Harlem Renaissance: Historical Roots and Climate

Introduction

Harlem Renaissance is, undoubtedly, a phenomenon unmatched in the strength of its impact both on the contemporary culture of the 1920s and 1930s, but also on the very identity of all African-Americans to this day. It is hard to underestimate the energy that Harlem radiated at the turn of the century  given the fact that its influence echoed across numerous black communities throughout the country. With its significance reaching its peak in the 20s, existing as a cultural phenomenon for just around three decades, Harlem managed to achieve a status that made it much more than another New York borough. It was the embodiment of the so-called New Negro, a symbol of promise of a new and bright future for all African-Americans. Later, Harlem came to surpass this idea as well  remaining a symbol of Black power in a myriad of aspects  whether political, cultural, economic, and even spiritual, the notion that is of particular interest to this research.

Purpose, Specificity of Literature Selected, and Structure

The borough of Harlem is a known symbol for strong black self-consciousness, radical political movements, garish night life and endless creative expression. The history of Harlem is very multifaceted, and Harlem Renaissance is the most complex phenomenon of it all. Cultural subjects as poeticised as Harlem Renaissance tend to be obscured in the literature written by those aiming to inspire rather than illuminate. The following literature review attempted to synthetize a realistic image of Harlem Renaissance, which was the purpose of this study. It was crucial to select the titles that

  1. both glorified Harlem and criticized it;
  2. covered the greatest variety of aspects of the lives of Harlemites;
  3. analyzed it against the historical background of the time and in a retrospective.

The structure of the present literature review partly mirrors chronological flow of events because it attempts to unfold the moving forces behind its inception, prominence, and subsequent international impact. This is best accomplished when studying a phenomenon in accordance with chronological order; moreover, most studies follow this structure as well.

Harlems Historical Roots and Sociopolitical Climate

The point of departure of the discussion is set in the times of Emancipation Proclamation and proceeds by carefully examining the tendencies that shaped the nature of black people of the era. Measuring Harlem by Michael Soto serves as a comprehensive guide into the jazz age, with the author elucidating societal changes along with the historical events that stimulated them. The method that is employed in this work is highly analytical; with step-by-step evaluations of a wide array of aspects that led or directly pertained to the cultural phenomenon that is known as the Harlem Renaissance. The term itself is analyzed in retrospective of a several authors works, such as Brent Hayes Edwards or John L. Jackson Jr  and deemed overburdened (Soto 15). The author touches upon economical reasons for the inception of Harlem, which are explained in detail along with the present-day concepts of black self-identification and its origins in the Jazz Age.

The work is fantastic in a sense that it gives a unique perspective into the Harlem Renaissance by tying it to U.S. census and the black experience. In a strict chronological order, the author reviews core examples of literature of Harlem Renaissance, identifying quintessential concepts expressed in these works and viewing them from the perspective of contemporaries. Via structured analysis that covers the subject from multiple points of perspective, Soto manages to get unbiased view on not only the cultural, but also sociological aspects of the era.

A compelling work of another author, the Harlem Renaissance by Nathan Irvin Huggins, is qualified for both an accurate historical account of the core events and a well-written piece of literature. Perhaps, in this work, the reader sees the historical figures of Harlem Renaissance from a more one-sided, strongly opinionated perspective rather than in the previous title. W. E. B. DuBois is compared with James Weldon Johnson, who were a part of the first wave of black intellectuals that came to Harlem to be heard. In contrast to DuBois, Marcus Garvey was known for his simplistic rendering of ideas that nevertheless captured the publics attention, making him a spirit moving the mens souls to a dream (Huggins 45). This analytical strategy employed by Huggins in which he observes the phenomenon of black leaders from different points of view, including opposed contemporary opinions, is eternally beneficial for achieving an objective perception of a historical case.

The leaders, despite being majorly successful, were deemed to be useless by Huggins  which is characteristic of him, as his work is highly critical of Harlem Renaissance in its entirety. According to Huggins, the leaders were unable to commit a relevant social change, as they remained mostly theoretical and uninvolved in the district work that might have given them political leverage (63). This level of detachment of the movements proponents from their people was one of the greatest weaknesses of the New Negro era. In spite of this, Harlem still radiated a spirit of opportunity and new beginnings, and it was because of the older generation of notable people that Harlems intellectual and bohemian community bloomed.

Cultural Significance and Role of Harlem Renaissance

Later on, perhaps, the most prolific aspect of Harlem Renaissance should be expounded upon: its literary heritage. None of the sources discussed previously go into the emotional depth exhibited by the Aphrodites Daughters: Three Modernist Poets of Harlem Renaissance by Maureen Honey, which covers the lives and creative journeys of three prolific women poets. Addressing the matter of notable literature of the age directly in enriches the narrative in a number of ways. Firstly, it demonstrates the fact that Harlem was an inclusive society: women voices were heard and moreover, celebrated. Secondly, the poems themselves serve as the greatest illustrations of the Harlem, and more importantly, the feelings that this place incited in its residents. As spoken in Angelina Grimkes well-known lines, a spirit of daring delight compels me to wander this rollicking night, Harlem in the 1920s actually had an intoxicating quality (Honey 6). Such an emotional account can be an invaluable contribution to the research, especially in the light of deeply analytical sociological studies discussed earlier.

Global Impact

After experiencing a phenomenon overtly via inspecting various aspects of cultural, political, social, and economical lives of Harlem, it would be helpful to gain a perspective of its cultural significance as it reflected through time and space. This task is somehow accomplished in an article by Bailey and Rosenberg, titled Reading twentieth century urban black cultural movements through popular periodicals which draws comparisons between Harlem in the 20s and South Africas Sophiatown in the 50s.

Here one encounters the most well-known figure of Harlem Renaissance  its greatest ambassador and proponent, Langston Hughes. For it was him, who played a major part in spreading the influence of Harlem Renaissance abroad. Interestingly enough, his poems traversed the Atlantic not long before Hughes himself did  finding their first international audience in Germany (Wipplinger 170). This particular moment can serve as an ignition point for the spread of Harlems cultural heritage and its innovative ideas about the new black identity, in particular. An outstanding demonstration of this would be the case of Johannesburgs Sophiatown, whose periodical Drum, following the blueprint of action pioneered by the Crisis, allowed the oppressed black people to find a voice (Bailey and Rosenberg 67). In a sense, literature and music, both of which Langston Hughes embodied, served as a primary moving force behind the sociopolitical changes that took place in Harlem and in other black communities within the boundaries of its cultural influence.

Conclusion

In essence, a comprehensive portrait of an era can only be compiled from a number of sources, with each one covering a specific dimension characteristic of the life of an era under discussion. A holistic image of Harlem in the times of its cultural uprising was obtained. Several sources, like Sotos and Huggins, exhibited wholesome analysis of social and political tendencies dominant in Harlem at the time; the reciprocal connections that they made with culture, in the form of literature and jazz, were also illuminated. The literary legacy, published in the crucial periodicals like the Crisis, proved to be defining voices of the age that, in their turn, transformed not only Harlem, but spread internationally. Thus, a well-rounded characteristic of the movement was found, however, there exists a gap in knowledge about the phenomenon  and that is, the lack of analytical approach in the literature on the topic. An advised subject for further study would be tracing Harlem Renaissances influence into the present day.

