Copernicus was raised with a good education. He could live a religious life because of his uncle, Lucas (Lucas was strict but respectful). His uncle helped Nicolaus and Andrew to get jobs in the church. Also, with the help of Lucas, Nicolaus and his brother were able to attend their first university. Unfortunately, his two sisters, Katharina and Barbra, couldn’t attend university because, at the time, girls should not learn more than grammar.

Nicolaus was able to go to four colleges because his family helped him to go to the universities. Nicolaus studied mathematics, geometry, and liberal arts including astrology, deeply, in his first university in Krakow from 1491-1495. From 1496-1500, he went to his second college, the University of Bologna, where he needed to study canon laws, but he focused more on astronomy. He visited Rome and stayed for four years in Padua. In Padua, he studied the laws of the church and he could get a new job in the church through his uncle’s help again and then, later, he studied medicine at the University of Padua from 1501-1503. Finally, he continued his studies at the University of Ferrara in Italy where he stopped studying at the age of 30.

As we can see from his scientific works, we notice that he was quite creative and brave. However, he was timid and afraid of the church. As evidence, he was afraid to publish his ideas because of the reaction of the church.

Copernicus was known for science and mathematics, but he was quite an economist. He was the first person who formulated the original quantity theory of money. The quantity theory of money is indicating that the prices differ from the supply of money in society. The causal chain of this theory started with the lowering of prices, which increased the money supply. He pointed out that the supply of money is the main factor determining price.

Today, he is very famous as an astronomer because he established most parts of the heliocentric theory. The heliocentric theory is the theory that the Earth revolves around the Sun. He was inspired by Aristarchus of Samos, who first presented heliocentrism and Nicolaus influenced another astronomer, Johannes Kepler. Also, by his observation, he was able to discover that the planets in the solar system orbited the Sun rather than the Earth, and the Moon is revolving around the Earth. But his observation of the sky (heaven) was made with naked eyes. While he was concentrating on the heliocentric theory, he also noticed that the Earth rotates daily on its own axis and the motion of the Earth affected what people saw in the skies. He concluded that the Sun is the center of the universe.

Nicolaus finished the first manuscript book in 1532 titled Dē revolutionibus erbium coelestium (Revolutions of orbium heaven). He published the book in 1543, just before he died, even though his theory was rejected by the Roman Catholic Church. He published the book on his deathbed. Dē revolutionibus orbium coelestium showed the works of Copernicus about heliocentric theory and he set the first models in the solar system. However, the book was banned to be published because of the Catholic Church after he died. His theory would be accepted by the late 18th century.

Nicolaus Copernicus faced death on 24th May 1543 at the age of 70 in Frombork, Poland. His death was caused by a stroke on his deathbed. He used his life for science, the church, and the government during the 15th century. According to legend, on the day he died, his final page of Dē revolutionibus orbium coelestium was presented to say goodbye to his life. His grave is located in the cathedral where he worked. His grave was lost for many years, but it was found in 2005.

There is a chemical element name that comes from his name, Copernicus. In the periodic table, you can see a symbol, ‘Cn’. This symbol is called Copernicium, with the atomic number 112. It was named in 2010 to give honor to Nicolaus Copernicus as he set most parts of the solar system so our sciences today, such as astronomy, were able to be developed.

Quote: Finally, we shall place the Sun himself at the center of the Universe.

Nicolaus Copernicus was a straightforward man and his theory and quotes were straightforward, too. His pieces of knowledge and ideas from his theories created a better world and developed the science by telling the truth. He could be very straightforward because he was a true believer in only what he directly saw with his two eyes rather than what he learned from the schools or books. For example, in his whole life, he learned that the Earth is always the center of the universe, not the Sun, which was Ptolemy’s theory, so all the planets, including the Sun, are always traveling around the Earth according to Ptolemy’s theory. However, Nicolaus was still having many equivocal thoughts about Ptolemy’s theory as he didn’t exactly see it. According to his personality, the quote means that Copernicus is almost sure that his heliocentric theory was more accurate than Ptolemy’s Earth-centered theory as he mentioned ‘Finally’ in his quote. In the quote, the word ‘Finally’ shows that he made the last conclusion of his investigation. As I mentioned, he was also afraid to publish his ideas of heliocentrism because of the church’s reaction (The churches suspected him of heresy and gave punishment who agreed with Copernicus’s theory such as Galileo Galilei) but he also was commanding the church because he was able to say this quote in the front of the people. Additionally, this quote is very honored and took a long time to be spoken by Copernicus because he was very concerned, and he used most of his time of himself for finding out the center of the solar system and prove his theory. Overall, in the quote, we could notice that he was convinced by his heliocentric system and he changed his personality toward the church as he did not afraid of the church anymore.

Machiavelli was not only the first thinker who freed political science or thinking from the clutches of faith and morality, but he also had several political thoughts and philosophies. His discussion of a territorial United States and a large, sovereign kingdom is the hallmark of modern length; he was the first to use the time length nation in contemporary connotation, which will emerge as the dominant problem of talk in the hands of subsequent writers; and his separation of politics from ethics and assigning it an autonomous sphere is any distinct contribution prior to him. Politics was once thought to be the work of ethics; he was the first to convey the burden of realism in politics; his advocacy of power in politics is an amazing contribution that has been accompanied significantly in the realm of global household individuals; their technique of archives blended with commonsense assertion, which on the other hand has remained pragmatic until now in exquisite words.

Machiavelli was the first thinker to take an unequivocal stand on the relationship between morality and gain on the one hand and politics on the other; he took a very clear stand on politics, religion, and morality. His political thoughts are as follows: under 1 absolute monarchy At the start of the sixteenth century, we see a very Machiavelli, who was the first thinker to free political science or precept from the clutches of trust and morality, as well as a range of political ideas and philosophies. His communication of a territorial, vast, and sovereign United States is the hallmark of the modern dimension. Every magnificent contribution prior to him is the separation of politics from ethics and assigning it its own sphere. With his advocacy of electricity, he was the first to supply the factor of realism in politics as soon as he saw the work of ethics. Politics are each one-of-a-kind contribution that has been accompanied significantly in the realm of international family people’s strategy of documents combined with the commonsense declaration, which then again remains pragmatic until now’s critical issue of a brand new political principle, which can actually be referred to as modern. According to Sabine Machiavelli, absolutism is the father of this absolutism. He stimulated the separation between self-belief, morality, and politics. In political matters, the king will have the closing phrase to say, and all one-of-a-kind centers ought to put up with the political electricity.

Every renaissance and reformation significantly limited the wings of the church and the papacy, which created a vacuum in social and political fields, which was quickly filled with the advent of absolute royal power, and as a result, absolute royal power grew to become the order of European politics. The expansion of absolute monarchies, like that of feudal constitutional monarchy, occurred in nearly every region of Western Europe. In the new state of affairs and environment, medieval companies were remodeled and partly revolutionized to cope with the new state of affairs earlier than the Renaissance and Reformation. The electrical energy of the kings must be absolute in all practical senses, then it must remain beneath the manipulation and supervision of the capitalists. At the time of Machiavelli, the capitalists were rising surprisingly quickly, and they sought royal safety for the boom of alternate and commerce. The meteoric rise of kings’ power was seen as beneficial to the bourgeoisie. Machiavelli was once a fantastic patriot and nationalist; he was once at ease that a powerful king may additionally wish to unite divided Italy; a tremendous prince may additionally select to hasten financial development; absolute electrical power of the prince was the complete way to support of his conclusion. Machiavelli drew examples from the historical archives of a number of European states in the center. When man was as quickly mesmerized by the skill of the church pope and above all by the aid of practicable faith, he had no impartial questioning energy. The introduction of the Renaissance changed this state of affairs and man began to assume belief values, etc. by using his very personal intent recommendation limit, which he additionally adopted, he broke the forestall and modified their line of questioning and value system Two causes of the nation’s most innovative factor are suggestions. As previously written, the cause of the United States’ recommendation to restrict reaching is thought about politics.

