Category: Renaissance

Medieval Education

Stained Glass Windows, Chartres Cathedral in 1250 A.D.

Several lessons on Christianity can be drawn from the stained glass windows. They had a magnificent aesthetic appearance (Janson & Janson, 2003). This can make a person develop a unique perception of Christianity. For instance, one can easily associate Christianity with wealth and splendor. The use of these windows in cathedrals indicates a sign of wealth. Therefore, a person may deduce that Christianity involved the practice of extortion.

These windows were only used within wealthy households and institutions. The stained glass windows presented the horrific appearance of hell. From these, one can learn how Christians fear hell. There are also important lessons on Christian beliefs. A person could learn important historical occurrences in Christianity. These include creation, the revolution of Christianity, and basic Christian beliefs.

The Subject of the “Summa”

The 1250 A.D. was characterized by important historical occurrences. As a doctorate student during this time, I would choose art as my “summa” subject. There were various artistic works during this period (Janson & Janson, 2003). My particular interests would be on the meanings of the various artworks during this time. My studies would be purely based on the artwork applied to Christianity. It would be necessary to investigate the role of these artworks in explaining the revolution of Christianity.

Medieval Literature

Dante’s Assignment of Sins to the Nine Levels of Hell in the Inferno

There are significant debates about Dante’s assignment of sins to the various levels of hell. I agree with this assignment. Ideally, the relation of these descriptions to the present world is evident (Gardner & Kleiner, 2010). Most of the sins described within these nine levels are presently common. For instance, individuals strive to comfort themselves at the expense of their mates. Generally, people like accumulating earthly riches. It is also notable that individuals are more reluctant to take resolute positions. Dante also describes a group of people who lacked a resolute stance. These people only struggled to satisfy themselves. All these nine levels described by Dante are emblematic within the present society.

My Best Author of the Medieval Literature

There are several works of different authors during the medieval period. Dante is my best author of medieval literature. There are several reasons for this. Dante’s poems are relevant and applicable to the present society. His literal works were very impressive. Dante based his literal thoughts on everyday life occurrences. He was a potential politician and poet who captured the interests of many people (Poggi, 2009). Dante had eminent philosophical ideologies and perceptions of Christianity. Dante also managed to develop diverse literature materials.

Renaissance Genius

The Studio of Leonardo Da Vinci

Leonardo Da Vinci played important role in the development of different subjects. I would choose his studio. The first question I would ask this Italian polymath is how he trained on all the subjects. This is because he had a very good mastery of all subjects. It is evident that Leonardo Da Vinci multi-tasked in several subjects. These covered both science and the arts. I would also ask him the lady he had in mind when he developed the “Mona Lisa” painting (Janson & Janson, 2003). This is because the woman painting is globally renowned. It has also been widely applied in other literary works.

The Qualities Outlined By Giorgio Vasari

Leonardo Da Vinci fits the basic genius qualities described by Giorgio Vasari. Even though Leonardo Da Vinci was born in a poor family, he struggled to excel in all fields. His genius mastery of artwork is notable (Janson & Janson, 2003). Most of his artworks are still globally renowned. The Mona Lisa painting is one of the most striking artistic developments. These works are attributed to his genius nature. Generally, Leonardo Da Vinci meets the genius qualities in Vasari’s description.

Renaissance Self-Help Books

Machiavelli’s principle of “the end justifies the means” has widely been applied politically (Louw, 2010). The actions of President Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe can be likened to this principle. The power struggles that Mugabe engaged in during the last election can potentiate this argument. Despite his defeat by the opponent, Mugabe forcefully remained in power. The country underwent a tough economic time, predominated with civil wars and sanctions.

A Contemporary Woman with the Qualities Advocated by d’Este, Cereta, or Marinella

Ellen Johnson–Sir leaf is a modern woman with the qualities advocated by d’Este, Cereta, and Marinella. As the Liberian president, Ellen Johnson is one of the contemporary women who have defied all odds (Marinelli, Dunhill & Panizza, 1999). She is the first democratically elected African female president. She has ventured into the leadership arena. Politics and leadership were earlier left for men. Her educational achievements are also great. A bibliographical analysis indicates Ellen Johnson as a great fighter who does not despair. Indeed, she meets some of the qualities advocated by d’Este, Cereta, and Marinella.

References

Gardner, H. & Kleiner, F. S. (2010). Gardner’s art through the ages: A concise western history. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Janson, H. W. & Janson, A. F. (2003). History of art: The Western tradition. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice-Hall.

Louw, P. E. (2010). The media and political process. London: Sage Publ.

Marinelli, L., Dunhill, A. & Panizza, L. (1999). The nobility and excellence of women, and the defects and vices of men. Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press.

Poggi, C. (2009). Inventing futurism: The art and politics of artificial optimism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Renaissance theatre developed in Italy and spread to all the other parts of Europe at a very fast rate between the1500s and 1700s.

Protestant Reformation and English Renaissance Theatre

The most important influence of the Protestant Reformation on English Renaissance Drama was the rejection of pastoral features of medieval drama. Rejecting them succeeded because of scholars who influenced people with humanist ideologies.

Theatre eliminated all its religious aspects and adopted secular nature. Playwrights reverted to classical theatre ideologies. Plays adopted the classical structure that had acts and scenes. It also borrowed other elements of classical drama like; spectacle, music, and dance.

Impacts of reformist ideas on Italian theatre

Italians developed the proscenium theatre design 1500s. This theatre had a raised stage where actors performed, and the audience sat behind them. There were two entrances on either side of the scenery. The architectural development in Italy at that time was a major influence in the development of this theatre. Theatres were attended by all people regardless of status and class.

Reformists renewed people’s interests in classical drama by rejecting the religion-oriented drama of the medieval era. Playwrights, therefore, wrote plays that resembled classical drama. The new drama put much emphasis on verisimilitude; it advocated for realism. Playwrights removed unrealistic elements of classical drama from their plays. They, for example, reduced the time for performing one play from several days to some minutes. They believed that this would enhance credibility.

Neoclassicism in France

It took time for French audiences to embrace neoclassic ideas. The reluctance to accept neoclassic drama in France was because of the deep-rooted commedia farce. Theatre in France has its roots in the period of Louis XIII who instructed Cardinal Richelieu to construct a theatre that resembled the Italian theatre. In the mid-1600s, plays from Pierre Corneille and Jean Batiste Racine influenced the development of renaissance ideologies in the French Theatre.

Neoclassic principles involved; faith in human capabilities, as opposed to belief in religion. Playwrights in the neoclassic era eliminated the influence of religion on theatre and developed secular plays. They recreated classical drama by coming up with the drama that had classical features.

Their drama emphasized verisimilitude, purity of drama, a five-act plot, and the purpose of drama. These principles were accepted due to support from the French Academies, the Monarch, and the church; they argued that this drama helped nurture a French moral society.

Major neoclassic playwrights in France were Jean Batiste Moliere, Jean Racine, and Pierre Corneille. In England, playwrights included Lord Robert Chamberlain, Thomas Lupton, Sir William Berkeley, William Shakespeare, and Walter Raleigh while in Italy; Niccolo Machiavelli was the most notable playwright.

Commedia dell’arte and Moliere

Commedia dell’arte was a branch of drama that became very prominent towards the end of the 1550s. It started in Italy and slowly spread throughout Europe. It had storylines whose characters improvised lines on stage; there was no written plot.

Messages in these plays were, therefore, not as important as the comic elements in them. Other features of this genre were; the use of lazzi and stock characters. Lazzi was the element of this drama that could make people laugh. The stock characters included; Arlecchino, Pedrolino, Harlequin, Pulcinella, and Brighella.