Works Cited

Bailey, Julius & Rosenberg, Scott. Reading twentieth century urban black cultural movements through popular periodicals: a case study of the Harlem Renaissance and South Africas Sophiatown. Safundi, vol. 17, no. 1, 2016, pp. 63-86. doi: 10.1080/17533171.2015.1112938

Honey, Maureen. Aphrodites Daughters: Three Modernist Poets of the Harlem Renaissance. Rutgers University Press, 2016.

Huggins, Nathan. Harlem Renaissance. Oxford University Press, 2007.

Soto, Michael. Measuring the Harlem Renaissance: the U.S. census, African American identity, and literary form. University of Massachusetts Press, 2016.

Wipplinger, Jonathan. The Jazz Republic: Music, Race, and American culture in Weimar Germany. University of Michigan Press, 2017.

Interpretation of a Renaissance Man Analysis

The period of Renaissance was a unique age marked by liberalism in art and the new vision of the world. The artists depicted human beauty and physical strength. During this period, historical painters might like to think that he represented the supreme achievement of the age, but something still remained to spring up in the shadow of his vast canvases. The movement developed its precise, unrhetorical portrayal of particular fact, and enriched it with the distress and resignation of the poor. Such painters as Donatello, Michelangelo, Albrecht Durer depicted physical beauty of the man as the main ideology of this historical period.

The Renaissance man can be described as a philosopher who tries to understand the world around him through ideals of beauty, philosophical concepts and religion. The Renaissance is considered as the age of the bourgeois, humanist and cultivatedor at any rate paying homage to the ideal of humanism. The greatest moments of his day are those spent in some Renaissance palace, conversing with men like-minded with himself and feasting his eyes on scholars and discoverers, statesmen and condottiere. The church becomes, exteriorly, a magnificent palace; interiorly, a hall where the humanist can meet Christ the Hero in company with the saints. A polite, hierarchical society sets the tone, in which the humanist, enlightened bourgeoisie and nobility can meet and mingle. Its culminating image is that of the absolutist prince, and the background to its spacious living is the Baroque castle, set in its formal landscape. Its great state-room, where the prince receives his people, answers to the interiors of the churches of the period, which often stand with a monastery, built, like the castles, into the landscape (Koestler 294).

For a Renaissance man, a church always succeeds in being religious, i.e. validly itself, when an architect with artistic talent has applied himself to meeting the requirements of the liturgy with the means which his own contemporary style places at his disposal. A truly religious interior has never been the fruit of deliberate historicism; it comes into existence as a genuine statement of reality, as at this present moment, in architectural terms. And it is entirely beside the point for those who stand for a historically conservative style in Christian churches to cite Chinese and Egyptian temples in their support. Readers see Moore as a forward-looking progressive thinker attempting to chart a course into the future that would move beyond the mistakes of the past. Others, on the other hand, see him as a conservative, longing nostalgically for the bygone days of complete Catholic hegemony in Europe and hoping somehow to restore the medieval order. Citizens of Utopia can and do vote in local, state, and national elections outside the community itself, though even there they are expected to vote as a bloc for candidates. In particular, this political activity is part of a plan of gradual expansion that Moore sees as leading in a relatively short time to control the entire communities. The Utopian society goes to great extremes to negate any differences in material circumstances that might lead to rivalries, jealousies, or competition for material gain. For example, the houses of the Utopians are as far as possible all identical. Moreover, to ensure that there can be no question of one familys house being preferable to another (and that the citizens do not become too attached to their houses), the citizens change houses by lot once every ten years. In short, a principal goal of the Utopian society is to negate differences among individuals. Individual freedom is sacrificed in the interest of universal equality, resulting in a tendency toward conformism that has been a major concern of modern fiction (Koestler 142, 421).

In sum, during the Renaissance, human nature was seen as a part of Gods nature and reflected this ideal. A modern man affirms his freedom through resolute choice and thus attains integrity, or he can abdicate his freedom, neglect to choose, lose his existential centeredness, and succumb to unauthenticity. This factor is as crucial for an understanding of analysis and interpretation of a Renaissance man as is his description of the self as a synthesis of possibility and necessity. The Renaissance paid special attention to the soul and divine power on the Earth. Painting, buildings and sculptures reflected and ideals of renaissance philosophy. Today, the crowd divests the individual of his unique responsibilities and confers upon him at best a numerical significance. It reduces him to a fractional man who is identified with his functions and is thereby replaceable. This does not mean that the crowd possesses some kind of a group substance through which it can act. Action is always the action of individuals within a crowd. Incorporate action each humanist could do what he was unable to do alone. Hence, when one is sacrificed to the crowd, one is sacrificed to the actions executed by the individuals who constitute it. The Renaissance architects worked out plans for such parochial units; and sculptors have long since achieved grave stones of worth and dignity. It has always been the privilege of the patron to give his architect and artists directions concerning the requirements of the cult and of local conditions.

Works Cited

Koestler, A. The Sleepwalkers A History of Mans Changing Vision of the Universe (Arkana). New York: Penguin (Non-Classics), 1990. Print.

Saint, More, Thomas Sir, Utopia. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co., 1999. Print.

A History of Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present

Europe, like many other continents, has undergone a lot of transformations in different fronts. In regard to the buildup of history of the continent, it was characterized by many uprisings from countries including France and Germany.

Italy and others followed suit in pursuit of economic change and governance. 1848 is particularly known as the year of barricades as it was characterized by revolutionary activities across the continent. This paper seeks to explain the intrigues that led to the historical uprisings in Europe and the outcome thereof.

By 1848, Europe experienced a major shift from agriculture to industrialization. With the advancement in industrialization, merchant ships started docking at the French coast with food imports such as potatoes. France experienced a boom in its economic power as its output increased by 77%.

This effect was felt across the continent as countries such as Belgium doubled their output and others like Great Britain had more than double. However, this came with its own share of problems. For example, the potatoes imported were infested with moulds that caused crop diseases like potato blight and potato typhus. This affected the French agriculture and greatly reduced their population from 8.5 million to 6.5 million. This foresaw a great dynamism in the European history and the world at large (Merriman, 437).

There were pre-1848 tensions across the continent such as economic challenges amongst leaders, urbanization, challenges amongst artisans, food insecurity and conflicting ideologies amongst different countries. France had these problems during this period. It then increased its taxes to 45% and this was a heavy burden for peasants.

It also experienced a downturn in its stock exchange market with a 55% decline. The French populace had an interest in a liberal charter and to impede the authoritarian leadership of Ferdinand II. The liberals and working citizens were utterly discontented with the actions of King Louis Philippe. They were disgusted by the Kings minister Francois Guizot who opposed electoral reforms.