All political writings from Plato and recommendations restrict reaching with the aid of the center a long time to the Renaissance spoke about the end of the use of a recommendation. Averting reached disregards the venture of the strength of the kingdom in extra-political terms and assumes that electricity is an end in itself, limiting his inquiries to the doable that are fine and splendid to accumulate hold and prolong energy. The truth is that the central thinking of Machiavelli’s political philosophy is the strength of the kingdom, and the United States of America is nearly nothing without electricity. If there is a message in the prince, it is that the prince’s sole desire is to acquire electrical electricity in order to make the state self-sufficient in all aspects so that it can compete with other states. This is seen as the cause of the kingdom. Many people see the thinking purpose of the kingdom as the central questioning of Machiavelli’s political ideas or thoughts. A kingdom, on the other hand, has the potential to have many audacious ambitions. The most basic one is to improve its characteristics by utilizing the utilization of obtaining strength because, without power, a kingdom is almost nothing. A true prince must accumulate bodily energy by utilizing any workable method and comply with it for the sake of the United States. In his discourses, he stated that a prince must build on a solid foundation, or else he will come to grief with the electrical energy of the prince’s functionality. the strength of the nation 3

With strength in politics and a self-sufficient kingdom Machiavelli has two suggestions. electrical electricity Politics and self-sufficiency have cautiously linked all politics in his experience are power politics after the Second World War the entire world was once as soon as once in the grip of power politics which conceivably most or all of the big powers transformed the entire world into a battle-field the leaders of the awesome or necessary powers believed that warfare was once as soon as the only way to remedy all the problems Machiavelli almost equally dealt with battle as the only instrument successful in remedying social and political troubles. He writes in the prince for this reason that if a prince wishes to keep his rule, he must analyze how no longer to be virtuous and to use this or now not in accordance with choice in the concept of electrical energy politics, where there is no vicinity of honesty and scruples. The sole reason of the prince or ruler of the kingdom would be to accumulate the intention; this intention is the undertaking of the kingdom to make the kingdom exceptional so that it can hostilities any ill-design of some other United States. Except for military electrical power, the kingdom should be made top-notch at any cost. As Prince Machiavelli elaborated in his questioning of electricity, the United States is incredibly incapable of reaping the benefits of its intentions. There are two methods of warfare: through regulation or through the use of force; the first is natural to humans and the second to beasts; however, as the first method frequently proves insufficient, one must resort to the second. Another aspect or component of Machiavelli’s contribution to politics is his concept of self-sufficiency; without a good nation, people’s growth and welfare would continue to be unfulfilled. Four politics and trust Renaissance Luther Calvin and Machiavelli are almost always present in every democracy, and individualism is a product of the Renaissance, but despotism emerged alongside them. The church and papacy have been compelled to lay down their supremacy and dictatorial manner of functioning, and the vacuum created in this way has been forthwith stuffed up with the useful resource of the upward shove of the monarchy.

The dominating power of kings became unquestionably distinct from democracy, individualism, and despotism; completely despotism was as soon as possible an attribute to draw the superb interest of Machiavelli in the discourses. Machiavelli makes it perfectly clear that the ruthless rule of a new prince is completely one of the types of authority. Machiavelli was well-versed in a variety of forms of government, including democracy and republicanism, but he preferred dictatorship or despotism as the most appropriate form of government. It is commonly assumed that he was the primary supporter of despotism because, in his opinion, absolutely a despotic ruler ought to save Italy from the despicable situation one way or the other. He studied the history of many European states, and the understanding he gathered used to be that Italy wished for autocratic authorities. Machiavelli was once no longer in the course of morality, trust, ethics, and so on. Instead, he was indifferent, that is, he took an indifferent stand or state of mind in the direction of these; this is known as ethical indifference in discourses. Our faith places the supreme happiness in humility, lowliness, and disdain for worldly objects, whereas others place the supreme genuineness in the grandeur of the soul, energy, and physique. Machiavelli’s ideas had a profound influence on political leaders for the duration of the modern West, aided by the new science of the printing press all through the first generations after Machiavelli, whose primary influence was in non-republican governments pole recognized that the prince was mentioned notably with the aid of Thomas Cromwell in England and had influenced Henry viii in his turn closer to Protestantism and in his methods The following are the results of a survey conducted by a third party. 84 contemporary materialist Starting in the generations after Machiavelli, a philosophy developed in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, this philosophy tended to be republican, however, as with the catholic authors, Machiavelli’s realism and encouragement of the use of innovation to strive to manipulate one’s personal fortune had been more famous than his emphasis on warfare and factional violence now not entirely was as soon as cutting-edge economics and politics produced a cease-and-do 89

The Renaissance was a period of rebirth of classical learning that flourished in Europe beginning in the fourteenth century. In the Middle Ages multiple events, new characteristics of creating, and new discoveries came to life. Each new event, characteristic, and discovery it led to the medieval developments that paved the way for the incoming Renaissance era. Along with these, there are five main events that also enhanced the Renaissance time period. These five events are the failure of The First Crusade, the rediscovery of Aristotle, The Black Death, giving power to the people, and the fall of Constantinople. Several characteristics of the Renaissance were caused by medieval developments. Some examples of these characteristics are the printing press, intellectual movements, art, music, literature, religion, and science. The Renaissance is more known as an intellectual movement or cultural event instead of simply a period of history. Lastly, new discoveries such as technological advances, building techniques, and agriculture were major developments of the Renaissance era. With all of the events, new characteristics of creating, and new discoveries the developments of the Renaissance started to form.

Five main events that started the Renaissance era are the failure of The First Crusade, the rediscovery of Aristotle, The Black Death, power to the people, and the fall of Constantinople. The first event that started this era was The First Crusade. Although The First Crusade did overall succeed, it did fail in other ways. The First Crusade accepted the fact that the cause of Christ was the highest and most paramount loyalty on earth. AcceptingCrusades the cracks in the middle ages slowly widened before Renaissance humanism could establish new loyalties. The Crusade impacted the Renaissance through the ways in which they made knowledge from Eastern cultures progressively attainable to the Latin West. Secondly, the rediscovery of Aristotle was the main cause of the shift into the Renaissance. Christian kingdoms of Spain pushed forward into Muslim cities and found Greek works of philosophy, medicine, geography, and science. This discovery of the Greek works reintroduced Aristotle back into the West. The third event was The Black Death, also known as The Bubonic Plague. The Black Death helped set the stage for the Renaissance. The deaths of many major officials caused social and political disruption in Florence, where the Renaissance is considered to have begun. The Black Death is often given excessive amounts of credit for the Renaissance. Some believe that all faith in God was destroyed and that opened up humanistic thought to flourish. Others believe that the faith in God only grew when the plague started to slow, it created more jobs and more power for the people. Some of the everlasting impacts said by Sara McGill in her book “The Black Death” consisted of “At the same time, farming became a less profitable venture, especially since there were not enough people to work the land. Estates lost value and nobles in rural areas lost power, allowing European royalty to begin amassing centralized power. Another effect was that there was less time for education among academics. Teachers and tutors at universities in Oxford and Paris were hired with fewer qualifications. This led to a general decline in education.” The fourth event, the power of the people, started during The Black Death. During the plague, taxes had been hiked and the people were fed up. During their revolt, John Wycliffe argued about the Christian sacraments. He also began translating the Bible from Latin to English. He found a message of egalitarianism and equality. Wyeliffe began spreading his findings and started “Wyeliffism”. This ultimately ended in a war against the authority of the church, the emperor, the king, and the pope. Therefore growing the age of Enlightenment. Lastly, the fifth event is the fall of Constantinople. The fall of Constantinople started with the Turks continuing to expand and attack. The emperor of Constantinople did his best to fight back, even by asking the pope to send in soldiers to drive away the Turks. The Turks eventually took over Constantinople. With the city in the hands of the Turks, Greek scholars fled west. While in the West, they brought knowledge of the Greek language, mathematics, and astronomical expertise, and the Greek intellectual legacy was in need of preservation. Their presence in the West brought a whole new renaissance to Greek culture.