Moliere acquired commedia dell’arte skills from Fiorillo and wrote a play, Sgnarelle, ou Le Cocu imaginaire in tribute to this genre and Fiorillo. He wrote plays with stock characters similar to those in Commedia dell’artes. Most of these characters were foolish and from a low social class, while others were young lovers.

Background

The Renaissance was one of the most outstanding and influential periods of European history. The development of crafts and trade, the rise of the role of cities, as well as political events in Western Europe in the XII and XIII centuries entailed significant changes in the whole way of life of European peoples. In the XVI century in Europe, the consolidation of small feudal principalities began, where large independent states emerged, such as England, France, and Spain. On the territory of modern Germany and Italy, several republics and principalities were formed.

In the process of merging small feudal possessions, the tendency of unified states to emancipate from the political power of the papacy was manifested. In the XIII century, The Roman Catholic Church was a vast pan-European unit over all lands. The popes actively interfered in the affairs of the administration of European nations, installed and crowned kings, and removed undesirable kings and even emperors (Kittler 112). Through its system of centralized spiritual governance, the Vatican pumped out huge funds from the countries of Western Europe.

Unregulated greed of the highest clergy of the Roman Catholic Church, and the luxurious life of the popes and cardinals caused spontaneous protests among believers and lower clergy. A movement of the so-called Reformation in church management arose in various European countries, a series of uprisings broke out against the dominance of popes, bishops, and monasteries due to their indulgences. At the beginning of the XV century in the Czech Republic began the famous uprising against the power of the Vatican under the leadership of Jan Hus – a prominent preacher, professor, and lecturer of Prague University.

In an atmosphere of general indignation by the greed of the Roman Catholic clergy in various European countries, doubts were openly expressed. The problem was not only about the legitimacy of the secular authorities of the popes but also about the justice of certain religious tenets and scholastic philosophy, which constitute the ideological foundations of Catholicism (Kittler 119). Dissatisfaction with religious scholasticism, the search for new ways to solve ideological issues have significantly revived the mental life of Europe.

Inspiration

The period of the Renaissance was an inspiration and innovation time for numerous scientists, artists, and geographers. An interest in the writings of ancient Greek and Roman pagan philosophers and writers, whose books were forbidden by the church, arose in the educated environment of European society. In the rich Italian republics, such as Florence, Venice, Genoa, and Rome itself, circles of lovers of ancient literature were formed.

There were numerous lists of works of classical authors. Interest in the old models of literary creativity soon spread to the field of art, architecture, and philosophy (Fliethmann 48). In Europe, the Renaissance of ancient literature, art, and architecture began, marking the beginning of a new time in social history. On the basis of the unsurpassed specimens of the literary works of ancient Greek and Roman authors, a new direction in oratory and literature, the so-called humanism emerged. All these changes shifted the social understanding and religious views.

One of the most inspirational and important achievements in the cultural history of the Renaissance was the invention of printing. Until the middle of the XV century, only handwritten books were used. They were addressed in a small number of lists and were very expensive. The introduction of printing made it possible to reproduce books in a large number of copies, which greatly contributed to the spread of knowledge.

In the Renaissance, great geographical discoveries were made, which inspired many people. At the end of the XIII century, Marco Polo traveled through the countries of Middle Asia to China and spent more than 20 years in Asian countries. The description of his journey had a significant influence on subsequent generations of geographers and travelers who were looking for a road to fabulous India.

The driving forces of the greatest scientific discoveries and achievements of the Renaissance were deep transformations in the character and scale of production. Already in the XV century, the process of transition from handicraft production methods, characteristic of the era of feudalism, to manufactory began (Fliethmann 49). This process, which marked the beginning of the capitalist production system, caused profound social and economic changes in the life of society.

All the inspirational economic, political, and social phenomena of the Renaissance led to the formation of a new bourgeois worldview that rejected the religious scholastics of past centuries. The emergence of elements of the modern worldview had a beneficial effect on the development of the natural sciences and, in particular, chemistry. One of the most significant representatives of the science and art of the Renaissance was the Italian Leonardo da, Vinci. Being a great mechanic, mathematician, design engineer, anatomist, and artist, Leonardo da Vinci was also interested in some chemistry issues. All these historical events are the results of the inspiration of people due to the Renaissance’s paradigm, which guided the society from religious autocracy towards enlightenment.

Conservation and Maintenance

One of the most prominent heritage of the Renaissance is museums. Therefore, it is highly important to preserve them in order to allow future generations to be inspired and enjoy these outstanding buildings, drawings, and statues. The museums mostly are not commercial organizations; therefore, the concept of complicity is especially important for it. It is critical to state that all groups of society were involved in its activities: government and local regulatory units, various groups of museum visitors, the scientific community, and collectors.

Most often, this concept is reflected in the creation of the Board of Trustees, which is the highest governing body of the museum (Geoghegan and Hess 463). Its tasks include the appointment of a museum director, the formulation of a development strategy, the approval of a budget, and the most substantial expenses, and it also in charge of the maintenance and preservation.

In addition, members of the Board of Trustees play an important role in lobbying the interests of the museum in government, and in the financial market. These tasks are generally similar to the functions of the supervisory board of a joint-stock company.

In several countries, such as Canada and Australia, the appointment of members of the Board of Trustees is entrusted to government bodies. US traditions place this responsibility directly on civil society, and the trustees themselves co-opt new members into their membership (Geoghegan and Hess 451). In any order of education of the board of trustees, and regardless of its personnel, the role of the museum’s top management in developing its preservation strategy cannot be underestimated.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Renaissance was one of the most inspirational and innovative eras of the history of Europe. Numerous achievements in science and art were made. Therefore, it is necessary and important to preserve the heritage. The management of the museum, firstly, represents the professional point of view, and secondly, it prepares information and organizes the work of the maintenance. The changes in museum management have resulted in an expansion in the role of top management during strategic planning, and its most effective approach is the method of preservation.

Works Cited

Fliethmann, Axel. “The Body of Imagination and the Technology of Imagery in the Renaissance and in Modernity.” Thesis Eleven, vol. 130, no. 1, 2015, pp. 43–57.

Geoghegan, Hilary, and Alison Hess. “Object-Love at the Science Museum: Cultural Geographies of Museum Storerooms.” Cultural Geographies, vol. 22, no. 3, 2015, pp. 445–465.

Kittler, Juraj. “The Normative Role of Public Opinion in the Republican Experience of Renaissance Venice.” Communication and the Public, vol. 1, no. 1, 2016, pp. 110- 124.

Among the western countries reminiscent of the two forms of architectural styles is Italy. A discourse by Fazio, Moffett and Wodehouse shows the successive development and evolution of architecture in Italy which illustrates the inclusion of the divergent forms of dynamism, conscious development, and material culture into the two forms of architecture. Besides, the inclusion of the Roman thoughts and ancient Greece into different architectural styles define the renaissance and the baroque periods (3). Each form or style emerge uniquely reflects the sources of inspiration based on the liberal use of the Doric elements, Corinthian, and Ionic orders combined with humanism and the classical forms that crystalize in the transition path from the renaissance to the baroque periods. Watkin accurately describes the difference between the two forms of architecture as illustrated in the detailed discourse of the differentiating elements in the form of lines, perspectives, space, content, and clarity that are conceptualised in the five formal principles developed by Heinrich Wolfflin (7). This is embodied in the key defining elements of the renaissance and baroque architectures as clearly demonstrated by the Loggia of the Ospedale degli Innocenti by Filippo Brunelleschi and the facade of Il Gesù by Giacomo Della Porta in Rome, Italy as shown in figure 1 and 2 respectively.