General Louis Cavaignacs dictatorship crushed the revolution of the time and left more than 10,000 dead. When Louis Napoleon Bonaparte ousted Cavaignac from power, he instilled law and order. Politics in France then shifted to the right. He replaced all radical government representatives with ultra-conservatives and monarchists. He went ahead and dissolved the national assembly and a new election was held. The revolution had finally paid off (Merriman, 576).

The German unity materialized as a result of political maneuvering by Prussia. The National assembly drafted a charter to unite Germany under a ruler. The charter was then offered to Fredrick William IV although he rejected it. With a united north, Prussia opted for the southern region. France then declared war on Prussia which was later able to convince the southern states to join in repulsing the French. In the end, Germany became unified. Italy on the other hand was made up of small autonomous kingdoms.

They had a high potential for change in the Italian peninsula that was under the Austrians. The French assisted the Italians to defeat the Austrians and later France made an unsuspected peace deal with Austrians. By 1871, virtually the entire isthmus had been engrossed by Sardinia with the exception of Rome and Venice. The Italian kingdom was born and the unity continued up to 1871 when Rome and Venice were finally absorbed (Merriman, 254).

Works Cited

Merriman, John. A History of Modern Europe; From the Renaissance to the Present (3rd edition), New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010. Print.

Harlem Renaissance and Astonishing Literary Creativity

Introduction

The Harlem Renaissance was also referred to as the New Negro Movement. It spanned for about two decades from the beginning of 1920s. Besides, the movement tagged its practices to cultural matters among the African-Americans. The Alain Locke anthology of 1925 was the main impetus that gave rise to the name of this movement (Bean 76).

It is also imperative to mention that the Harlem Renaissance had far reaching influence. In other words, it did not merely impact the New York neighborhoods where it was founded. There were several black writers who were sojourning in Paris and speaking French that were equally influenced by this renaissance.

There are informal records which indicate that this cultural movement must have begun from as early as 1919 until before the close of 1930s. However, it is evident that most of the ideas curved out of the Harlem Renaissance left permanent influence.

On the other hand, there are conflicting historical records that this renaissance may have started during the mid 1920s and spanned up to the time when the Great Depression started. This was the time when there was a crash in the stock market (1929).

Background to Harlem

There were myriads of African Americans who went through traumatic period of slave trade until when the Civil War ended. Most of them were residing in the south and were mainly being used as slaves to work in plantation farms.

The culmination of the era of slavery ushered in a new generation of African Americans who were eager to attain cultural self-determination, economic empowerment, political fairness, and active participation in civic duties (Ostrom 154). When the Civil War came to a halt, several African Americans found their voice and were able to address and articulate their views.

For instance, the African American Congressmen had fully supported the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 that sought to balance political, economic and social equity among all races. It is understood that there were 16 blacks serving in the Congress by 1875 after being democratically elected. They equally gave resounding speeches in the Congress regarding the plight of African Americans.

Hence, it is worth to underscore the fact that the Harlem Renaissance was remarkably triggered by the desire to liberate African Americans who had undergone series of suffering as slaves. Besides, this was the same generation that had undergone the American Civil War and therefore needed to reconstruct itself (Perry 32).

Culture explosion during Harlem Renaissance

The Harlem Renaissance was first experienced towards the close of second decade of 1900s. For instance, the Three Plays for a Negro Theatre premiered in 1917. Although the plays were authored by Ridgely Torrence, a white writer, they depicted the yearnings and emotions of African Americans in a white dominated continent.

The plays attempted to rebut all kinds of minstrel show traditions and blackface stereotypes that had been leveled against African Americans. As a matter of fact, the three plays marked the most important entry of the African Americans into the theatre.

According to Wintz (61), the Harlem Renaissance managed to grow as a result of the multiple transformations that had taken place during the slave trade era coupled with the northern expansion of the African American communities from the south.

They needed to search for better living conditions in big cities that were already developed. Nevertheless, one of the most vital changes that laced the Harem Renaissance was the culture of music as explored in the remaining section of the paper.

Music

The Harlem Renaissance led to the adoption of the Harlem Stride Style of playing piano. This new style came at a time when there growing disparity between the socially elite and poor Negros. Hence, it assisted in reducing the gap between the two social classes of the same race. The south was mainly associated with instruments made of brass that used to be played in all the traditional jazz bands.

However, the wealthy class was associated with the use of piano because the poor community could not afford it. However, after the existing genre of music was modified to fit all classes of the Negro in society, the jazz music became a common feature even among the wealthy blacks.

The popularity of jazz music grew quite fast among the poor and the rich across the country. It reached a point in time when jazz music was the best and most valued among all classes.

In order to boost the popularity of the jazz music, both liveliness during performance and innovation were considered to be critical. The two aforementioned values were vital especially at the early stages when jazz music was being introduced to the top class Negros.

Some of the talented musicians during this time included Willie The Lion Smith, Jelly Roll Morton, Duke Ellington and Fats Waller. They were extremely competitive among themselves. This led to increased innovative and performance skills.

The music that was played by the African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance continually became more appealing to the white population than before. This explains the reason why composers, dramatists, and novelists drawn from the white population braced their works with a lot of themes borrowed from this cultural movement.

The African American music tendencies and patterns soon became a common feature in both the black and white theatres. The poetic lines compiled by African Americans were frequently used by composers when writing their songs.

Besides, the African American melodies, harmonies and rhythms were heavily implemented in the new songs that were composed during and even after the Harlem Renaissance. For example, concert pieces were graced with jazz tones, spirituals and blues that had roots from the African American setting.

The field of musical composition was then transformed completely whereby both the whites and blacks began to collaborate when composing music. For instance, Roland Hayes gained a lot of popularity in music because he worked with both the black and white composers and singers. He grew into an international artist by defying all the racial odds and stereotypes that had existed since time immemorial.

The musician gained mammoth fame especially after he started producing together with musicians who were not from his race. He also underwent additional training at the Fisk University in Nashville. His singing career began when he was still a student. He could perform several shows in public. In addition, he managed to tour several destinations as an artist. In 1911, he performed alongside the Fisk Jubilee Singers (Hughes 62).

Themes and Characteristics of music during the Harlem Renaissance

The ideology of the New Negro and an overt racial pride were common characteristics of most African American compositions that were produced during this renaissance period. The stereotypes and racism were critically challenged by the music, art and literature that were eminent during the Harlem Renaissance.

In other words, the Negros used their musical and overall theater intellect to denounce all the negative aspects of racism that had been created previously. This broad step led to social and racial integration, and balanced socialist politics that were considered to be progressive among all races. Hence, the race was uplifted due to the development of art and literature (Hutchinson 106).

The general form of art and literature that took shape during the Harlem Renaissance could not be attributed to a single distinct factor. In any case, there were myriads of cultural styles and elements that adorned the African American music at this time.