There are many characteristics of the Renaissance era that were started through medieval developments. A few examples of these are the printing press, intellectual movements, art, music, literature, religion, and science. The printing press came from a high demand for perfect reproductions of texts. It is known as one of the greatest developments of the Renaissance. It allowed the modern culture to develop and keep growing, therefore benefiting more and more people. The printing press allowed bibles, books, printed music, and more to be made in large amounts to make it to more people. The second characteristic is about the intellectual movement. It consisted of the evolution of Renaissance humanism as a method of thinking, it was a whole different outlook. The intellectual movement was described as Renaissance humanism. Renaissance humanism changed Greek and Roman texts to more contemporary thought. This thought allowed for a new mindset during the middle ages. Art is another characteristic of the Renaissance. Renaissance painters used more realistic ways and depictions of art than in the middle ages. There was less prominence on religious art artists who were wanting their art to look as real as possible. Some of those artists consisted of Botticelli who was a part of the well-known Medici family. Leonardo da Vinci was considered one of the greatest minds of all time. Lastly, Michelangelo was said to be the greatest painter and sculptor of all time. Music also had a large impact on this time period. Innovations in the Renaissance were partly made possible by expanding patronage beyond the Catholic church. New technologies in music meant new inventions of instruments, such as the harp. The printing press was also beneficial to music because it allowed music to be printed. A fifth characteristic is the Renaissance’s literature. Renaissance literature started with Greek and Roman aspects of learning. Writers of this time consisted of but were not limited to Leonardo da Vinci, Nicolo Machiavelli, and William Shakespeare. They were known to be the greatest writers of all time. These writers took their beliefs and expressed them in new ways. Leonardo da Vinci took his drawings and wrote them down in his notebooks. Nicolo Machiavelli wrote a book about religion, and politics were rooted in his books. Each writer of this time was unique but all paved the way for the Renaissance. Westernreservemedia.org states, “William Shakespeare is considered one of the greatest writers who ever lived. He wrote at least 37 plays and 154 sonnets. Little is known about his life; however, we do know that he was an actor and performed at the Globe Theater.” The continuous growth in the Renaissance time period tremendously changed the way the world took on religion. Catholic churches became extremely weak by the time the 15th century started. One of the leading causes of its weakness was the Black Death. This is a reason society looked at religion as a major change. There was one specific person who wanted to change the catholic churches for the better, and that was Martin Luther. He wanted things such as the selling and trading of indulgences to be removed from these churches. Another thing he wanted to do is practice nepotism. The printing press helped the creation of the Bible as well, making these reasons for the rise in religion. The last characteristic is science. Science in the Middle Ages was based on the Greek belief in-laws and reasoning. A major scientific discovery came from Polish mathematician and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. His discovery was the idea of the heliocentric solar system. This discovery states that the sun is the center of the solar system, rather than the earth, and before Copernicus’s discovery, everyone thought the earth was the center. This idea was a huge breakthrough, and he was soon banned from the catholic churches. Empiricism took place of the scientific thought and was the first indication of the separation of science and religion. Soon the thought of science and religion being separated caused major conflict, which led to scientists being prosecuted. Many characteristics were founded through medieval developments that led to the rise of the Renaissance. Some of these characteristics are but are not limited to the printing press, intellectual movements, art, music, literature, religion, and science. All of these have been a major impact and how the Renaissance came about and ended up.

Many discoveries came to life at the beginning of the Renaissance era. They were discoveries made in technology, agriculture, and architecture. Some technological advances consisted of the adoption of gunpowder and the invention of vertical windmills. The adoption of gunpowder came along in China but was perfected in Europe for the use of its full military potential. Windmills were used for many different tasks in the middle ages such as grinding corn into flour. A Penn State article states the advantages and disadvantages of a windmill such as “For one thing, the windmill does not need to be next to a river, nor does it need the millrace running from upstream to power the wheels. On the other hand, the windmill needs to be placed in a windy location, either on top of a hill or near the coastline where winds are unobstructed and relatively constant.”. Agriculture in the middle ages was an experimental time, the people were figuring out new things that worked and things that didn’t. Some of the most common crops consisted of wheat, beans, barley, peas, and oats. The origin of open field system came from this time period. They made plows and hand tools for all their agricultural needs. Lastly, the discoveries in architecture. The architecture in this time period had a Romanesque look to it in the early middle ages and a more Gothic look in the late middle ages. The aspects of Gothic architecture involved wider windows, an increased number of towers, decorative designs, and using natural light. This architecture ties in with the medieval developments of the Renaissance.

In conclusion, the medieval developments that paved the way for the Renaissance consisted of a variety of different aspects. From the events that took place, to the people that formed new ideas, the Renaissance could not have started without the help of medieval developments.

The three major turning points throughout Western history that stick out are the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD and its effects throughout Europe, the introduction of humanism in the 14th century and how it shaped the Renaissance, and also, the invention of the movable type printing press that shaped the world as we know it.

On September 476 AD, Romulus Augustulus, the final western emperor of Rome, was overtaken by a German nobleman named Odovacar, who had gained power over the remnants of the Roman army of Italy. This forced Europe into what is considered the Middle Ages, which caused a social, political, and economic decline after the fall of Rome. The Middle Ages were a time of disorder and chaos; countrysides were filled with invaders, religious conflicts arose, scarcity of sound literature and cultural achievements marked these years, and barbarous practices prevailed. One important struggle throughout the Middle Ages was the dispute over religion. Orthodox Christians considered this time a period of Catholic corruption; with their apostolic teachings and hierarchy, they rejected the practices of the Catholic Church. Orthodox Christians, without these Catholic grim traditions, attempted to recreate a pure Christianity. Catholics nonetheless, refused to see this time as grim and viewed it as a harmonious, successful religious era. The Middle Ages were additionally the years of widely spread Muslim conquests. Together with other nomads and other warriors, the Muslims traveled through the fallen empire, causing havoc and expanding intellectual and social unorthodoxy. However, during the Crusades between 1096 and 1291, Muslim conquests failed. To this day, this age-old dispute between Christianity and Islam has persisted. Despite the religious conflicts, the period of the Middle Ages was identified as an age of faith. Men and women pursued God through the practices of the catholic church and in more Orthodox styles of worship. Intellectuals in this period began to believe that those who followed religious beliefs were emotionally dominated. Religion was regarded as contradictory to rationality and reason, thus shifting towards enlightenment.

In the 14th century, the concept of humanism was introduced, which was a significant turning point for the Renaissance. The Renaissance’s critical political reforms were a more versatile and progressive class system, rather than the traditional feudal system of the Middle Ages. This was most apparent in Florence, Italy, where the divisions of wealthy nobles, the middle class, and the lower middle class caused social divisions and conflict. The Humanism philosophy became exceedingly popular with the people and many political leaders rose to high positions with the support of these ideals. Leaders throughout Florence used their rhetorical skills to rally the people of Florence against their enemies. The drastic changes in Renaissance education were originally influenced by the humanists ‘ ability to be knowledgeable and speak eloquently. The newly established goals of Renaissance education were the concept of effective education and well-developed schooling in many diverse fields of study. People all over revived Plato’s, Aristotle’s, and several other Ancient Greek studies. People began doubting what these people were saying and re-developed the ‘Scientific Theory’ in which you did not merely believe what you were told but checked the facts. Renaissance artists were no longer subject to the interests and values of the clergy and were capable to create anything of their ‘artistic will.’Now, beyond religion, both men and women were able to appreciate the arts. Additionally, artists could now utilize alternative techniques such as oil painting and linear perspective to enhance the quality of their work. It was because of this new artistic independence that some of the greatest work ever created was by Renaissance artists. As you can see, in just about every aspect of the culture, the Renaissance was a significant turning point in history from the Middle Ages.