The composition of the Ospedale degli Innocenti illustrated in figure 1 was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi. It clearly illustrates the different areas of the courtyard, the chapel, ground floor, and a large hall. The shapes and appearances were due to the use of local materials in the construction of the squared pavements of the Pietra Bigia, Pietra Serena porticos, and the pools of the Pietraforte with stairs (Kostof 4). Besides, the ground plan demonstrates a disposition of a symmetrical structure with an inclusion of mentioned compartments expressed in an antique style. The space among the rooms depicted a geometrically logical proportion in design with rhythm and form as opposed to the mediaeval architectural forms. A clear distinction of the forms illustrates circular and semi-circular forms with repeatedly applied identical volumes on the structure. Here, the plan and section illustrated the regular occurrence of the diameter of the arch resulting into a three dimensional object. That is in addition to the inclusion of humanism as reflected in the spatial dimensions that occurred as a reflection of the psychological and functional needs of the people. A critical analysis of the Ospedale degli Innocenti shows that it differs from the facade of Il Gesù in the context of new explorations and forms, shadows, light, and dramatic style and intensity as clearly depicted in the wealth and power of the Italian courts that was blended in the philosophy and culture of the people.

A probing introspection of the facade of Il Gesù by Moffett, Fazio and Wodehouse reveal the first baroque façade in architecture with a significance deeply embedded in the Roman order of the Jesuits. That was constituted in a plan that reflected the religious beliefs of the Catholic Church in response to the growth of the protestant church (22). This was a period that was characterised by scientific development, geographic colonisation, new discoveries in astrology, religious, and political conflicts. In reflection of the external environment, the plan of the building took the form of the traditional cruciform basilica constituting the aisles and naves in the entire length of the architectural piece. The interior of the structure’s two stories were designed to communicate the architectural motifs of the Greek, Romans, and the Renaissance periods in form of arched pediments, scrolling volutes, engaged columns, double plasters, windows, and Corinthian Capitals. Ingersoll and Kostof single out the inspiration depicted by the baroque architecture in the ornamental façade of the church of II Gesu (11). Here, the architectural piece was presented as a massively heavy form with several fragments as evidenced in the two stories of the building. The corners were curved to give the feeling of constant movement as depicted by the use of ornamental elements at the points of entry.

Significance of the buildings/landscapes and their evolution

James-Chakraborty importantly shows a clear illustration of the successive evolution of each structure as differentiated in the style and design and reflection of the surrounding landscapes. The results reveal the true relationships between the renaissance and the baroque as the two architectural styles emerged. The Loggia of the Ospedale degli Innocenti renaissance architecture revealed an era in history where culture was a reflection of the external environment in both the historical and physical forms embodied in the formations of rocks that prevailed in the physical environment of the Pratomagno. However, the birth of the baroque architecture emerges in importance as an expression of a period dominated by a spiritual era besides. The fundamental difference between the renaissance and baroque architectures is in the nature of the details of the interior and exterior portions of the structure.

In conclusion, it is evident that the renaissance and baroque architectural periods occurred successfully but differed in style and form on the basis of the principles adopted in the design of the Loggia of the Ospedale degli Innocenti by Filippo Brunelleschi and the facade of Il Gesù by Giacomo Della Porta in Rome. The significance emerges in the wealth and religion of the people besides accurately demonstrating the use of the principles geometry to achieve accuracy and proportionality apart from being examples of the historical evidence of the belief systems, and humanism leading to structurally stable buildings.

Works Cited

Fazio, Michael W., Marian Moffett, and Lawrence Wodehouse. A world history of architecture. Laurence King, 2008.Print.

Fazio, Michael W., Marian Moffett, and Lawrence Wodehouse. Buildings across time: An introduction to world architecture. McGraw-Hill, 2007. Print.

Ingersoll, Richard, and Spiro Kostof. World architecture: a cross-cultural history. Oxford University Press, 2013.Print.

James-Chakraborty, Kathleen. Architecture Since 1400. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014.Print.

Kostof, Spiro. A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals, New York: Oxford, 1995. Print.

Watkin, David. A History of Western Architecture, New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 2000. Print.

Introduction

The Renaissance movement started at a local level yet soon expanded. The Early Renaissance was mostly represented by Italian artists, including painters and sculptors. However, with the advance of European ideas, philosophies, and especially the Christian religion, the movement grew. Gaining new ideas and inspirations, it soon became one of the most important eras in the history of humankind.

Art Pieces: Exploring the Changes and Their Nature

“The Last Judgment”

The fresco by Michelangelo depicts the second coming of Jesus. The anatomy of the characters, as well as the use of color and space, are particularly striking in this art piece.¹ “The Last Judgment” alludes to the Bible, as well as several other religious texts, thus representing a combination of philosophical and theological influences.

“Erotemata”

The book by Chrysoloras introduced the Renaissance audience to the key concepts of Greek art.² Introducing European readers to the Greek culture and, particularly, the Greek literature, “Erotemata” had a tremendous effect on the cultural trends in the European art world. The art piece also provided the grounds for promoting Humanism in Europe.

“Danae”

Painted by Titian, “Danae” exists in six versions and is often praised for its outstanding use of color. The fact that the picture is characterized by its fractured nature can be seen as the symbol of the cultural fusion that seized Europe at the time. Particularly, the introduction of the Greek cultural motifs could be seen in “Danae.”

“Erasmus”

Created by Quentin Metsijs, the painting depicts the Greek philosopher and starts promoting the Greek culture. The picture allowed European scholars to learn more about the Dutch humanist, as well as the principles of the Dutch philosophical thinking, in general. The painting incorporated the principles of chiaroscuro, which would, later on, define the era of Renaissance,

“Utopia”

The philosophical narrative subverts the idea of an illusory perfection.³ Created by Thomas More, the specified artistic work marked a new epoch in literature and philosophy. More’s interpretation of a perfect state incorporated both secular and religious ideas, thus introducing Renaissance to the concepts of Christian Humanism.

“Platonic Theology”

The book by Marcillo Fiscino introduces its audience to the concept of Humanism. The book rendered the concept of immortality as a crucial characteristic of the human soul. The specified viewpoint allowed adding a religious stance to the Renaissance set of ideas and philosophies.

“Infernal Landscape”

Created by Bosch, the drawing sends the viewer into a gloomy realm of hell. The painting is characteristic of the Early Renaissance.

“The Labyrinth of Crete”

Created by Buondelmonti, the drawing enthralls with its delicate imagery.⁴ The artist spent a vast amount of time detailing the unique nature of Crete before working on his painting. Relying on both the myth and the imagery that he witnessed with his own eyes, Buondelmonti created the art piece that allowed bridging the gap between European and Greek cultures.

Key Historical Figures

Michelangelo

Advancing a range of areas of art, Michelangelo became famous due to his use of color and shape. His works can be considered the staple of the classic Renaissance.

Manuel Chrysoloras

Chrysoloras contributed heavily to the introduction of the Greek culture to the Renaissance.⁵ Particularly, he added the elements of the Greek culture to the Renaissance movement, thus incorporating the ideas of antiquity into it.

Nicholas Hilliard

Hillard was one of the first artists to introduce the idea of miniature portraits. He prompted a new way of looking at the grandeur of Renaissance art and suggested a shift to smaller art forms.

Quantin Metsijs

The artist was most famous for his painting of Erasmus.⁶ Similar to other artists of the era, Metsijs attempted at promoting the acceptance of European Humanist ideas.

Tomas Moore

Being one of the artists that focused on promoting Greek art, More was famous for translating the satirical “Utopia” by Lucian.⁷ Moore seems to be the most significant European explorer since he introduced both Greek philosophy and a new interpretation of utopia to the Renaissance.

Marcilio Ficino

Similar to other Italian Renaissance artists, the artist promoted the ideas of Humanism actively.⁸

Jan van Eyck

The Dutch artist became famous due to the high level of naturalism, which was unheard of at the time.