Some of the dominant elements include the low culture or low life music, the high culture and as well as the African perspective. The blues and jazz later sprang out of the traditional forms of music that were valued among the African Americans (Patton and Honey 133).

The jazz poetry also took a new form during the Harlem Renaissance because there was innate desire to modernize the traditional jazz-like music in order to accommodate the white race.

While the latter was not an open attempt, it is definite that the white culture was capable of consuming the new form of jazz due to the modification that was injected in it. As a result, the conservatives conflicted with most of the African American artists who were quickly transforming in terms of culture in order to be compatible with the rest of the region.

Although the above mentioned themes were evident in the art and music produced during the Harlem Renaissance, it is prudent to mention that the emergence of the African American traditions coupled with the era of slave trade were the two major foundations of thematic art. The impacts of institutional racism were also instrumental in shaping the themes of musical art that were composed during this period.

The elite white audience had special taste for jazz music. Although they were not the main target, it is vital to note that they affected some of the thematic foundation and content of the black music. Needless to say, the modern African Americans who were residing in the white dominated north were also another experience to reckon with while composing the blues and jazz music.

The African American engagement was visualized in the Harlem renaissance since the period was marked with mutual support from publications, black-owned businesses, and black patrons. Nonetheless, the white Americans were also instrumental since they offered different types of assistance by creating an enabling environment where black writers could showcase and publish their art and literature (Lewis 142).

The Harlem Renaissance was also characterized with the desire among some whites to witness the so-called primitive culture among the African Americans. Hence, they embraced and displayed these works in order to demonstrate the southern culture that was largely perceived to be under-civilized. As a matter of fact, they showcased this black culture in their contents in order to gain wider publicity of their works.

Music and general art was used by African Americans to lobby for socio-economic and political equity and also in quest their humanity.

In any case, a lot of opportunities for the African Americans were created by the Harlem Renaissance bearing in mind that the era was instrumental in the development of the black theatre (Huggins 80). Moreover, the volume of newspapers, magazines and novels were published during this period courtesy of the renaissance impacts.

The entire country became ecstatic due to the large amount of fiction literature and art that were released by the African Americans. It is without doubt that the past slavery period that was characterized with social injustices was a key impediment towards the progress of the black race.

The Civil Rights Movement that emerged shortly after the Second World War was also attributed to the long lasting impacts of the Harlem Renaissance. The latter created a suitable environment where the black population could fight for their rights as equal citizens of the country.

This literary movement was the key source of inspiration among the African Americans who were already in the theaters performing soul and jazz music (Andrews, Foster and Harris 54).

To recap it all, the Harlem Renaissance marked an extremely significant period in the socio-cultural development of the African Americans. Although it was largely regarded as an artistic movement, this cultural movement affected all spheres of life especially among the blacks who had gone through trying times.

The slave trade era, the American Civil War and typical racial practices left the black community a more devastated segment of the population than any other race. Nevertheless, cultural integration that was brought about by the Harlem Renaissance worked against limiting the intrigues of racism and slave trade.

On the same note, the traditional jazz music that was mainly a preserve of the south was gradually accommodated by the white population since it was more appealing, entertaining and refreshing than the conventional and dormant culture of the white.

Works Cited

Andrews William, Frances Foster and Trudier Harris (eds). The Concise Oxford Companion To African American Literature. New York: Oxford Press, 2001. Print.

Bean, Annemarie. A Sourcebook on African-American Performance: Plays, People, Movements. London: Routledge, 1999. Print.

Huggins, Nathan. Harlem Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Print. Hughes, Langston. The Big Sea. New York: Knopf, 1940. Print.

Hutchinson, George. The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White. New York: Belknap Press, 1997. Print.

Lewis, David Levering (ed). The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader. New York: Viking Penguin, 1995. Print.

Ostrom, Hans. A Langston Hughes Encyclopedia. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002. Print.

Patton, Venetria and Maureen Honey (eds). Double-Take: A Revisionist Harlem Renaissance Anthology. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2006. Print.

Perry, Jeffrey. Hubert Harrison: The Voice of Harlem Radicalism, 18831918. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Print.

Wintz, Cary. Harlem Speaks: A Living History of the Harlem Renaissance. Naperville, Illinois: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2007. Print.

The Renaissance and Religion

Background Information

The renaissance is a very interesting era in the history of humanity. It is an era which has been associated with many discoveries and changes in the life of mankind. To have a clear picture of the significance of the renaissance it is better to slightly examine the way of life just before 1400.

Before 1400 and actually the early part of 1400, the Roman Catholic Church had a great influence on the society. The church was supreme in every way and commanded unrivalled authority on both religious issues and politics. The pope wielded immense influence on political leaders and kings likewise. What was communicated from the pope was final regardless of who the subject was.

The Catholic Church was the only church in the world and its branches were in many countries. It is also worth noting that the church was the wealthiest organization and this wealth was acquired by means which were later found to be unacceptable.

Payment for services rendered by the church was very frequent actually there was not a single activity that the priest would preside over without any payment being done weather it was a funeral, baptism or any other. Selling of indulgence and some pieces of artwork representing saints was a common practice.

This sounds ridiculous and this is where the Renaissance man comes in. The church had used some weird philosophy to tame the thinking of the society to view the pope and the church in general as divinely superior to them and that the pope had the power to determine whether a person could access heaven or not. With this nature of thinking people were subjected to a rigid way of life where everything started from and ended with the church.

The wakeup call

The Renaissance period can be said to have stirred people to wake from some kind of sleep they were in. The renaissance period was a time when humanism for the first time was experienced. It must be pointed out that renaissance was very secular but not necessarily evil as such. It has also been pointed out that the renaissance weakened the influence of the church but helped to spread it further; the roman church was weakened as reformations broke up all the over Europe.

The renaissance was an invitation to reason and question issues about life  the church was questioned about some of its practices and it was found wanting. According to Kreis (2008), the return to favor of the pagan classics stimulated the philosophy of secularism, the appreciation of worldly pleasures, and above all intensified the assertion of personal independence and individual expression.

It is recorded that man started to appreciate the pleasures of this world and less depended on supernatural teaching from the church. This period has often been described as the germinal period of modernism with the Renaissance man being said to have stood at a point midway between medieval supernaturalism and the modern scientific and critical attitude.

The renaissance brought in great surprises to humanity as reasoning and thinking was put to test producing great works in the fields of art, literature, exploration, mathematics, science and religion.

People were able to think independently testing new ways and ideas which originated from their minds and not from the church. Some of the achievements of this period are still a great inspiration today for instance the great Mona Lisa was an art work of this period. The renaissance brought in secular thought to people helping to reduce the influence that the church had on their lives.

Bibliography

Kreis, Steven. Lectures on Modern Europe Intellectual History. The History Guide, 2008. Web.

The Renaissance and the Church. All About Renaissance Faires. Web.

Think. Religion. Oracle Think Quest, 2010. Web.