Many events in human history are of great significance for today’s way of life, the invention of the ‘movable type’ printing press by Johannes Gutenberg is one of the most notable. Although primitive methods of printing had long before been invented in ancient China and high-quality paper had been available in Europe for some time, most books were still copied by hand. This is why few books were made, and those produced were highly valuable commodities that either belonged to the Church or to other powerful institutions. The invention of Gutenberg’s movable type printing press ensured that books could be produced in greater numbers as well as faster and cheaper than ever before. This resulted in a massive social and cultural movement of which the effects are still being seen and felt today. The printing press had a significant impact on the civilization of Europe and its immediate effect was to quickly and accurately distribute information. This helped create a broader audience. First of all, there were more and more secular books published, with particularly noteworthy scientific results. Scientists working on the same issue in various parts of Europe benefited especially since they were able to print the results of their research and share it accurately with a large number of other scientists. In addition, this allowed scientists to further advance knowledge and understanding based on other scientific approaches. By the 1600s, this transition would lead to the Scientific Revolution, which would change how Europeans viewed the world. As for some men, the printing press often caused its share of trouble. It took the copying of books from the Church’s hands and made it more difficult for the Church to regulate or restrict what was being written. It is no accident that during the Protestant Reformation, the break-up of the religious unity of Europe corresponded to the spread of printing. The distinction between the effective Reformation of Martin Luther and the lesser results of the Hussites was Luther was armed with the printing press. Some people go so far as to say that the printing press is the most important invention between the invention of writing itself and the printer. The printing press has expanded and spread information and transformed public opinion in a way that nothing could compete. If it could not, the freedom of the press would not be as greatly valued as it is today.

The three turning points that have affected society, The Fall of Rome, The Introduction of Humanism, and The Printing Press have all had lasting positive effects. The fall of Rome in 476 AD led to the Middle Ages, which was a time of disorder and chaos, countrysides filled with invaders, religious conflicts arose, scarcity of literature and cultural achievements, as well as an age of faith, marked these years. It was a crucial event leading into the Renaissance. Another major event was the introduction of Humanism in the 14th century was a major turning point for society; it launched Europe into the Renaissance which allowed the introduction of the feudal system, better education, and an appreciation of the arts. All of these events are major turning points in Western history, however, the invention of the ‘movable type’ printing press by Johannes Gutenberg is one of the most important. It allowed for a massive social and cultural movement through the distribution of books. It also was one of the fundamental reasons for the freedom of the press. All of these events, even being hundreds of years apart, are able to tie together by shifting European systems and views for the better.

Widely known as the “man who lived among the cannibals,” Herman Melville was one of the most famous Dark Romantic writers of the 19th century. As was typical of the Dark Romantics, Melville often criticized Reform writers from the earlier part of the century. Melville still believed that change was needed in American culture, and he viewed America at the time in a much more pessimistic manner than the Reform writers and Transcendentalists. Though he wasn’t as staunch of an activist as many of the Reform writers we have studied, Melville portrayed characters defying authority in some of his most famous works, including Moby Dick and Bartleby the Scrivener. This manner of writing did not sit well with a lot of people at the time, so Melville received a lot of criticism toward his works when they were first published. Nevertheless, Melville eventually rose to fame with his calls for social reform and creative writing style despite his often cynical attitude.

While the Transcendentalists often wrote of our American identity with a very optimistic tone, Melville wrote with the purpose of giving readers more of a reality check. In Bartleby the Scrivener, Melville targets our nation’s capitalistic system and authority. He does this by presenting readers with the interesting character of Bartleby, a disobedient scrivener on Wall Street. Whenever Bartleby’s boss asks him to do something, he simply responds with, “I would prefer not to,” showing no sense of concern about potentially being fired from his job (1490). This defiance displays a common theme in Dark Romantic writing of the shunning of civilization. It is considered the ‘norm’ in our society for an employee to respect the authority of his or her boss. By breaking this norm, Bartleby is breaking away from society in a sense, something Herman Melville was very passionate about as a Dark Romantic writer.

At the same time, Bartleby’s defiance shocks the narrator of Bartleby the Scrivener. He cannot comprehend how someone could have no regard for the possible consequences of his or her disobedient actions in the workplace, and he does not really know how to address the issue. As readers, we see the narrator weigh out the options in his head as to how he should proceed. Eventually, he decides to take pity on Bartleby viewing him as a lesser person. In this case, the narrator views himself as a philanthropist. Melville was skeptical of what motivated charity and philanthropy in a person, and he shows first-hand how it can lead to disaster as it did so at the ending of Bartleby the Scrivener.

Setting in Melville’s works plays an important part in the development of the plot, and the importance of setting is particularly noticeable in Bartleby the Scrivener. The narrator describes how Bartleby’s desk was placed in a space that had “a lateral view of certain grimy backyards and bricks, but which, owing to subsequent erections, commanded at present no view at all…” (1489). In addition to creating a dark and ominous atmosphere typical in Dark Romantic writing, Melville shows how working in an office setting that is closed off from the world can potentially be problematic. This sense of isolation also reinforces the idea of the Iron Cage. In this case, the Iron Cage is used to limit distraction in the workplace and optimize production, two goals of any company in a capitalistic society. The fact that this story occurs on Wall Street, America’s center of capitalism, further displays Melville’s issue with our capitalistic society.

With his death at the end of the story, Bartleby becomes a martyr in a sense. His fight against the ideals of capitalistic America including hard work and respect for authority is eventually lost. By killing off Bartleby, Melville displays that the American system failed Bartleby and it is not as flawless as we imagine it to be. With his writing, Herman Melville gave America the sort of reality check it needed at the time.

Edgar Poe was born in Boston in 1809 to two young actors. Soon after his birth, both parents died suddenly, and he and his two siblings were left alone. After being passed around in numerous foster homes, a man named Jonathan Allan and his wife took Edgar in after his separation from his other siblings to different foster homes. Although they didn’t legally adopt him, they did change Edgar’s name to what we know today: Edgar Allan Poe.

Poe and his newfound family moved to London, England where he went to many prestigious schools and was first introduced to his love for literature. As the years passed, Poe struggled with losing financial support from his family, being expelled from school, and developing alcohol and gambling addictions. Despite all of that and teetering along the lines of depression, Poe was still able to publish some of his literary works under a pseudonym. At first, he published critic reviews and small stories in periodicals but eventually branched out into one of the most popular genres of literature: Dark Romanticism.

Poe incorporated the Romantic characteristic of nature by portraying it as something terrifying, mysterious, or dark and used metaphors to highlight a crumbling aristocracy—all by using gothic/horror elements as descriptors or to set the tone. Since Dark Romanticism is less optimistic than Romanticism and shows that individuals are prone to self-destruction and madness, Poe fits into this subgenre perfectly. By drawing from his tragic past and his own self-destructive nature, he formed a cynical outlook on life and chose to portray that in his works. He emphasized the duality of human nature, and how that as humans we want to be good, but oftentimes give in to our darker impulses. Many of Poe’s gothic elements in his work came from his time spent in London in his early years when he was fascinated with gothic architecture as well as English gothic literature. By using Dark Romantic elements, Poe was able to draw the attention of readers through their curiosity and tap into their human nature of wanting to take a few steps on the dark side.