Christopher Buondelmonti

Encouraging the study of Greek art, Buondelmonti introduced a crucial innovation to the Renaissance movement.⁹

Renaissance Movement: Europe vs. Italy

The renaissance movement originated in Italy and was primarily focused on exploring new means of artistic expression. Analyzing possible combinations of color, shape, and other characteristics of art objects, the representatives of the Renaissance developed new techniques that were the initial focus.¹⁰ However, as the movement expanded to Europe, changes began to occur.

The introduction of the philosophy of Humanism started to enter the Renaissance movement, thus prompting a gradual change. European philosophers such as Thomas Mann introduced their concept of Humanism and encouraged the promotion of theological thinking that allowed exploring various facets of human life. The Humanist principles allowed prompting a gradual rise in the level of education, as well as the acquisition of new knowledge.¹¹ Furthermore, the specified changes heralded the era of discoveries in all domains of sciences and humanities.

Bibliography

King, Margaret L. A Short History of the Renaissance in Europe. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2016.

Turner, Hillary. “The Expanding Horizons of Christopher Buondelmonti.” History Today 40, (1990): 40-43.

Wooding, Lucy. “Christian Humanism: From Renaissance to Reformation.” History Review 64, (2009): 14-18.

Footnotes

1. Lucy Wooding, “Christian Humanism: From Renaissance to Reformation,” History Review 64, (2009): 12.
2. Ibid., 13.
3. Ibid., 17.
4. Hillary Turner, “The Expanding Horizons of Christopher Buondelmonti,” History Today 40, (1990): 41.
5. Ibid., 40.
6. Ibid., 40.
7. Lucy Wooding, “Christian Humanism: From Renaissance to Reformation,” History Review 64, (2009): 16.
8. Hillary Turner, “The Expanding Horizons of Christopher Buondelmonti,” History Today 40, (1990): 40.
9. Lucy Wooding, “Christian Humanism: From Renaissance to Reformation,” History Review 64, (2009): 13.
10. Margaret L. King, A Short History of the Renaissance in Europe (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2016), 337.
11. Ibid., 337.

Introduction

Artists of the Renaissance clearly made a difference in graphic art. After the discovery of perspective, new tools for expressing certain ideas emerged.

Although the art pieces created by Masaccio, del Castagno and Lippi may seem completely different, with the common thread of Christianity as the only thing that links them, a close analysis of the messages behind their works, as well as the stylistic means, which the artists have chosen to represent these ideas, will show that such pictures as The Virgin and the Child, Madonna and the Child and The Last Supper share a range of similarities.

Masaccio’s The Virgin And The Child

The first to be discussed, Masaccio’s The Virgin and the Child must be one of the most famous and the most talked-about early Renaissance pictures. Apart from being innovative in many ways, including the style, the use of space, and the overall geometry of the picture, the portrait conveys the messages that made the basis for the Christianity in a unique way.

Masaccio clearly aims at using the perspective as the key method of expression and the means of structuring both the picture and the messages behind it. As Adams has noted, “Masaccio follows Brunelleschi’s system in which viewers are assumed to look upward” (Adams 92), and this shows in The Virgin and the Child – the Virgin Mary looks downwards, as if trying to reach out for the crowd beneath; the entire picture looks very massive and does not create the impression that there is a connection between the picture and the viewer.

The use of parallel verticals should also be noted as a very efficient way of rendering the concept of orderliness, which provides the basis for the Christian religion.

Lippi’s Madonna And The Child

At first, the similarity between Masaccio’s Madonna and the representation of the Virgin Mary by Lippi is embarrassingly obvious. Seeing how Masaccio’s works have had a direct effect on Lippi’s art, the link between the artists’ visions of Madonna is quite expected, though. One should note, though, that the choice of the stylistic means of expression, which Lippi picked for his portrayal of Madonna, has defined the uniqueness of his artistic style, at the same time allowing to keep the original message intact (Christiansen 39).

To start with, the color cast, which Lippi chose for his interpretation of the image of Madonna, is quite different from the one that Masaccio picked for his artwork. Apart from the fact that the soothing combination of several shades of brown and yellow contributes to creating an atmosphere of love and sacredness, it also allows for making the scene very humble.

Such a choice of the tone and the mood for the picture can be seen as an homage to the religious ideas of the religious traditions, with the image of a Christian woman as a frail and nearly sexless being. It is remarkable that, in contrast to Masaccio, who depicted the Holy Virgin draped in long clothing that covers her almost entirely, Lippi decided to make a very bold step and put a stronger emphasis on the features that can be related to maternity rather than defining the Holy Virgin as the stronghold of chastity.

It would be a mistake to assume that Lippi’s Madonna is not chaste – far from it; every single element, from clothing to the facial expression signifies her purity, piety, and virtue. However, Lippi seemed to be eager to render the image of a loving Mother rather than the idea of the Immaculate Conception, which had already been worn out by the time, is the key element in the religious artworks of a range of other artists of the era.

Masaccio, on the contrary, uses rather a broad palette, from different shades of yellow and brown to Persian blue, thus, creating the atmosphere of festivity and making the painting look rather solemn.

Apart from the aforementioned air of solemnity, as well as the fact that Lippi tends to put a stress on the maternity issue rather than on the idea of purity, though both of these issues are given an equal amount of significance in Christianity, Lippi also experiments with such expressive elements as the gestures of the people portrayed in his painting, the facial expressions, etc. In contrast to Masaccio, Lippi does not tend to portray the characters with vacant expressions on their faces.

Instead, he depicts the Virgin Mary with her arms folded as if she is about to pray, thus, hinting at her piety; Jesus, in His turn, is portrayed looking at His Mother; thus, the contact between the Mother and the Son is shown in a very delicate and at the same time evident way. This is different from what other artists were doing at the same time slot and, therefore, very peculiar. It seems that Lippi was trying to help the audience relate to the postulates of the Christian religion instead of imposing the latter on the viewers.

The interesting thing is that these works were created at the same point in history, yet absolutely independently, with neither Lippi nor Masaccio bearing in mind the context or the ideas of each other’s paintings. It seemed that there was something in the air of the Renaissance Era, which dictated its own rules for art.

Del Castagno’s Last Supper

The last, but definitely not the least, this artwork may seem quite out of place among Lippi’s and Masaccio’s works. Indeed, apart from the Christian context, such events as the Last Supper and the Immaculate Conception seem to have quite little in common.

However, taking a closer look at the history of the painting, the methods that del Castagno uses in order to get the key message across, as well as the message itself, one will realize that the same principles of perspective and careful choice of color are used in order to render the same idea of piety and humbleness.

In addition to putting very strong stress on humbleness as the basic principle of the Christian faith, one must note that a range of other qualities is shown as a hose of huge significance in the picture. For example, the facial expressions of the people in the picture can be described as sympathetic and empathic, which means that del Castagno obviously meant to point at the importance of compassion for the Christian faith.

Another emotion that the artist was obviously aiming at showing to the audience, the anticipation of the disaster that is about to break out can be spotted rather easily. Thus, del Castagno reminds the audience of the key idea that the entire Christianity is based on, i.e., the concept of redemption. Therefore, The Last Supper seems to render quite different emotions, yet concerns the same idea of conveying the key principles of the Christian thought to the audience through the characters portrayed in the pictures.

Conclusion

Seeing how the artworks created by Andrea del Castagno, Filippo Lippi and Masaccio were produced in the same era, and under the influence of the same tendencies in art and society, it is reasonable to assume that there are going to be certain similarities between three random art pieces created by the aforementioned people.