Renaissance Paintings by Jan Van Eyck and Filippo Lippi

Renaissance Paintings Jan Van Eyck  Portrait of a Man in Turban

Jan Eyck was an artist from Northern Europe. He worked on many paintings, but one of his most outstanding paintings is the portrait of a man in turban which he did in 1443. This artwork is thought to be his own reflection. Jan was perceived to be the pioneer of using oil paints in this region.

The image is two-dimensional because we can only see the front side and the top side. By just looking at the image, it is clear that Jan Van Eyck was a very religious person owing to the turban on his head.

The difference between the background and the foreground of the image is difficult to determine because the dark coloring has overlapped the other elements. However, the same darkness has been used to create an outline of the image. The artist used more contrast on the areas that he needed to highlight.

If there was more contrast in the entire image, a balance would have been achieved (Sider 67). This is because the image covers only one half of the frame.

The shadowing is used to block other characters in the image because the artist wanted the viewers to focus on his personality portrayed in the image (Levy 7). The same shadowing is applied on the turban to create texture. More texture has been created by the smooth lines that are on the surface of the turban to create an impression of the folds in the garment.

The outline of the turban is used to create an impression on the size of the headgear. However, the outline is blended with the background to create a smooth edge. There is an aspect of sequence in this image with regard to appearance.

When the viewer glances at the image, darkness is the first aspect to be seen followed by the bright face. The source of light flows from the left side of the image and that is why the other body parts such as ears cannot be seen.

Filippo Lippi  The Madonna and Child

Filippo was another renaissance painter who was born and brought up in Italy. He is was a renowned artist who worked on the Madonna and Child 1440-1445 painting. In this painting, there is a woman who is holding a baby that is placed on a platform, but her image dominates the entire image.

The image has two dimensions because there is height and width (Paoletti and Radke 14). The colors used on the ladys garments are of high value as opposed to those used on the childs clothing. Both vertical and horizontal lines have been repeated to create smooth texture and smooth edges.

The colors that are used in the image are much related and thus they create an element of unity. The images are also connected to each other. The lady is linked to the child through her hand and the child is seated on the platform. The background is not blended with the outline of the image.

This argument can be verified by looking at the right hand of the woman, which is overlapped by the body of the child. There would be no balance in the image if the child were not present because the woman seems to lean towards the left side as seen from the womans tilted head and the elbow.

However, the position of the child compensates for the imbalance that the woman creates. The lines have been used to separate colors to make sure that each color is distinct (Bayer 1). However, this is only applied on the womans garments. The background is made up of several colors that are of low value.

Light is evenly distributed in the image expect on the lower right hand side where the baby creates an obstruction. The image has an aspect of religion which is evidenced by the background of the image. The background represents renaissance architecture where arcs were used and the technique was common in religious buildings. Moreover, the garments worn by the lady represent an element of fashion.

Works Cited

Bayer, Andrea. Northern Italian Renaissance Painting. 2000. Web. <>

Levy, Janey. Renaissance Paintings: Using Perspective to Represent Three Dimensional Paintings. New York: Rosen Classroom, 2005. Print.

Paoletti, John, and Radke Gary. Art in Renaissance Italy. 3rd ed. London: Lawrence King Publishing, 2005. Print.

Sider, Sandra. Handbook to Life in Renaissance Europe. New York: InfoBase Publishing, 2005. Print.

Renaissance art piece formal analysis

The Renaissance period has presented a lot of masterpieces of art which has formed the cradle of modern culture. The works by Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael are famous all over the world. The perfectness and harmony of their art pieces have determined the principles of the world art development.

Raphael is one of the most prominent Italian artists who made his masterpieces during the Renaissance period. Sistine Madonna is one of his most discussed works which was completed before his death. Today it is located in the Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden, Germany. It attracts the publics attention with its inimitable composition and the sacred meaning which is hidden in Madonnas and her sons views.

Sistine Madonna is an oil painting which was completed by Raphael in 1514. This piece of art was worked out as the part of the high altar of the Monastery of San Sisto in Piacenza. It was the Benedictine monks wish to have such a painting as the altarpiece. The composition of the work can be divided into two parts.

However, the center of the composition is Madonna who is on clouds with her son Jesus in her hands. Madonna is looking in front of her. Jesus is looking at something which is left to him. We also can observe the images of Saint Sixtus and Saint Barbara nearby. Saint Sixtus is looking at Madonna and pointing at something in that direction where Jesus is looking.

It seems that he tries to warn Madonna. Two small winged cherubs who are situated beneath Madonna finish the composition. They are often considered as the independent part of the painting. The background of the work is rather soft and light. We can discover the obscured images of cherubs there.

The color scheme of the painting is rather contrasting because the background of the composition is pale and the main figures are depicted in quite dark colors. Raphael used the tones of dark blue and dark green colors to portray the figures. The dress of Saint Sixtus is in golden colors. Definite details of Madonnas and Saint Sixtuss dresses are presented in a bright purple color.

The most discussed issue connected with this religious painting is the meaning of the expressions on the faces of Madonna and Jesus. It was not typical for the art of that period to portray Madonnas with such a worried face.

Moreover, the child seems to be even frightened. Many critics and historians tried to find the answer to this question. It was hidden in the peculiarities of the altar where the painting should be located. Thus, according to one hypothesis, Jesus was looking and Saint Sixtus was pointing at a crucifix as a sign of the death.

Sistine Madonna is one of the most famous religious oil paintings made by Raphael. Moreover, it is the last image of Madonna completed by him for the church or monastery.

This painting became the most prominent example of portraying the religious themes in art for many generations of artists. Many critics emphasize that in this work Madonna looks like an ordinary woman who feels the great responsibility and even fears for her son.

This great painting was developed for the Benedictine monks Monastery of San Sisto and has determined the principles of portraying religious motives and images in the works of the Renaissance age. Sistine Madonna became the last image from the series of Madonnas depictions made by Raphael.

The Italian Renaissance: Leonardo Da Vinci

Introduction

The renaissance was a period in history where Europe underwent a rebirth in its perception of art. It marked the transformation of the continent from the middle ages to the modern era. The renaissance was the starting point for the development of concepts such as individualism, secularism as well as capitalism. In art, most works were associated with geometric representations of the natural world.

However, some scholars are quick to warn others about the dangers of bracketing all artists in the renaissance into one similar group because some individuals do not fit neatly into these patterns. While other Italian artists may fall outside conventional understandings of art in the renaissance, Leonardo de Vinci does not; his work exemplifies this radical transformation in the representation of images and forms on various media.

Distinct features of the renaissance

Renaissance art was known for its focus on personalities, attitudes or emotions rather than just the outlines or forms of the images being represented. Artists were able to capture emotion even in sculptures, especially the unsupported nude (Maginnis 14). Most of their forms had great emotional intensity and thus appeared more natural.

This was also a time when paintings or drawings became more realistic than they had ever been before (Saari & Saari 44). Most of the artists who achieved this goal utilised the concept of perspective in their work. They made their two-dimensional representations seem very similar to three-dimensional figures.