One of Poe’s stories “The Fall of the House of Usher” is the perfect example of Poe’s use of gothic elements to describe nature: “I looked up upon the scene before me—upon the bleak walls—upon the vacant eye-like windows—upon a few rank sleds—and upon a few white trunks of decayed trees… the bitter lapse into common life—the hideous dropping of the veil” (654). Poe’s use of gothic imagery gave the story an ominous tone, and his descriptors of nature, in the beginning, set the stage for the horrific tale that followed. His use of the literal crumbling house as a metaphor for the crumbling aristocracy allowed Poe to create a sense of urgency that people could start to follow and break out of societal standards before giving into their own madness.

Another of Poe’s popular tales is “The Cask of Amontillado.” In this story, the narrator/main character takes a common act of revenge to the point of madness and eventually murder. Poe used the Dark Romantic characteristic of individuals prone to sin and madness in Montresor to draw emphasis to that “hidden dark side” he believed was in every human being: “It must be understood that neither by word nor deed had I given Fortunato cause to doubt my goodwill. I continued, as was my wont, to smile in his face, and he did not perceive that my smile now was at the thought of his immolation” (715). Instead of incorporating the transcendentalist ideals of Romanticism, Poe chose to write stories like this that instead focused on the dark side of human nature and the importance of embracing that, rather than trying to find oneself in the beauty of nature or other elements.

American Renaissance

The advent of national literary consciousness in the United States is generally attributed to the American Renaissance period, from around 1830 to the beginning of the Civil War. Prior to this period, much of American Literature was serialized in periodicals, rather than as cohesive publications. As publishing companies began to take hold in the States, there was an influx of print journalism and new literary works. Two of the most popular genres to come from this period were Transcendentalism, with authors such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry Thoreau, and Dark Romanticism, favored by Edgar Allen Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Herman Melville. Transcendentalists often had a more optimistic tone to their work than Dark Romanticists, but both factions focused on themes of nature, spirituality, and separation from civilization.

Despite sharing membership in the American Renaissance with Transcendentalists, Dark Romanticists took a more pessimistic view of human nature, writing narratives characterized by destruction and sin. Poe, Hawthorne, and Melville, authors of the genre often corresponded with one another. This led to a more cohesive body of literature with shared themes.

Dark Romanticist authors tended to be critical of reformers, including those of the Transcendentalist movement. Though Herman Melville supported activities such as prison reform, he did not share the more optimistic views of Transcendentalists. In Melville’s “Bartleby the Scrivener,” the title character constantly repeats the phrase “I would prefer not to,” (Melville 1489) eventually becoming jailed and dying alone because of his abstinence. While critics disagree about interpretation, Bartleby’s unpleasant end could be perceived as a dig towards Henry David Thoreau, who chose to abstain from taxes as an activist gesture. Similarly, both Poe and Hawthorne wrote works criticizing Transcendentalists.

Nature was a popular theme in the American Renaissance, favored by Transcendentalists as well as Dark Romanticists. Contrary to the spiritual, positive view of nature in Transcendentalism, these authors illustrated nature as ominous and powerful. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s stories, he portrayed the woods as a dark force. The woods represent Hawthorne’s view of human nature: unpredictable and difficult to understand. In Hawthorne’s “Young Goodman Brown”, the woods reveal the true actions of the Puritan community, exposing religious corruption. Similarly, Poe utilizes natural surroundings to contribute to the gothic atmosphere. In The Fall of the House of Usher, Poe establishes the mood of the work by painting a vivid picture of how the surrounding nature’s darkness has bled into the mansion itself. Melville’s “Moby Dick” portrayed how weak man is in comparison with the forces of nature.

Furthermore, these authors wrote their protagonists as flawed individuals prone to sin and destruction. Their works acted as a foil to the more optimistic bent of Transcendentalist literature. Traits such as hubris, cruelty, and hypocrisy are common in Dark Romanticist characters such as Hawthorne’s Goodman Brown, Poe’s Montresor, or Melville’s Captain Ahab. Often their narratives end unhappily as a result of the protagonist’s actions. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s “Young Goodman Brown”, the narrator’s choice to commit a sin opens his eyes to the sinfulness of those around him. He becomes mistrustful of everyone and allows this knowledge to affect his life so completely that even “his dying hour was gloom” (Hawthorne 395). Many characters die or are irreparably changed by the end of Dark Romanticist literature.

While Transcendentalists and Dark Romanticists both published narratives in the American Renaissance, Dark Romanticists presented a much more cynical take on comparable topics. Authors such as Edgar Allen Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Herman Melville were critical of reformers, depicted nature as a dangerous force, and wrote characters that were prone to destructive behavior. Their contributions to the American Renaissance created a rich and diverse national literary consciousness.

The Female Beauty Ideal in Europe During the Renaissance

Introduction

The phrase “beauty is in the eye of the beholder” suggests that beauty is subjective – each person sees beauty through their own perspective. But with that being said, the way that beauty is perceived has changed throughout time and is quite influenced by society through political, economic, and cultural aspects. The Renaissance, a European era from the 1300s to the 1600s, has a very specific ideal of beauty for women in terms of hair, makeup, facial features, and clothing. Because of this, artists of that era like Botticelli use their art to represent women deemed beautiful. Beauty during the Renaissance was very specific and one of a kind, only a small amount of women were able to fit those standards. What are the necessary characteristics for European women to be considered beautiful during the Renaissance? These standards are regarded towards many different aspects such as outfits, hair, makeup, and specific facial characteristics.

Facial Features and Hair

When it comes to a woman’s facial features, the ideal would be for one to have blonde hair, a high forehead, thin eyebrows, vermillion cheeks, dark eyes, a small red mouth, and a relatively long neck. Indeed, blonde hair was very important to have, and women who weren’t naturally born with it would attempt to bleach or lighten their hair by laying it under the sun for hours, in hopes that it would get lighter. In Joanna Woods-Marsden’s “Portrait of the Lady, 1430-1520”, women in Italy would go to very far lengths to achieve blonde hair – although being usually brunettes with darker skin “Even in the Renaissance, it seems, signori preferred blondes. Dye was used to coloring the hair so that it would resemble the cultural ideal, familiar from the Petrarchan poetic tradition, of the beloved’s golden locks – visually embodied in Botticelli’s Primavera (fig. I.)” (Woods-Marsden, 2001, p. 67). Indeed, the Italian painter Botticelli is quite famous for showcasing the ideal woman and what one should expect to look like. In his painting Primavera, the women are all fair-skinned with golden hair, and very delicate features such as thin eyebrows, small mouths, and high foreheads. Overall, this creates a very specific ideal of beauty for women, pressuring them to look one way only.

Makeup

When using makeup, women in the Renaissance would do many things in order to achieve a certain look that was unanimously agreed upon to be beautiful. Indeed, women would apply white powders such as ground alabaster all over the face in order to make their skin look paler. Some would even mix mercury with it and apply some onto their cheeks to add a certain healthy glow to their skin. In order to achieve the appearance of a higher forehead, some women would pluck their hairlines in order to get that desired look. Their lashes were expected to be short and thin, and their lips should have some light rouge on them – to show that they had beautiful, small, red mouths. The painting “La Bella” by Titian demonstrates the continual idea of beauty such as the small red mouth, long neck, high forehead, and white skin – which all women tried to achieve through makeup and tweezing. Titian was wanting to create the painting of the most beautiful woman on earth, which ended up being a highly desirable painting for male collections. Overall, women would need to follow many certain steps to be able to fit the ideal beauty expectations that were deemed upon them.