However, it is quite peculiar that the three authors came up with similar stylistic choices to reflect seemingly different Christian ideas. Unique and at the same time sharing a range of common details, these pictures will remain the symbol of Renaissance.

Works Cited

Adams, Laure Schneider. Italian Renaissance Art. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 2001. Print.

Castagno, Andrea del. The Last Supper. 1447. Web.

Christiansen, Keith. “Florence: Filippo Lippi and Fra Carnevale.” From Filippo Lippi to Piero Della Francesca: Fra Carnevale and the Making of a Renaissance Master. Ed. Keith Christiansen. 2005. 39–66. Print.

Kleiner, Fred. “Andrea del Castagno.” Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global History. Vol. 2. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning. 2012. 21–23. Print.

Lippi, Filippo. Madonna and the Child. 1452. Web.

Masaccio. The Virgin and the Child. 1426. Web.

Appendix

Appendix A: The Virgin and the Child

Appendix B: Madonna and the Child

Appendix C: Last Supper

Introduction

The free Imperial city of Nuremberg was at the height of prosperity during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries during which period there was also great progress in the realms of arts and science. Science was supported by patrician families. Merchants and artist-craftsman promoted the arts. Merchants brought from their trading journeys to Antwerp and Venice examples of Flemish and Italian art while the craftsmen produced through strenuous work, some of the chief masterpieces in stone carving and wrought ironwork. Nuremberg is best known for its preservation of its ancient medieval aspect.

The city has great architectural beauty and among the historic buildings are the churches of St. Sebald (1225–73), St. Lorenz (13th–14th cent.), St. Jacob (14th cent.), and Our Lady (1352–61); the Hohenzollern castle (11th–16th cent.); the old city hall (1616–22); and the house (now a museum) where Albrecht Dürer lived from 1509 to 1528.

Main text

Nuremberg was also the home to sculptors such as Adam Kraft, Veit Stoss, and Peter Vischer, and the painter and woodcarver Michael Wolgemut. The city was thus an early center of humanism, science, printing, and mechanical invention. The humanist scholars W. Pirkheimer and C. Celtes lectured in the city. German humanism had originated in Italy. Based on the study of the writings of classical authors, philosophers and artists, the desire was to create a revival, a spiritual rebirth that could lead to a life of peace and liberty in social harmony (Osmond 18). The return to the classical world was seen as providing an ideal model for a new society and culture.

Nuremberg in Durer’s day was governed by patrician families under their supreme head the Kaiser (Allen 8). The cultural flowering of Nuremberg in the 15th and 16th centuries made it the center of the German Renaissance. Among the artists who were born or lived there, the painter and printmaker Albrecht Dürer was the greatest. The city was also an early center of humanism, science, printing, and mechanical invention (Allen 8). The importance of the Nuremberg school of painting was advanced due to the art of printing from woodblocks, which gave the artists a cheap and rapid method of reproducing their work (Allen 9).

Albert Durer was born in Nuremberg, May 21, 1471 and died there on April 6, 1528. Like Leonardo da Vinci, he wrote treatises on mathematics, chemistry, hydraulics, anatomy and other scientific subjects (Choulant et al 143). He perfected the art which existed at that time in the country. He was one of the fine artists in Germany who practiced and taught the rules of perspective which he is said to have learned from Lucas von Leyden (Choulant et al 143).

In his early twenties, he traveled to Venice where he was exposed to Italian art an influence which affected all his subsequent work. What fascinated Dürer was Italian humanism and all that flowed from the discovery of classical antiquity. Humanism refers to a painting style based on new concepts learned mainly from books and it centered on the belief that painting first of all, measures itself by the standard of antiquity (Osmond 18).

In Venice, Giovanni Bellini, the Venetian artist Durer most admired, became his friend. In Germany, Dürer’s best friend was the Humanist Willibald Pirckheimer. In the study of perspective, Durer was influenced by a handbook De Artificiali Perspectiva by Johannes Viator, and also by his knowledge of Greek geometry by authors such as Euclid, Archimedes and Apollonius. Motivated by the lack of books on the theory of art languages northern craftsmen could understand, he decided to write his own book.

The handbook finally appeared in 1525: the work in four books was called Unterweysung der Messung mit dem Zirkel un Richtscheyt in Linien Ebnen unnd Gantzen Corporen (Instruction in the Art of Measurement with Compasses and the Ruler of Lines, Planes and Solid Bodies) (Hutchison 236). From this book, Nuremberg artists adopted polyhedra for prospective studies. Thus he introduced humanistic concepts at Nuremberg.

One sees during the Renaissance a marked increase in individual freedom and autonomy, and the acceptance of physical existence and of the desire to pursue a happy, practical life. Renaissance thinkers stressed man’s intrinsic value and dignity as a being created in the image and likeness of God (Osmond 18). Related to this was a pervasive desire to pursue a direct relationship with the Divinity founded on personal mystical experience and scriptures reinterpreted in Christian terms. Also fundamental to the era was the desire to understand and master nature through direct observation and the discovery of its laws and structure (Osmond 18).

Durer exhibited humanistic tendencies in his desire for naturalism and biblical themes. Durer worked from life He applied amazing new characteristic things he discovered in nature and in himself to his paintings. The Praying Hands is a sketch of his brother Albert’s clasped hands in prayer (Buchanan 123). Durer was apprenticed to Wolgemut between 1486 and 1489 and learned his woodcutting skills from him. Durer possessed great technical ability both with the burin for engraving and the knife for woodcutting. With these techniques he produced a body of graphic work unrivaled since for quality and quantity. He illustrated books but also sold printed single sheets that ordinary people could buy.

His early and highly successful printing of “The Apocalypse” illustrates the terrifying visions of doomsday and the events preceding it on 14 large sheets. In Durer’s Self-Portrait of 1500 both artist and work merge as they call the age of art into being (Moxey 750). From 1500 on, Durer became more and more interested in the theoretical foundations of Italian art. Durer had immersed himself in the study of vanishing point perspective from 1502 to 1505 and uses it to show the complex architectural settings of many of these scenes.

Albrecht Durer’s greatest paintings are his “Adoration of the Trinity” at Vienna, his “Adam and Eve” at Florence, and that last picture of “The Apostles”, presented by Durer to his native city. Among his engravings, he made two wonderful and beautiful allegories: “Knight, Death and the Devil” and “Melancholia”. Schuster, who from 1989 has been chief curator at the Neue Nationalgalerie, Berlin, places the Melencolia in the context of Dürer’s humanistic thought, and sees it as an apologia for free will and for the pursuit of scientific knowledge as a virtue.

Discarding older notions of the print as a “spiritual self-portrait” of the artist, or as the personification of Geometry, he identifies the winged figure as Astronomy, the most sophisticated branch of mathematics—and the most important by virtue of its proximity to the Divine, giving its practitioners the hope of “reawakening” the perfection in themselves that had been present in Eden before the Fall. He sees the “I” of the title both as the elementary mathematical unit and a reference to Christian unity. He sees the print thus as a summa of the artist’s humanistic beliefs, and accepts its close relationship to the other two Meisterstiche: Knight, Death, and Devil, and St. Jerome in His Cell (Hutchison 271).

In three large series of woodcuts, known as the Greater and Lesser passion of the Lord, and the Life of the Virgin, taken partly from sacred history and partly from tradition, Albrecht Durer exceeded himself in true beauty, simple majesty and pathos (Tytler 179). According to Ernst Ullmann. Durer identified with the progressive forces that were responsible for the religious and social transformations of his time (Moxey 750).

Conclusion

Nuremberg was the hotbed of cultural evolution during the Renaissance period. Albrecht Durer at Nuremberg was a right man at the right place at the right time. He was highly talented artist in many ways: engraving, sculpting, sketching, writing and paintings. He developed humanist tendencies in his art forms due to his contacts with Italian and Flemish painters. He brought forth the concept of perspective in humanist tradition to Nuremberg and is ever remembered as one of its greatest sons.