The ability to manipulate light and darkness in renaissance work also made artistic quite authentic (Jurdjevic 250). These artists knew how to work with tone and they would play with contrast in a manner that achieved their desired goal.

As stated earlier, the renaissance was a time in history when Europe started experiencing elements of secularism (Hay 130). In the period before the renaissance, most artists were intent on promoting religious devotion through their work. However, in the renaissance era, artists started doing some mythological representations and focused on subjects outside of religion. It should be noted that the extent to which this occurred was rather small. However, secular paintings were still a reality (Hart & Wilkins 23).

Lastly, the renaissance was also associated with the accurate representation of images and forms in space. This was manifested through effective use of motion. Images in this era, therefore, focused on correctness and logic rather than unscientific work (Macdonald 9).

Leonardos techniques and contribution to the renaissance

Leonardo is best known for his superior use of light and shade in his artistic work. This was a concept that made his paintings more realistic and came to be a distinct feature of the renaissance period. As such, Da Vinci was a true renaissance artist. A typical case of how he used light and shade wistfully was his painting of Virgin and Child with a Cat. In this artwork, Leonardo was able to capture the mass of his subjects through effective use of light and shade (Van Cleave 86).

Leonardo mastered this technique by analysing his life-sized sculptures. They often replicated the manner in which light and shade fell on real human subjects. It was this ability to transform such abstract concepts, such as light and reflection, to artistic works that made Leonardo highly valued in the renaissance.

OConnor (50) explains that Leonardos ability to manipulate light and darkness stemmed from his intense study of optics. The artist wanted to learn more about the phenomenon of light transmission. He, therefore, used science in order to accomplish his artistic goals. At the time, the individual focused on using real human eyes to study light. He obtained eyes from medical colleagues and discovered a way of hardening different layers of the eye.

He then came up with theories on how light was reflected by the different components. Although these concepts seemed far-fetched at the time, and most medical scientists rejected his ideas, Da Vincis theories proved to be quite practical for his designs as well as his artistic work (McHam 53).

He found out that light travels in waves and that the eye worked as a lens. Such ideas assisted him in accurately representing his paintings. The comprehensive scientific work done by Da Vinci exemplifies the need to focus on scientific representation of form. Leonardo was a true renaissance artist because he strived for correct representation of form through scientific mechanisms.

Geometric calculations and intense preparations were famous methods used by renaissance artists to increase the accuracy their work, and Da Vinci was no exception (Kavaler 16). When Leonardo lived in Milan, his ruler had talked about the desire to make a bronze horse with a rider on it. When Leonardo heard about this interest, he took it upon himself to research about the item intensely. He learnt a lot about bronze casting and then observed horses at rest, racing horses as well as prancing horses.

He disentangled various components of the horses body part and worked on them independently. Thereafter, Da Vinci was commissioned with the job, and he created a clay model of a horse and its rider. The model was quite huge and profoundly detailed. Leonardo worked out a way of determining how much bronze he would need to cover the clay model from top to bottom. Once again, he relied on scientific methods of measurements and dimension.

The clay mould was never transformed into a bronze statue because Italy diverted its bronze elements for use in making weapons (OConnor 55). However, the intense and meticulous preparation of the artist is a depiction of his renaissance leanings. He always wanted to make his sculptures and paintings as accurate as possible, and to do this well, then scientific or geometric methods came in handy (Langley 92).

Leonardo often created pieces that captured emotions effectively and seemed magical in the way they represented the human form. A case in point is the Mona Lisa, which is, arguably, the most famous painting ever made by a renaissance artist. Art lovers and critics alike still remain fascinated by the image of the Mona Lisa. People have imitated and reproduced the Mona Lisa in an attempt to demystify this creation.

The same thing may be said about his portraits of beautiful women such as Cecilia Gallarani. There was a high degree of depth in these pieces because the women were not just beautiful; they had a contemplative and pensive countenance. Da Vinci superbly captured these qualities in his work and thus exemplified the renaissance tendency to portray human emotion so well.

The women in these portraits appeared to have something to hide. However, instead of revealing to the audience what the model was concealing, Da Vinci preferred to show the concealment in order to allow audiences to speculate about those missing components for themselves.

Da Vinci was also widely reputed for his ability to capture movement and mass with subtlety. In the portrait Virgin of the rocks the artist had a way of moving from shapes to tones without demonstration of any sort of contours in his pieces. The delicateness of the features in this painting, and many others was evidence of the fact that Leonardo had a deep-seated ability to smoothly transition between forms.

Da Vincis promienence as a renaissance artist also stemmed from his capacity to coordinate attitude and the human anatomy perfectly. The artist knew how to demonstrate position and motion in the human body by relating it to the physique of the subject (Keele 366). As a result, his paintings were quite natural.

Many armature contemporaries did not understand this relationship. Consequently, most of them did not change the way muscles looked in different parts of the body, such as the arms, stomach, as well as the back. Their images always seemed to lack adequate emotion. Leonardo explained that it was essential to match attitude with the position of the subject (Kemp and Wallae 87).

To achieve this, one must consider some possible thoughts of the concerned models. Da Vinci often thought about mutes who solely rely on motion in their eyes, back, and feet in order to express what they think about. Alternatively Da Vinci knew how to match the age of the subject with the nature of the attitude that they had.

For instance, Leonardo proposed that when drawing an old man, in the standing position, one must refrain from spreading his legs too wide (Keele 366). Additionally, various muscles and body parts must be used to echo this position. For instance, the person should have bent knees and he ought to have straddled feet. A crooked back would be appropriate as well as stooping shoulders. It would also be fitting for the old person to wear a dull and sluggish look (Richter 101).

This attention to details revolving around the human anatomy made Da Vincis work come to life. It alludes to the propensity for the use of science in his work. The artist understood the clinical asymmetry of the human body. He knew that the neck area, hip area and shoulders often exhibit the greatest variability in motion.

As result, it was necessary to alter these traits in order to meet his objectives. Leonardo thought of the human body as some sort of moving machine (Keele 368). Consequently, he was right to assert that the body was governed by mechanical laws. These concepts were indeed revolutionary because medical scientists did not understand them at the time.

Nonetheless, they explained why Da Vinci captured attitude so effortlessly in his work. It is this combination of scientific techniques to achieve true representation that makes him an exemplary renaissance case (Gelb 99).

Leonardos weaknesses and distinctness from other renaissance artists

While Leonardo was one of the most influential figures in the renaissance, some of his work was wanting because of his artistic temperament. The individual rarely focused on one thing at a time. He was fascinated by all he saw, and wanted to figure out how things worked. The problem with this attitude was that Leonardo often got bored with certain projects. He would start working on a piece of art and leave it half way (Van Cleave 86).