Clothing and Jewellery

As for clothing, what was expected of women during the Renaissance can be seen through the painting Portrait of a Woman with a Man at a Casement by Fra’ Filippo Lippi. In this portrait, one can see that women were covered in jewelry and showed in the most expensive guards that they could afford – doing this for dowries, to get them married. Indeed, these clothes were usually paid for by the women’s fathers, in hopes to wed them – marriage being traditionally the most important part of their lives. One aspect of clothing that was specifically essential was the sleeves on a woman’s outfit. Sleeves are very important in women’s fashion, produced separately and often very elaborately done. Some other details such as the headdress and jewelry were quite important as well. Moreover, headdresses were extremely elaborate: a woman would usually have her hair up, which shows modesty. Furthermore, having one’s hair down would mean that one would be more inviting toward men. Also, the woman in this painting is seen wearing lots of jewelry like a head brooch with pearls and other stones, and some rings. She’s also wearing pearls, which represent chastity and purity. The red rubies on her ring often signify love too. Generally, women were shown on the left side of the face, and the husband on the right side – which is considered the superior side. One can notice that the husband is gazing into the woman’s eyes, which shows potential love between the husband and wife. This proves that the woman’s overall appearance has indeed won over her partner’s heart, showing women that this is the kind of look they should be going for in order to get wedded.

Going Against Beauty Ideals

One artist that went against beauty standards in their work was the very famous Leonardo Da Vinci. In his painting of the Mona Lisa, the way in which the Mona Lisa is portrayed is rather new. Indeed, her hands are displayed naturally and quite elegantly. One can also notice the mysterious background, which was quite unusual at the time. She also has no jewelry whatsoever, which shows that her own beauty and character are captivating – not the other elements such as jewelry, clothes, and makeup. Also, she is looking right at the viewer, which was also quite unexpected since women would usually look at the side – a sign of weakness. This shows how much she dominates and is in control of herself. Moreover, she seems to be connected to the background – to nature – and has some sort of internal feeling and sentiment which is expressed in her eyes. Overall, the whole idea of the Mona Lisa is to go against societal expectations of beauty towards women during the Renaissance. By showing this, women can feel as if being beautiful shouldn’t necessarily mean looking one exact way.

The Impact of These Beauty Ideals

The article “Perceptions of Beauty in Renaissance Art” by Neil Haughton talks about how unrealistic beauty expectations have always been, not just in today’s society.

Haughton (2004) mentions the following:

Modern magazines are often criticized for portraying models who are too thin or whose images have been enhanced in some way. They may lead to unrealistic expectations in young people, contributing to anorexia and low self-esteem. The image of beauty we currently aspire to is as unrealistic as Botticelli’s Venus and is hardly fair to impose on society at large. But as can be seen from studying a few Renaissance paintings, the problem is not new. There seems to be an innate desire to depict and look at idealized and unattainable features and bodies. (p. 233)

This shows that no matter what day and age, there have always and will probably always be unattainable expectations of beauty for women. Although we’re currently in a society that is working towards inclusivity and celebrating diversity, there still remains a huge pressure for women to look a certain way in order to feel truly appreciated. Whether it’s through magazine covers or paintings, women will always have to portray a certain desirable image of beauty that’s often too specific.

In conclusion, women had a very constant and precise approach when it came to the beauty that was pretty much unanimous. Whether it’s through makeup, facial features, jewelry, or clothing, women and men had the same expectations that were considered to represent beauty. Artists like Botticelli, Titian, and Filippo Lippi were able to represent those ideals, but others also decided to go against them such as Da Vinci. Overall, this shows that there’s always been pressure for women to look a certain way in order to be considered beautiful.

From the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries, Europe saw an influx of new ideas and ideologies as well as immense shifts in power as a result of religious movements. This time period marks the end of the Medieval period and the beginning of the Renaissance with the decline of feudalism, increased wealth through the Crusades and recovery from the Black Death, and the rise of increasingly secular ideas. These factors gave way to the emergence of the fifteenth-century Renaissance which, concentrated in Florence, created ways of life not dominated by religion while reviving antiquity in philosophy, literature, and art. Following the Renaissance was the 16th-century religious movement known as the Reformation. This movement challenged the authority of the Catholic Church while establishing new religions, weakening the dominance of the Holy Roman Empire, and allowing the state to become more powerful than the Church. One of the most influential religions created during this time was Calvinism, which, centered in Geneva, became the most dominant Protestant religion that contributed heavily to the widespread success of the Reformation. In the centers of both the Reformation and the Renaissance were the cities of Geneva and Florence, respectively. Here, these movements succeeded and were able to leave a lasting impact on Europe as well as the rest of the world. Renaissance Florence and Reformation Geneva contrast heavily in the types of government and religions that dominated society; however, they were also very similar in that they both challenged the authority of the Church while transforming both the role of monarchs and critical aspects of society concerning education and motivations of daily life.

In Renaissance Florence, the government comprised despotic rulers of the city-states of Italy while in Reformation Geneva, John Calvin created a theocracy based on Calvinism. In both cities, monarchs saw increased political power as a result of the weakening of the Church. In Italy, merchant cities that existed as a gateway between the Eastern and Western Europe saw a revival of trade and commerce, and therefore increased wealth, as a result of recovery from the Bubonic Plague. These wealthy trading cities became powerful city-states with self-contained principalities that were monitored by despots who ultimately controlled Italy. The Medici family became one of the most powerful and influential families in Italy, with Cosimo de’ Medici becoming allies with other powerful families in Florence. As a result of French invasions, Florence was severely weakened, and humanistic as well as widespread secular ideas in Italy weakened the power of the Church. Towns also began to ally themselves with powerful kings, allowing the formation of sovereign states. These factors led to the emergence of “new” monarchs, or monarchs who could now act as more than a figurehead by being active in politics, building massive armies, and gaining power and wealth similar to that of the lords and clergy of the Medieval period. In the second half of the sixteenth century, Calvinism replaced Lutheranism as the dominant Protestant religion in Europe. Calvinism established itself in Geneva in 1536 after Geneva officially adopted Protestantism and John Calvin drew up articles for the governance of the new church as well as a catechism to guide the lives of the individuals. In 1540, Geneva elected officials that favored John Calvin and they organized the Genevan Church. Under John Calvin’s law, Geneva’s government grew into a theocracy based on Calvinism and its principles of predestination and good works. Calvin believed church and city should combine to enforce virtuous Christian behavior, so only the people who abided by Calvinist laws should be allowed to reside there. The opposition to the Church in Europe by Protestants allowed monarchs to become extremely powerful, wealthy, and influential. At the same time, the Catholic Church saw a significant decrease in its authority over society.

During the Renaissance in Florence, the humanistic systems of thought as well as secular ideas flourished while causing individuals to question the authority of the Church; similarly, in Reformation Geneva, Calvinism became the most dominant Protestant religion that strictly opposed the authority and practices of the corrupt Catholic Church while preaching predestination and good works. During the Renaissance, Italy was ruled by the influential Catholic Medici family in Florence. There, they commissioned art with religious symbols that were meant to beautify Florence; however, at the same time, the Renaissance highlighted aspects of individualism, humanism, and generally more secular ideas. Humanism emphasized a balance between secular and religious life but was often more secular and lay-dominated. Petrarch, the “father of humanism,” considered religion and classical literature to be of the same importance and studied ancient Roman texts, which influenced later humanists. Humanism encouraged common people to question Church authority and put faith in reason rather than blindly following Church leaders. These ideas dominated society in Florence, and they even affected later Protestant leaders, including Martin Luther. Humanism encouraged people to question Church authority and therefore led Martin Luther to create the 95 Theses in which he publicly condemned indulgences as well as the Pope’s authority to grant them. He also preached that salvation could be achieved by faith alone instead of by charitable acts, and these ideas later formed the basis of the Protestant religion, Lutheranism. Luther’s ideas had a widespread effect on society, politics, and later religious figures, such as John Calvin. John Calvin was a French Protestant influenced by humanistic ideals as well as the earlier humanists Erasmus and Martin Luther. During the Protestant Reformation in Geneva, Calvinism replaced Lutheranism as the dominant Protestant religion in Europe. Established by John Calvin, Calvinism emphasized divine predestination as well as the individual’s responsibility to maintain society according to the will of God. Geneva, therefore, became home to exiles from France, England, and Scotland who would all become devout Calvinists. Calvinism also preached that God reveals if one has been chosen for salvation by a conversion experience, and the “elect” are church members who have had this experience and became model citizens, or “visible saints.” Calvinistic ways of life dominated Geneva, and citizens were expected to live strict, holy lives according to the ideas produced by the Bible.