Works Cited

Hutchison, Campbell Jane (2000). Albrecht Durer: A Guide to Research. Garland Publishers. New York.

Moxey, Keith (2004). Impossible Distance: Past and Present in the Study of Durer and Grunewald. The Art Bulletin. Volume: 86. Issue: 4. Page Number: 750+.

Allen, L. Jessie. Albrecht Durer. Kessinger Publishing. 2005.

Choulant, Ludwig; Hudson, Fielding Garrison; Streeter, Clark Edward (reprinted 2005). History and Bibliography of Anatomic Illustration in Its Relation to….. The University of Chicago Press.

Buchanan, Edward (2006). Parent/Teacher Handbook: Teaching Older Children. Broadman and Holman Publishers.

Tytler, Sarah (2007). The old masters and their pictures: For the use of schools and learners in art. Bibliobazaar.

Osmond, Fegley Susan (2004). The Renaissance Mind Mirrored in Art. Susan Fegley Osmond. World and I. Volume: 13. Issue: 12. First published December 1998. Page Number: 18. Republished News World Communications, Inc.

The flow of arts and philosophical thought within a definite historical cut is rather strong and significant when looking at the previous background and following effects and reflection. The more mankind urged towards progress and the notion of relevant freedom in the expression of personal views and thoughts, the more developed the spheres in which it was involved and which influenced mankind much due to the aesthetic power and coloring in each of the most prominent epochs in the history of gradual elaboration of human beings. After many attempts of people in various countries to express their own concepts of viewpoints, some of them in the very beginning of the cultural and philosophical development, mainly in the ancient world, were criticized or killed. Others were not heard.

When theological affluence drew to a hand, many of the medieval creative philosophers and people of arts were persecuted for their informal way of thinking. Some of them are Giordano Bruno, Galileo, etc. Those dark times of the medieval period showed the impossibility of some ideas striving to be the dominant and rejecting sound-mindedness among a few luminaries at that time, followed by the era full of rebirth and genius approaches found in the works of multiple artists, sculptors, philosophers, etc. The Renaissance epoch shined over the world of dull and borrowing predominant ideologies. Now one capsule with extra information on art representatives of this period and further time, along with the examples of their works, is at disposal.

The Renaissance era is known for the painting works of Da Vinci, sculptures of Michelangelo, and other prominent people having left deep footsteps in the history of mankind due to their creative thinking and openness to nature and antiquity as the main source of impression.

Florence became the great center of quattrocento (15th-century) art and art theory. The artist began to emerge from the role of artisan to participate in the active current of intellectual pursuits. Together with early humanists, artists augmented their veneration of the purely celestial realm with an appreciation of all aspects of physical nature. (The Columbia Encyclopedia 40578)

It is not surprising to find in the capsule the fragments of Da Vinci’s “Mona Lisa” with its hoax in the extent of the picture. Da Vinci tended to express the beauty and mystery of the woman’s beauty throughout this work just to make people think more and more about it. First glimpses of it prove the genius approach of Leonardo, who implemented the new coloring and shaping in the manner of painting. This work of a genius pretends to demonstrate the global overview of the idea of subtext in the depiction of details. His art is reflected in the pop-art stream of Andy Warhol, who imitated the image of “Mona Lisa” in his works in the modern sense.

Another representative of this era but from England, not Italy, is, of course, a person who ornamented the literate word with fullness and naturalness of soul components as well as expression of life and vivid interpretations of it. Though another example from the capsule appeared to be William Shakespeare and one of their most known works of his, “Hamlet.”

Hamlet epitomizes a characteristic theme of early Renaissance humanism, the dignity of man when he celebrates the excellence of our nature in these terms: “What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how infinite in faculties, in form and moving how express and admirable, in action how like an angel, in apprehension how like a god: the beauty of the world, the paragon of animals” (2.2.293-8). (Rhu 324)

The truth of Shakespeare’s plays and the manner of their representation, along with the emergence of concrete and picturesque decorations, projected the changes in the theatrical makeup. The literature “Hamlet,” in particular, stays as a wonderful example of the Renaissance flow. The influence of his literature and dramaturgy keeps a strict eye on the extent of antique influx when describing the emotional side of people’s characters. Nevertheless, another capsule is at hand. Supposedly it will present one with the following development of the creative thought. In fact, it concerns the Baroque era, which had many common things with that of the Renaissance.

Here comes one of the most favorite works by a Flemish representative of Baroque art, Rubens, known for ‘Minerva protects Pax from Mars (‘Peace and War’).’ This masterpiece of drawing art impresses by the lines and forms of the characters on the canvas and their magnificent floridity when introspecting the picture. “The Age of Rubens” will trace the origins and development of the prevailing styles and themes in Flemish Baroque art, specifically as they relate to the religious and secular concerns of the era.” (Wieseman 54) The influence of Rubens’s art was reflected in the further perception of artists in the streams of Impressionism and modern ones.

Accompanied by the works of Theodoor van Thulden, Martin Ryckaert, Willem van Herp and others, Rubens made a great contribution to the development of the Flemish side of the Baroque painting as one of the most peculiar examples serving to nurture the good motives in the humane attitudes of people towards each other.

Gathering the entire associations with the Baroque style, one cannot but admit the flow of the new stream in music. This sort of art in the seventeenth century was created by a complex of authors who maintained and well-shaped their innovative features of personal talent into the notion of classical music. Claudio Monteverdi was one of the most outstanding composers, whose opera ‘L’Orfeo’ pretends to be the impulse for the Italian new motives in music after a long period of monotony. His music, which appeared in the capsule as well, had a great influence on the further styles being the international and one that behaves to adhere to new techniques, forms, and expressions on the whole.

Most artifacts of the Baroque style are represented in the architectural matters, which are enclosed in the wholeness of details peculiar only to this era, and those people creating new images of beautiful architecture which, due to further evaluation by John Ruskin serves to teach people. What is more, Western Europe felt the major touch of the Baroque influx when discovering the marvelous buildings, which are rightly considered to be the treasury of mankind in the historical cut.

Many works of baroque architecture were executed on a colossal scale, incorporating aspects of urban planning and landscape architecture. This is most clearly seen in Bernini’s elliptical piazza in front of St. Peter’s in Rome or in the gardens, fountains, and palace at Versailles, designed by Louis Le Vau Jules Hardouin-Mansart, and André Le Nôtre. (The Columbia Encyclopedia 4384)

The architecture of Baroque and St. Peter’s Cathedral connected the quarrels and bygone struggle between the Catholic faith and the art taking place in the medieval period of mankind. Also, there are the whole cities designed in the way Baroque fundamentals treated. Among them are: Venice, St. Petersburg, Köln, etc.

Thus, making the estimation of further influence of the Renaissance and Baroque epochs in the development of creative thinking, one can definitely point out that these two streams gave a “fresh breath” to people after long years of stubbornness, drab and poor judgment within masses due to the official church. The representatives of these two eras are still well-known among contemporary people, and, in fact, their works made impacts on different spheres of a man’s life.

References

Baroque, in Art and Architecture. (2007). In The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.

Renaissance. (2007). In The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.

Rhu, L. F. (1998). Renewing the Renaissance and Its Literature. World and I, 13, 324.

Wieseman, M. E. (1993). Baroque Art in the Age of Rubens. USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education), 122, 54+.