Furthermore, sometimes he focused so much on experimenting that it often got in the way of actual artistic work. A case in point was the painting of the Battle of Aughiari. Leonardo was experimenting with new techniques of paint application. Although the work had initially been appealing, this changed dramatically owing to deterioration of the paint quality (Van Cleave 86), (Welch 64).

Consequently, Da Vincis propensity for experimentation sometimes harmed his work. Beckett (5) explains that Da Vincis many talents caused him to place too much importance on other fields and thus treat his artistry lightly.

To a certain extent, many experts have come to associate the renaissance period with fresco painting. It was a method that renaissance artists preferred because not only was it a cheaper way of creating artistic pieces, but it also lasted longer than cloth, which was the form that inspired fresco painters (Lopez 204). The method required a lot if investment in artistic skill even though one did not need to use a lot of labour for the same.

As a result, artists had to be careful about the way the work was done. One must prepare a wall surface and then create the right scaffolding. Artists needed to consider the weather when making fresco paintings. If they exposed their painting to wet or cold weather, then this would cause the plaster to remain wet. Alternatively, if a painter did fresco painting when it was dry, then chances are that a part of the painting would dry before completing it.

Some artists looked for creative ways of dealing with the problem by combining oil and tempera (Welch 66). Da Vinci used his own approach to fresco painting by using with oil, although this did not work. It is likely that his divided attention may have led to the problem. Currently, images of paintings that he made with this technique were disastrous because he did not give the method the time that it needed to develop the right approach.

Leonardo was exceptional because he represented how artists could meet the objective of the renaissance era. The unique depictions of the human form could not be easily replicated by other artists. Many of the painters, who tried, only succeeded in imitating one or two elements of Leonardos work but never the entire piece (Turner 60).

In this regard, one can assert that Leonardos influence stood apart from what other renowned artists had accomplished in the renaissance. Therefore, one can argue that Leonardo stood apart from others as an artist and this reduced his influence in the era.

The subject matter of most of Da Vincis paintings was religious and traditional. In most circumstances he dwelt on angels and ordinary people. Therefore, one can assert that there were minimal secular themes in Da Vincis work. In this regard, he did not advance secularism as was the case for certain renaissance artists (Burke 15).

Conclusion

Leonardo was an exemplary renaissance artist owing to his focus on accurately presenting images on two dimensional media. He used geometric and scientific methods to achieve this. Da Vinci also balanced light and darkness just like other renaissance artists. Leonardo captured the emotion and attitudes of his subject as was expected in the renaissance. In this regard, he was an exemplary artist. Some deviations from such expectations do not change this fact.

Works Cited

Burke, Peter. The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999. Print.

Beckett, Wendy. Leonardo Da Vinci 2010. Web..

Gelb, Michael. How to Think Like Leonardo: Seven Steps to Genius Every Day. New York, NY: Delacorte Press. 1998. Print.

Hartt, Frederick and Wilkins, David. History of Italian Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture. London: Thames and Hudson, 2003. Print.

Hay, Denys. The Italian Renaissance in Its Historical Background. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Print.

Jurdjevic, Mark. Hedgehogs and Foxes: The Present and Future of Italian Renaissance Intellectual History.  Past & Present 195(2007): 241-268. Print.

Kavaler, Ethan. Renaissance Gothic: Pictures of Geometry and Narratives of Ornament. Art History 29.1(2006): 1-46.

Keele, Kenneth. Leonardo Da Vincis Infleunce on Renaissance Anatomy n.d. Web.

Kemp, Martin & Wallae Marina. Spectacular Bodies: The Art and Science of the Human Body from Leonardo to Now. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001. Print.

Langley, Andrew. Leonardo da Vinci and the Renaissance. Philadelphia, Pa.: Running Press, 2001. Print.

Lopez, Robert Sabatino, The Three Ages of the Italian Renaissance. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1970. Print.

Macdonald, Fiona. The World in the Time of Leonardo da Vinci. Parsippany, N.J: Dillon Press, 1998. Print.

Maginnis, Hayden. Painting in the Age of Giotto: A Historical Reevaluation, Oxford: OUP, 1997. Print.

McHam, Sarah. Looking at Italian Renaissance Sculpture. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998. Print.

OConnor, Barbara. Leonardo Da Vinci: Renaissance Genius. MN: Carolhoda Books, 2003. Print.

Richter, Irma. The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1998. Print.

Saari, Peggy & Saari, Aaron. Julie Carnagie, project: Renaissance & Reformation, Primary Sources. Detroit :UXL, 2002. Print.

Turner, Jane. Encyclopaedia of Italian Renaissance and Mannerist Art. Chicago: Doubleday, 2000. Print.

Van Cleave, Claire. Master Drawings of the Italian Renaissance. Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2007. Print.

Welch Evelyne. Art in Renaissance Italy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Print.

Art and Religion in the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Introduction

The medieval period is very difficult and conservative in the history of world art. It was dominated by rigid religious tendencies over innovative ideas, making the works of artists, sculptors, and writers very much tied to the Churchs theme. When this influence began to wane, the Renaissance was born in Italy. It is a true flowering of technology and art, but it, too, is very much linked to the theme of God and the saints. Its amazing how polymorphic art is and how differently religion can influence the creation of masterpieces. The main themes of this essay are the development of skills in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance and the place of religion in this fascinating process.

Medieval Art and the Place of God in It

A lot of what one thinks of the Dark Ages is inspired by popular culture, among other things. Films about King Arthur, the Crusades, jousting duels, and noble ladies pop up in peoples minds when they associate the word Middle Ages (Buis). Petrarch famously called the time between the collapse of the Roman Empire and his time the Dark Ages. Such a brightly colored name is since, according to the poet, classical science and art practically died during this huge 1,000-year period.

Later, historians from various countries smoothly transformed this concept into that of the Middle Ages  broadly speaking, this was the part of world history between the end of Antiquity in 476 and the beginning of the Renaissance when classical education began to revive in Europe again (Ross). The characterization of the Middle Ages as a period of chaos and darkness is misleading since it was during this time that Christianity, which rejected the old culture and world order, received a huge boost. The Church also greatly influenced the arts in various forms, effectively becoming part of them. The wealthy feudal lords actively commissioned icons, cathedral designs, jewelry, and sculpture from artists and architects.

The Middle Ages brought with them a new artistic language. Antique creators extensively used the illusory expression of reality, creating idealized human figures embodying the image of gods, so such sculptures and paintings became objects of worship. Formed and mature Christian academic teaching rejected idolatry as alien (Buis). Some theologians called for the rejection of images altogether as hostile to believers. Such radicalism did not take hold, but medieval artists turned away from modeling, shading, and perspective as they made the image more real. The main emphasis of medieval art was on flat images: of Jesus and the Virgin Mary and ordinary people, trees, and animals. Christianity also influenced architecture, which reflected in some form the agony of Christ, devoid of elaborate architectural elements and soft architectural forms.