Although the Renaissance and the Reformation had many different effects on society throughout the fourteenth through sixteenth centuries, they shared many similarities in their social effects on the cities in which they were concentrated. For example, both movements caused an increase in the social consciousness of European citizens. As a result of humanism in the Renaissance period, people began to become more confident in their abilities as human beings, place their trust in reason more than the Church, and fully recognize the abuses of the Church, even though humanism was not strictly secular. The increasingly humanistic aspects of a society dominated daily life in Florence, as seen in art and literature. This contributed heavily to the beginning of the Reformation, which used humanistic and individualistic ideas in their opposition to the corrupt Catholic Church and its practices. In Geneva, Calvinism, aided by humanistic ideas, dominated daily life as well. Calvinists led a strict and holy life by doing good works and proving their faith in God. Activities such as drinking, dancing, usury, and gambling were prohibited in Geneva. Calvinists also emphasized the importance of doing hard work and, therefore, being economically successful. This was a sign that God was pleased with his people and came to be known as the “protestant work ethic.” To be sure that Genevan citizens were leading a good, Calvinist life, a consistory, or a judiciary of lay elders, could impose harsh penalties on those who did not follow the law. Humanism also affected Geneva and Florence socially by highlighting the importance of schooling. In Renaissance Europe, good schooling was an extremely important part of the formation of a well-rounded person. The goal of humanist studies was to acquire ancient knowledge and encourage others to acquire it as well so that a well-rounded society could be formed. Knowledge of Greek studies, especially Plato, was extremely valuable, and under Cosimo de’ Medici, the Florentine Platonic Academy was created. The Florentine Academy was a gathering of influential humanists who sought to revive the works of Plato and the Neoplatonists. Humanists believed that Scholastic Education was worthless because it lacked civic humanism, or could not form active leaders in civic affairs through individual virtue and public service. This sense of scholarship would continue throughout history and lead to an increased sense of importance concerning schooling. Similarly, a cultural achievement of the Reformation was its implementation of reforms in schooling. Although the Protestants shared a common opposition to Scholasticism and a belief in wisdom and action, their views on church doctrine and human nature separated them from Renaissance humanists. In Geneva, John Calvin and his successor, Theodore Beza, founded the Genevan Academy, which was created to train Calvinist ministers. The curriculum replaced Scholastic teachings by reading primary sources directly, canon law was removed, and candidates for theological degrees defended the new doctrine on the basis of their own Biblical studies. This Protestant support of humanistic culture and learning was extremely important in educational reforms, and elements of this new educational system would exist throughout history.

Both Renaissance Florence and Reformation Geneva shared many similarities in that they transformed social aspects of society while giving more power to monarchs, yet were different in that they had contrasting types of governments and religions. During the Renaissance in Florence, humanistic ideas encouraged the formation of increasingly secular ideas, while during the Reformation in Geneva, Calvinism was the dominant religion that controlled daily life. Also, while Geneva had a theocracy established by John Calvin, Florence had heredity despots who controlled Italy. Both cities challenged the authority of the Church while drastically transforming society. For example, both movements changed the motivations of people as well as their daily life in Geneva and Florence, but in different ways. These movements also created new importance for education while reforming the curriculum in many schools. In conclusion, the Reformation and the Renaissance had drastic effects on life in Geneva and Florence, as they did on the rest of the world, and the resulting qualities of both cities can still be seen today.

What is art? As many would understand it, art is whatever you want it to be. To all those who believe that you are wrong. Art is much more with a wide plethora of meaning and context. Art has inspired movements and a way of life for many. Some of the more notable movements involved the Roman Catholic Church. Two of the most famous movements are the High Renaissance and the Baroque Period. While both of these periods are similar, it can easily be argued that they are far more distinct in their own cultures and inspirations. To begin, what’s most similar between the two periods is who they did their artwork for. Plainly, it was the church. However; the culture of the individuals and the art style involved were significantly different.

During the time of the High Renaissance, one of the most important things they managed to achieve was realism. What this was, is physically bringing heaven on earth. First is by making the environment more realistic and set to earth with scale, perspective, and detail. Secondly by making the religious figures in the paintings humanistic. The idea behind realism is an attempt to bring the viewer closer to God, in order to encourage piety. However; by making a figure humanistic might that takes away from the authority of the religious figure? Arguably yes, Leonardo Davinci created a style of art that didn’t take away from this authoritative stature. This was the idealized style of beauty that separated the common from the divine, in appearance as well as grace of movement. However; in 1517 it was the start of a new era when Martin Luther a German Professor of theology questioned the catholic church and its teachings. During the time of the High Renaissance, the church was obviously involved with absolving the sin of the common man. As people would understand it, the usual way to rid yourself of sin was to attend church. However; other methods included good works for the church such as creating art or buying indulgences which were supposed to allow the soul to enter heaven more quickly. Martin Luther opposed this and came to the conclusion that the answer to salvation wasn’t with the church, it was through an individual’s faith. Following this is his famous 95 theses that he tacked to the door of the church regarding his concerns for the church such as their corruption and greed. This was the beginning of the Protestant Reformation and following that soon after was the Counter-Reformation, this is the cause of a century of turmoil between the Catholics and newly founded Protestants. After all the turmoil, there was an inspiration in the church for a newly founded art style. Something that would not just allow those to just understand, but to instruct, inspire, and move the faithful witnessing the religious figures before their eyes. This is what’s known as the Baroque style, and it’s characterized by the contrast of light and dark, tightly-cropped compositions, and the dramatic realism caught in the span of a moment that all together drew and involved the viewer into these paintings and sculptures.

The artwork I chose is The Portrait of a Woman by an unknown artist from the year 1567. The artwork depicts a woman from the Renaissance. Because this artwork was painted in the year 1567, I know it is from the Renaissance period. I also know this artwork is from the Renaissance period because the woman’s clothing has more parts, there is the presence of a ruff, and she has a small waist. It is most likely set in England in the Elizabethan Era. All of these are big defining features of the Renaissance period. Immediately, based on the materials the woman is wearing and the jewels that are adorning her outfit, I was able to infer that the woman is wealthy and from the upper class. This painting depicts what upper-class women wore during the Renaissance. Members of the upper class would have worn this clothing ensemble to show off their wealth, power, and dominance, all of which are principal themes of this artwork.

In this painting, there is a woman wearing a dress ornamented with valuable jewels. She is also wearing a head garment and puffed-up sleeves. I also can see that she is wearing a pleated lace ruff. I noticed that she is holding something in her hand which looks to be a bag. I assume that the bag is holding riches or jewels, something valuable. During the Renaissance period, people used clothing to show their social standing.

The background of the painting is rather dark, and on the side, I can see gold pillars with ancient figures depicted on them. The woman’s dress in the painting is red, which was a symbol of wealth and status at the time. Red dyes, especially the cochineal dye from the cochineal insect were very popular and elusive at the time. The dress is embroidered with intricate floral patterns and is made from luxurious fabric, most likely velvet. It appears that the dress is lined with gold. It seems that the dress could be laced with gold. The puffy sleeves are separate and decorated with delicate white fabric. I can see a pendant on the center of the woman’s chest and buttons lining the front of her stomach or coset. It emphasizes her small waist and the bottom half of her dress makes her hips appear wider, signifying her feminity. It appears that the woman is wearing a farthingale to enhance her hips and further display her feminity. The wheel-shaped farthingale also adds shape and support to the bottom half of her dress. Farthingales were a staple of the Renaissance era for women.