This exhibition’s theme is Biblical art, a concept about the sacred Christian work utilizing imagery and characters from the Bible or the Scriptures. Notably, in some cases, Biblical art contains stories from legends whose figures are from the Bible, but the story itself may not be part of the Scriptures or the Apocryphal Gospels. In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the Catholic Church’s heads commissioned artists to produce visual art to decorate the chapels and cathedrals. For this reason, these forms of artistic expression were popular in Europe, where Roman Catholicism thrived. In the past, artists used paintings, sculptures, mosaics, and stained glass to illustrate scenes from the Bible and help convey specific messages, especially during the era of reduced literacy (Lumen). As is the norm in human evolution, Biblical art also underwent significant changes over the years, representing greater artistic expression and the metamorphosis of the consumers’ needs over time.

This exhibition contains a collection of six items of the European visual culture derived from two historical periods. The first three items are insular works of art from the Middle Ages, while the last three are from the Renaissance period. All the visual art items included in this presentation remain related in that all of them are examples of Biblical art pieces. Any differences between them may be due to changes in art production techniques used at various times. For instance, insular art existed mainly in post-Roman Britain and Ireland. Its main characteristic is the remarkable fusion of different cultures and traditions due to the travels of ecclesiastics and their craftspeople (Grove Art Online). Renaissance art’s characteristics include individualism, secularism, and classism, among others. They had fewer church paintings and tended to show individual rather than group faces. Audience would want to see this exhibition to appreciate Biblical art and its evolution.

Items from the Middle Ages

Figure 1 is a page from one of the four books of the Lindisfarne Gospels depicting John the Evangelist. It is collored ink on a flat vellum measuring 160 by 130 mm. The picture is stylized in keeping with the common practice of Biblical art in the Middle Ages. John the Evangelist here is wearing a piece of clothing that seems not to acknowledge the body beneath. He is also sited on a bench that does not ebb practically into the space behind him. Notably, a specific symbol represented each of the four Evangelists, and John’s emblem – an eagle – is drawn above his head carrying the Gospel, signifying the Second Coming of Jesus Crist. The artist who produced the figure kept modeling to a minimum such that it bears a close resemblance to the illustration of the other books in this collection. It is related to Figure 2 in the sense that both are parts of the illuminated manuscript Gospel book from the monastery at Lindisfarne, an excellent example of the unique insular art style, combining Anglo-Saxon, Mediterranean, and Celtic elements into one. As a component of the illuminated Gospel texts of the Middle Ages, this painting conveys a vital piece of information about the spread of Christianity back then. Notably, a decline in literacy at the time meant that only monks and nuns could access printed material (Kearney). Significantly, they copied these illustrated manuscripts and, in the process, created art that became the standard method of communicating Biblical narratives.

Figure 2 is the title page of the Gospel according to St. physically, it is collored ink on vellum measuring 160 by 130 mm. John in the Book of Kells. It depicts the thoughtful-looking Evangelist on the page’s top, suggesting that the apostle understood his mission’s weight and wondered how best to deliver salvation to the world. The picture also shows a less moral character swinging from a goblet of wine, suggesting that the Gospel is meant to redeem the lost. The page also contains Latin inscriptions and descriptive and prefatory matter decorated with several colorful illuminations and illustrations. Figure 2 is related to Figure 3 in that they are both examples of illustrated manuscripts. Typically, illuminated manuscripts, sculptures, mosaics, metalwork, and stained glass have had higher survival rates than works on tapestry and fresco wall paintings (Kearney). Celtic monks who once inhabited the remote Scottish island of Kells in County Meath may have produced the ornately illustrated Book of Kells around 800 C.E. People describe the Book of Kells as Western illumination and calligraphy’s zenith due to its lavish decoration. The monks believed to have created the Book of Kells inhabited a monastery in County Meath founded by the Irish monk Columba. The monks and nuns who created the art piece may have utilized 185 calves’ skins for the project (Kearney). In one way or another, the monks also decorated all the 680 pages of the Book of Kells.

Figure 3 alongside is the decorated first page of the Vulgate translation of the Book of Mark (one of the four Gospels) by Saint Jerome of Stridon. It is a parchment codex measuring 180 by 120 mm with titles in rustic capitals. It is part of the oldest extant Gospel book, predating, for example, the Book of Kells, by one hundred years. It is a fine example of the 7th century’s Biblical art. The page features words written in common Latin (Vulgate Latin). The Pope had only requested Jerome to translate the Gospels, but Jerome extended the translation to include most books of the Bible. Thus, it utilizes everyday Latin diction and writing style from the fourth century, contrasting sharply with the more elegant and formal Cicero Latin. For over one thousand years, Jerome’s Translation of the Bible served as the standard version used by Christians in the west (British Library). Notably, scholars have not reached a consensus regarding the exact location of the Book of Durrow’s production (Visual Arts). They continue the debate on the book’s possible origin to this day, with most of them believing it could be Ireland’s Durrow Abbey, Western Scotland’s Iona Abbey, or a monastery in Northumbria (possibly the one in Lindisfarne). Notably, Jerome’s translation into Vulgate of the four Gospels represents his revision of a Vetus Latina translation he had completed earlier. At the Council of Trent between the Catholic Church designated the Vulgate translation as the official Latin version.

Items from the Renaissance

Figure 4 depicting Mary the Virgin’s Marriage, is a 185 by 234 cm painting that is in good condition done by Raphael. It is reminiscent of a Perugino altarpiece of the same subject (see Figure 5). The Italian artist completed the oil on panel painting in 1504 for a church in his country’s Citta di Castello region. It depicts Saint Joseph and the Virgin Mary’s marriage, with a church building visible in the background (Totally History). A high priest – richly attired – clasps Mary and Joseph’s hands in the foreground as the groom prepares to put a ring on the bride’s finger. A group of soft-eyed women – perhaps the bride’s maids, stand behind Mary, with their attire being only a little less extravagant than the Priest’s. At the far left, still in the foreground, a girl in red looks at the viewer wistfully. A group of disappointed suitors stands behind Joseph. The one with red pants next to Joseph breaks his wand with his knee, probably as a sign of resignation from chasing Mary. Behind him is another sad fellow who has bent his rod as well. Of the suitors, Joseph is the only one barefooted and with a beard. According to the legend upon which the artist based this painting, a high priest gave each potential suitor of the Davidic line a rod to place on the altar to determine who was favored enough to win Mary’s hand in marriage. As seen in this picture, only Joseph’s rod flowered, while the other suitors’ did not. For this reason, the artist depicts them breaking their sticks in frustration and disappointment for not having the favor to marry Mary.

Figure 5 also depicts the Virgin Mary’s marriage to Saint Joseph. The art measures 185 by 234 cm and is in good condition. It is related to Figure 4 (above) in that it inspired Raphael to create a similar for a church in Italy’sItaly’s Citta di Castello. Most scholars believe Perugino, the Italian Renaissance master, did this painting. However, some later historians attribute it to Perugino’s student, Lo Spagna. Further, scholars believe Perugino took over the commission of the artwork from Pinturicchio (Brewminate). The contract was about creating an altarpiece for the recently completed Chapel of the Holy Lamb in the cathedral of Perugia, work that ended between 1500 and 1504, perhaps after several periods of stasis (Traveling Tuscany). The painting contains almost every attribute that Raphael captured in his later treatment of the matter. Additionally, it displays prominently Mary’s engagement ring, which the cathedral at Perugia kept as a holy relic. Napoleon is believed to have stolen the painting and took it to Normandy in 1797. The painting depicts Joseph and Mary the Virgin’s elegant wedding conducted by a fabulously dressed priest. A group of women stands behind Mary wearing the traditional red gown and blue cloak. Mary is also wearing the same red and blue outfit but has her hair held by gauzy veils. Joseph, the groom, adorns something similar to a priest’spriest’s cassock with a cloak graciously draped around him. Some people believe that Joseph was much older than Mary and that he was a widower during their wedding. In the background, there are several disappointed suitors, including the unmistakable man breaking his walking stick on his knee.