The Theme of Religion in Renaissance Art

The Renaissance was a period of development when civilized Europe began to abandon the ideas of the medieval world, reviving interest in the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Greek scholars brought a wealth of knowledge and masterpieces of Antiquity to Italy (Augustyn). In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Reformation also gained momentum, declaring the old Church corrupt and turning its back on the pure ideals of Christianity.

The authors of the British Encyclopedia emphasize that contemporary art researchers are not in agreement with 19th-century French historians and that there is no complete and definitive break between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Augustyn). Rather, the tendencies toward humanism, individualism, and a return of interest in themes of nature began to emerge in the late Medieval period. It marks a smooth transition to a new era, which started in the 14th century in Italy, but not a complete restructuring of patterns.

In the 13th century, Giotto proclaimed a return to the ideals of human nature, and subsequently, almost all the works of famous creators were reduced to this seemingly simple principle. As eras cannot fail to set aside legacies, the Renaissance, though again resurrecting an abundance of more worldly subjects, religion, in a different form, remained the main source of ideas for architects and artists (Campbell 2). The major iconic works of Raphael, Michelangelo, and Leonardo da Vinci are directly related to images of saints. The fresco The Last Supper or the paintings The Rise of Adam and The Sistine Madonna depict scenes and subjects from the Bible, the main book of Christianity. Their artistic style tends to idealize the image of a person.

The artists again begin to use the classical methods of drawing and modeling, tabooed by medieval artists, abandoning flat photos. Techniques show the interweaving of the main directions of both Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The emotional component of the works is stronger and based on the principles of humanism and the value of man. This value is often expressed through images of saints (Campbell 83). Such approaches to the vision of the world were actively supported by Italian society, especially by the wealthy Florentine clans, including the Medici, which contributed to the popularization of Renaissance ideas (Augustyn). Many successful people considered it an honor to have an extensive library of classical works and invited artists (like Leonardo da Vinci).

Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be pointed out that different in many respects, the eras explored in this essay are significant for the development of art history. Many of the masterpieces studied in schools and universities were created during these historical periods. The Middle Ages is a more radical era, abandoning ancient Greeces and Romes classical heritage and putting God and the saints at the center. Renaissance creators actively used a symbiosis of the best of world art, making it more humanistic and oriented toward knowledge of the world.

Works Cited

Augustyn, Adam. Renessaince Art. The Encyclopedia Britannica, Web.

Buis, Alena. Art and Visual Culture: Prehistory to Renaissance. Creative Commons Attribution, 2022.

Campbell, Gordon. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Renaissance. Oxford University Press, 2019.

Ross, Nancy. Introduction to the Middle Ages. Smarthistory, Web.

Dr. DuBois and The Harlem Renaissance

Introduction

Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois lived an intense life; the ups and downs of that altruistic life and his all-prevailing personality were all conscientiously and passionately documented by him in autobiographies, essays, notes, journal articles, and lectures through several decades.

The Harlem Renaissance a.k.a. The Black Renaissance or the Negro Renaissance (by writers such as Milton Meltzer) was the outcome of a complex interplay of factors, currents, values, sensibilities, and of course, many remarkable men and women. Du Bois as a person who knew the actual pulse of the Black community, tried to collate all his thoughts on the struggles and tribulations in his seminal work, The Souls of Black Folk. He has tried his best to get to the root of the problems that plagued Afro Americans and at the same time, tried to offer a few workable solutions that would make them an integral part of American society.

In marked contrast to the esoteric yearnings of white intellectuals, the thinking black men and women began celebrating a new self-awareness of their community. They poignantly recalled their past, despite the ever-hurting thorn of slavery. The new self-awareness and pride did not come about suddenly. (In fact, this historical truth tells us not to try exact dates for the Harlem Renaissance.)

Facts about W.E.B. Du Bois

W.E.B. Du Bois was a graduate of Fisk and Harvard Universities. He was a sort of super scholar who believed that a scientific study of the Negro race, would, more than anything else, dispel their problems. His ambitious plan of bringing the Talented Tenth  the ten percent among the black people with leadership potential  into the limelight was given up, unfortunately, because of increasingly oppressing circumstances. Besides, Du Bois superior intellect and extra-serious academic leanings somehow prevented him from becoming a man of the masses.

However, his strong influence over writers, artists, and social leaders cannot be overemphasized. As the radical but extraordinarily efficient editor of The Crisis,(Crisis,5) the official organ of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, he initiated and nurtured many a talent. He was one of the main architects of the famous Niagara Movement, which was the forerunner of the N.A.A.C.P. It is unfortunate that he became disillusioned with the organization and left it by 1948. Yet, the African-Americans have not denied him a place of pride in their history, full of struggles as well as triumphs.

Langston Hughess deep impression

One of the four important people of the Black Renaissance, Langston Hughes (the other three being Countee Cullen, Claude Mc Kay, and Jean Toomer) was deeply affected by the passionate words coming from The Crisis: To promote equality of rights and eradicate case or race prejudice among the citizens of the United States; to advance the interests of colored citizens; to secure for them impartial suffrage; and to increase their opportunities for securing justice in the courts, education for their children, employment according to their ability and complete equality before the law. (Meltzer, 5)

Langston Hughess deep impression was reinforced by his grandmother telling him that Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois was great because he wants us to have our rights. He believes in equality and he fights for it. (Meltzer, 5) Hughes understood the crux of the racial problem from the words of Du Bois: One ever feels his two-ness  an American, a Negro, two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings, two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strengths alone keeps it from being torn asunder. The history of the American Negro is the history of this strife  this longing to attain self-conscious manhood, to merge his double self into a better and truer self. In this merging he wishes neither of the old selves to be lost. He would Africanize America, for America has too much to teach the world and Africa. He would not bleach his Negro soul in a flood of white Americanism, for he knows that the Negro blood has a message for the world. He simply wishes to make it possible without being cursed and spit upon by his fellows, for a man to be both Negro and American, without having the doors of opportunity closed roughly in the face. (Du Bois, 5)

The Negro World

One cannot miss the touch of elitism and yet one cannot find fault with Du Bois passionate zeal to uplift his oppressed people. He did lack the mass appeal of someone like Marcus Garvey and his Universal Negro Improvement Association. However, it has to be pointed out here that the writings in The Crisis were like burning arrows while those of The Negro World (the powerful organ of Garveys movement were like mere stone bits. Perhaps Du Bois is nearer in comparison to the other urbane Negro leader Alain Locke.

The fact that Du Bois life came to an end in a foreign country (Ghana) could be viewed either as his disillusionment with his own soul brothers in America or as his wider sympathies for darker races all over the world. An account of the Harlem Race is incomplete without his influence on the important figures of the movement (such as Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Aaron Douglas, John P. Davis, Bruce Nugent, and Gwendolyn Bennet), if not on his direct involvement in the movement.

References

Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk (rpt. Greenwich, Conn. Fawcett Publication, (1961), p. 25

Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk; Essays and Sketches Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1903.

Meltzer, Milton Langston Hughes  A Biography, New York. Thomas Y. Corwell Company (1968) Pp. 14-15