What I find interesting is that her headpiece has a leaf attached to it. The leaf could symbolize fertility and growth. The figure’s skin is very pale, which was in vogue during the Elizabethan era of England when this painting was created. The woman in the artwork powered her face to make it appear especially white. This is something that Queen Elizabeth I did, as depicted in the 1592 painting by Gheerarts. Queen Elizabeth was the inspiration for this trend. Furthermore, the fact that the woman in the painting is wearing lots of layers of jewelry further accentuates her wealth and high social standing.

The hat the woman is wearing is red and embroidered with patterns similar to the dress. I see that the woman is wearing cuffs at the end of her sleeves, matching the ruff. They are made of the same material and have the same design. Since the cuffs and ruff are made of lace, a labor-intensive and luxurious material, that is another sign that the woman is from the upper class. I saw that the bottom half of her dress is cut into a v-shape, exposing a cloth-like material underneath. The dress from the woman in the painting is most likely layered, and the cloth-like material is a part of her undergarment that is being exposed.

Something else worth noting is the woman’s hairstyle depicted in the painting. The woman’s hair is pushed back, displaying her forehead. No bangs are visible. Moreover, the woman’s hair is tied up, as opposed to being down. Most of her hair is covered and tucked behind the hat. The hat is decorated with patterns similar to those on her dress. One can argue that the pattern is floral. Lastly, the hat was most likely made of silk or velvet.

One of the things that stands out to me the most is the woman’s elaborate jewelry. I see that she is wearing several necklaces around her neck, however, she is also wearing jewels around her v-shaped stomacher. She is grasping the jewels in her hand, in a delicate yet firm way. I believe this is to further highlight her high status and her domination over the people of the lower classes.

The materials present in this painting a cloth, velvet, lace, and perhaps silk, too. These are materials that were available to the upper class. This clothing ensemble consists of separate parts that were brought together. During the Renaissance, separate sleeves were a way of displaying femininity.

There are patterns sewn onto the outfit, as well as embroidered floral patterns, and pieces of white cloth. There are buttons and also beads of several kinds located throughout the outfit. This ensemble was probably custom-designed for the woman and constructed carefully by a dressmaker. It seems that the ensemble is tight and allows for limited movement and mobility. This was a common feature of upper-class clothing. Fashions of the lower class, conversely, were more looser and practical, allowing for better and more effective movement.

In conclusion, it is clear that the main theme this artwork aims to portray is wealth and power. It accurately represents what a powerful, upper-class woman would have worn during the Renaissance period. Through luxurious clothing, this artwork highlights the economic and political power that the subject had at the time. Clothing during the Renaissance period was very telling of who you were in society. The valuable jewelry, red dress, silk materials, and lace ruff, are some of the aspects of the artwork that emphasize the high social status of the woman. Because she was wearing these garments, it would be easy to tell that she is a member of the higher class or aristocracy. Someone of the lower classes would not be wearing jewelry of this quality. They also would not be wearing silk, as it was very costly. Not only does this artwork portray the themes of wealth, power, and dominance through clothing, but it also helps one see what clothing was like during the Renaissance in general in terms of what materials were used, what colors were popular, and what women wore to emphasize their femininity.

In the 14th century with their being the revival of classical writings taking place in the country of Europe, individuals who existed as intellectuals of Italy also thought of themselves to be descendants of ancient Rome at the time. The period between them and the Roman Empire became known as the Dark Age. I believe it is rather significant to understand such works of the Greeks as well as the Roman thinkers as a way to know the unique achievements related to Europe that took place during the periods of the Late Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Early Modern Period as well.

During the period known as the Late Middle Ages, influence from classical thought had happened to emerge in the country of Europe, and at the same time, Islamic scholars were presenting the works of the famous Aristotle. Eventually, individuals became more involved with his ideas, one of the key theologians during the time of the Middle Ages was Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), he was highly influenced by Aristotle himself by factors such as his field of natural philosophy, logic, etc. Tomas had interpreted the majority of Aristotle’s own principles and restored them by utilizing the church doctrine from one of his works called the Summa Theologiae (Session 17-The Rediscovery of Aristotle and the Medieval Synthesis). Another unique individual Albertus Manus (1193-1280), was also influenced by Aristotle as Thomas was and similarly, he too utilized his logic and assumptions in his own work (Encyclopedia Briticanna). All in all, these various contributions made by scholars during the Late Medieval time period to restoring Christianity, the occurrence of Scholasticism in society, and Aristotle forming new advancements to philosophy altogether had dominated Europe (Hunt, 385). During the 14th century, the Renaissance movement which had begun with humanist individuals. The difference between the individuals who were known to be humanists and instead the scholastics was how they expressed the conditions of living among themselves. The scholastics asserted factors of salvation and heaven but offered relatively little guidance as to living a prosperous life as a matter of fact (Session 19-The Renaissance). Francesco Petrarch the father of humanism (1304-1374), thought that a form of education that incorporates both Greek Latin and Roman philosophy was required in order to make progress (Session 19- The Renaissance). The Renaissance movement occurred by the time Petrarch discovered Cicero’s letters and Seneca serves as a literary model to him as he happened to create his theory of stoicism from him. Furthermore, Giovanni Pico Mirandola (1463-1494), a main figure of the Renaissance was greatly impacted by the ideas of the two Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato based on their views upon philosophy and their religious beliefs as well. The 900 Thesis (1486) he created focuses on factors such as contemporary philosophers and classical texts and these philosophers themselves were influenced by such classical texts as a result. An artist like Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) was also being influenced by classical writings at the time. The influence led to the growth of art that appeared to be more descriptive and in-depth (Session 19-The Renaissance). After that, there were also students who began the scientific revolution as disciplines under the ancient Greeks and Romans as well. One of the students was Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543), he contributed by starting the scientific revolution with the publication of his work One the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres (1543), he was a student under the Greek astronomer Aristarchus (310 BC- 230 BC). Aristarchus at the time eventually became known for having formed the very first heliocentric model of our solar system (Briticanna). Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was considered the father of Western philosophy and was both a French mathematician and philosopher. Although his focus on reasoning and uncertainty in making scientific discoveries differed from his peers, he was still largely influenced by various individuals like Aristotle, Plato, Archimedes, and Islamic scholars (Internet encyclopedia). Next, we can see how all of these figures were influenced in some type of way by the works of the Greeks and the Romans. Components of philosophy, politics, etc. all resulted from improvement occurring across generations and this wouldn’t have started without the knowledge of the ancient Greeks and Roman people. On the same point, I believe the achievements of Europe wouldn’t have occurred as well without knowledge from the Greeks and Romans too. I also believe that Aristotle can be regarded as the most significant philosopher of intellectual achievements during the various periods of the Renaissance, Late Middle Ages, and Early Modern Period based on how he made an impact on individuals in society. For example, he influenced theologians during the time and even continued to influence later humanists, scientists, etc. Other figures like Cicero, Plato, and Seneca also helped shape the intellectual developments in Europe as well. In addition, Islamic and European scholars also play a part in shaping intellectual developments as they impacted individuals during the Early Modern period by devoting their knowledge.

In the end, it can be seen how almost all of these individuals that made various forms of contributions toward intellectual achievements in Europe seemed to have been affected by the Greeks or Romans. It is once again very crucial to understand these kinds of achievements as a way to understand Europe itself. Such works also existed as being more significant in comparison to others like Aristotle and Cicero and many of these kinds of unique achievements wouldn’t have taken place at the time they did, without the classical revival occurring beforehand.