Figure 6 is a self-portrait of Pietro Perugino completed between 1497 and 1500. It is Tempera on wood measuring 57 cm by 42 cm. Other physical characteristis include fading and worn out ages. Other than that, the portrait is in perfect condition requiring no restoration. A student of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo and Piero Della Francesca, Perugino influenced many artists, including Raphael, his student. Perugino studied at Arezzo and was a fellow pupil of Lorenzo di Credi and Leonardo da Vinci in Verrocchio’s Florence studio. Pope Sixtus IV summoned Perugino and other artists to Rome in 1479 to help decorate the Sistine Chapel (Sun Bird Arts). The Pope appointed him the team leader, whose other members were Sandro Botticelli, Cosimo Rosselli, and Domenico Ghirlandaio. As evidenced by his various paintings, including the “Christ Handing the Keys to St. Peter” one, order, simplicity, and clarity characterized his works. Unfortunately, in later years, officials destroyed some of his works to create room for Michelangelo’s Last Judgement. Born in 1446 or thereabout to Cristoforo Marie Vannucci, he developed some of the artistic qualities and characteristics that found significant expression during the High Renaissance period. His self-portrait is simple and straightforward, depicting the face of a middle-aged man with a black top and a red beret. Perugino may have been in his late 40s or early 50s by this portrait’s completion. Perugino died in 1523 in his early 70s according to his accomplices, Vasari and Giovanni Santi (Artsy). He is best remembered for his “Marriage of the Virgin” painting, which is based on a popular legend (rather than a Biblical story), positing that many people wanted to marry the Virgin Mary. The priest gave every suitor of the Davidic line a dry rod to place on the altar, and only Joseph’s flowered.

Works Cited

Artsy. Pietro Perugino: The marriage of the Virgin Mary, n.d. Web.

Brewminate. The Art and Architecture of Early Medieval Europe, 2018. Web.

British Library. The Harley Gospels: an early surviving example of St Jerome’s Vulgate, n.d. Web.

Grove Art Online. Insular art, n.d. Web.

Kearney, Martha. The Book of Kells: Medieval Europe’s greatest treasure? BBC Culture, 2016, Web.

Lumen. The Early Middle Ages, n.d. Web.

Sun Bird Arts. Self-portrait, 1497–1500, n.d., Web.

Totally History. The Marriage of the Virgin, n.d., Web.

Traveling Tuscany. Pietro Perugino: Marriage of the Virgin, n.d., Web.

Visual Arts. Book of Durrow, n.d. Web.

Introduction

Renaissance is translated from Latin as rebirth or rediscovery, in fact, the period was marked with the revitalization of Antiquity in social sciences and art. Renaissance painting, on the one hand, originated from medieval depiction of religious themes and stories as well as from Ancient Greek and Roman patterns of human beauty, freedom and value, clearly demonstrated by the Renaissance artists Therefore, I would expect to find in the capsule Da Vinci’s “Mona Lisa” and Rubens’s “Venus at the Mirror”. Both paintings are close-knit with the social ambience in the Renaissance era; due to the rapid popularization of humanism among the so-called bohemia circles, the view on human nature substantially altered: human-beings were no longer viewed as basically sinful, moreover, human body was regarded not merely as ‘flesh’ (Ackerman, 1991, p.38), physical substance, but rather as an embodiment of beauty and harmony. The proportions of human body were also reviewed: for instance, Rubens increased the width of human body, implying the permissiveness of hedonist lifestyle and the beauty of woman’s natural shape, whose glorification was prohibited in the Middle Ages. Another important element of the Renaissance art is the depiction of nude characters – such as those from ancient myths: Venus, Mars, Proserpine and so forth. The appearance of naked body no longer seemed shocking, as the artist skillfully manifested its harmony as well as the balance between ‘flesh’ and ‘soul’ (Ackerman, 1991, p.53; Land, 1994, p. 118). Renaissance also stressed human personality, the inner world, given that the studies of human nature, or psychology, began to progress, so the artists of this epoch depicted unique human-beings with mysterious emotional worlds just like “Mona Lisa” by Da Vinci.

Main body

With regard to the weakening of religious influence over secular community and the decline of the reputation of the Catholic Church, secular music awakened during the Renaissance. Therefore, I believe I will find the book of Claudio Monteverdi’s madrigals and chansons by Josquin Des Prez. Given that the poetry was developing very dynamically, madrigals were viewed as the most suitable and appropriate form of vocal performance of verses, so they were normally polyphonic and unaccompanied by music. Chansons had similar nature and were widespread in French secular music. Due to the fact that the bohemia, artistic circles had formed by the 16^th century ad a separate group, madrigals and chansons often served as the accompaniment of private entertainments (Reese, 1974, p. 49). In addition, they were adjuncts to public performances and feasts, so they also give idea of people’s frame of mind and reflect the concept of high-quality secular art to be brought to the masses.

The idea of harmony, which can be obtained apart from religion, also spread to architecture. I am likely to find a sketch of Mannerist structure – for instance, Michelangelo’s famous Campidoglio with its inherent giant order, he large pilaster that stretches from the bottom to the top of façade (Ackerman, 1991, p. 93). Importantly, the Renaissance was associated with the growing attention to civil and secular space, and the specified structure was actually designed for administration. Given its beauty and the presence of “fashionable” recreation space (large square and park), one can assume that the contemporary architects were interested in creating more convenient and aesthetically valuable buildings to serve exceptionally people’s needs. I believe I will also find a sketch of a classic-styled structure like Bramante’s San Pietro in Montorio. This small temple embodies the revival of the Greek forms, Greek ideas of space and circular design of structures. Circular structures have fewer sharp angles, which might point to the return of human physical freedom and the circle as a geometrical figure symbolized eternity, so the drawing will reflect the spirit of the epoch.

Speaking about literature, I expect to find Dante’s “Divine Comedy” and Boccaccio’s “Decameron”. The two works were relatively popular among contemporary people and allow learning about the existing values, beliefs and lifestyle. For instance, “Decameron” sheds light on such historical event as the Black Death in Florence and discusses the life of contemporary ordinary people – street musicians, beggars, minor mercenaries and other people, considered by Medieval writers to not deserve a narrative about them. Dante’s “Divine Comedy” implies the Renaissance belief is human salvation and purification, available to everyone, not merely to clergy and includes the notion that epiphanic afterlife can be obtained not merely by faith, but also by virtuous deeds.

Conclusion

Finally, I am likely to find two philosophical works in the capsule – Thomas More’s “Utopia” and Francis Bacon’s “Novum Organum”. The first work clearly demonstrates the humanistic values of the Renaissance and genuine striving for equality and fraternity among people and the belief in the best human qualities, e.g. in human ability to coexist with others peacefully. “Novum Organum” is aimed at studying human cognitive abilities and providing new instruments of scientific inquiry, which points to the fact that along the weakening of religious influence on society, most areas of knowledge and technology were developing rapidly given the broadening of the methodological apparatus.

To sum up, the period of Renaissance opens a rich panorama of styles and themes, but the most prevalent humanistic motif in fact determined the creative heritage of contemporary artists, architects, poets, philosophers and composers. The mobilization and secularization of social ambience led to the increase of creative freedom of imagination, and the above described works clearly demonstrate this fact.

Reference

Ackerman, J. (1991). Distance Points: Essays in Theory and Renaissance Art and Architetcure. Cambridge: MIT.

Land, N. (1994). The Viewer as Poet: The Renaissance Response to Art. University Park: Pennsylvania State UP.

Reese, G. (1974). Music in the Renaissance. New York, W.W. Norton & Co.