Category: Renaissance

The epoch of the Renaissance was marked by a conscious intellectual impulse that began in Italy in the XIV century. The culture of the Renaissance was based on the philosophy of humanism, which affirms the beauty and dignity of a person, the strength of his or her mind and will, as well as creative possibilities. The revival of interest the in ancient heritage and return to antique forms in art included a realistic manner in architecture with the development of linear and light perspectives. This paper aims at examining how the Renaissance architects used the perspective drawing to communicate and explain architectural constructions.

Emerged in the Antiquity and lost by ancestors, the linear perspective drawing was introduced by Brunelleschi, Alberti, and other prominent architects, who used a vanishing point to follow accuracy in proportions and make paintings realistic.

Architecture occupied a leading place in the Renaissance art, which was expressed in simplicity and tranquility of volumes and shapes. The perspective was understood as the science of imaging objects on a surface such as they are perceived by the human eye. The linear perspective gave the possibility of constructing three-dimensional elements in two-dimensional space, developing more detailed forms (Carpo and Lemerle 13).

It should be emphasized that Antiquity and the Middle Age periods solved the problem of finding a volumetric form without interrupting a construction. From the very beginning and through the entire Renaissance period, the principle of artistic individualism and reference to ancient forms remained popular. The rational forms appeared with visually clear boundaries – the key geometric shapes and bodies in the Renaissance architecture were a square, a rectangle, a cube, and a ball.

The first exact formulation of the laws of building perspectives belongs to Filippo Brunelleschi, who discovered the vanishing point on the plane, into which all parallel lines were to be directed (Pictures 1-2). In addition, this architect guessed the scale by calculating the ratio of the length of the figure to the length of the projection in the picture, depending on the distance from the picture plane (Panofsky 5). Brunelleschi made these discoveries based on the thorough analysis and execution of drawings of ancient Roman buildings.

In order to draw the sketch of the mentioned building, the architect used a mirror and mathematically calculated the distance between the objects. Indeed, the review of the schematic view of Brunelleschi’s Florence Baptistery shows that all proportions are correct. The realistic appearance is also demonstrated by the lines that connect left and right sides with the central points at different levels. The scheme shows that the vanishing points are at the same level, which is the main basis of the drawing.

Thus, Florence Baptistery may be regarded as perspectively accurate since all the lines are well-coordinated. It can be supposed that Brunelleschi’s perspective allows treating the perspective not only as a method of organizing the space of the plane but also as a way of shaping the perception of the audience. In others words, it seems that the artist identifies several points, thereby setting the distance to the picture plane, which determines the location of a viewer and forms his or her perception.

In his turn, Leon Battista Alberti spoke of a picture of the plane as a transparent surface to represent forms of visible objects on this surface as if it were transparent glass (Carman 23). Through the latter, a visual pyramid passed at a certain distance, light, and position of the center of the drawing (Picture 3). Alberti suggested using a grid on glass when drawing from life to build perspective through distance points where the diagonals of the squares of the floor or the square converged.

The plane solutions of two-dimensional space were replaced by those that create the illusion of depth, allowing the picture and the building to “vibrate” and represent the perspective. All these qualities of the plane help to influence a viewer in different ways – the effective perception of architecture and plane was replaced by the visual perception. The architects became more contemplative and designed a new architectural form and space, thus refocusing on the concept of space rather than place.

In the history of architecture, there are many examples of drawings and layouts – models of natural and large scales executed in order to verify the artistic and design features of structures. The epoch of the Renaissance brought a new philosophy to architectural design, and the construction of a linear perspective became an organic phenomenon (Carpo and Lemerle 51). There was a process of developing a plane that becomes part of the architectural form. The planar principle of the image gave rise to the perception of volume, the illusion of depth, the instrument for the achievement of which was a linear perspective.

An example of this is the rusticated facades of the palazzo or the painting of churches, which organically continued the volumetric details of the eaves or domes. Thus, Alberti, Brunelleschi, and other architects achieved the unity of volume and plane in an attempt to make buildings look more realistic and, at the same time, reflective of the Renaissance.

The constructive solution of vaults and domes remained the main technical and artistic challenge. The closed arches and domes, which leave a lot of space for murals, were especially popular in combination with the ancient and medieval experience (Panofsky 38). At the same time, it should be stressed that the Renaissance tried to overcome the massiveness and simple accumulation of volumes. For example, Brunelleschi’s Florence Baptistery can be regarded as a revolutionary building that attracted by its simple yet solemn lineament. To facilitate the construction in the system of vaults, various additional elements were used that were left open and sometimes interpreted as details of the artistic solution.

The compositional effects of perspective drawing were differently understood and represented by painters and architects in the epoch of the Renaissance. In particular, in his On Drawing, Alberti noted that, for example, pavement could characterize the approaches of the mentioned artists (Puttfarken 69). The difficulty and obscurity of presenting pavement in the context of perspective made it unknown to painters, who tried to depict objects in their natural forms. In other words, painters viewed perspective as a part of the picture, while architects followed “the principle of perspectival unity and coherence” (Puttfarken 70). The latter means that every object should be constructed in such a way as to ensure that the whole project is observed from one point.

The key difference between the view of architects and painters on using the strategy of perspective is that the former tried to measure all figures and forms, and the latter pursued the goal of mere provision of drawing as a part of the real world. In this regard, the very idea of perspective unites both architects and painters and acts as the main similarity. In order to organize figures, architects measured seven movements, including left, right, forward, backward, down, up, and around in relation to other objects.

This points to one more difference – the attitude to the use of perspective. If architects strived to strictly follow the rules of the perspective theory, painters targeted its practical in terms of the material condition. Thus, Alberti stated that these two approaches should be different since they focus on various aims – central and frontal perspectives to portray the pictorial world.

The representation of space and perspective constructions was also used by Paolo Uccello, an Italian painter of the early Renaissance. This prominent painter focused on the perspective as a complex reversal of numerous figures. The perspective was understood by Uccello not just as an artistic device but as a general law for depicting nature and art. For example, a fresco in Santa Maria Novella church in Florence shows a method of perspective construction according to plans and sections, right up to the top of the eaves and floors (Picture 4).

With the help of the intersection of lines as well as shortening and moving to the vanishing point, Uccello achieved results in overcoming difficulties with arranging the figures on the plane on which they stand. He also found a way to build curves for demolitions and arches of the cross vaults and a reduction in ceilings with beams going deep, to build round columns at the corners.

In turn, Piero della Francesca, an innovator in the field of perspective figures, was obsessed with plastic modeling and deep space, which are characteristic of his compositions. For example, one may discuss a vivid example of perspective drawing – the Brera Madonna (Picture 5). In this painting, Francesca was the first Italian architect of the 15th century to depict Madonna and the surrounding saints in the interior of the church. It is possible to note that the architecture of the traditional temple is rather luxurious.

The whole composition is close to symmetrical one and unfolds in space in a vicious circle, looking like an immaculate sphere. In this architecture, the elevation of the plan is revealed in harmonization of people with the environment and perspective drawing lines that invisibly lead to the vanishing point. The identified artist created a glaze technique, which has become decisive for his style, which expressively conveys the atmosphere of the painted design (Banker 165). Francesca managed to create the illusion of the depth of the depicted space, so that the group of saints was placed not in the apse yet behind it.

The Flagellation of Christ is one of the most mysterious paintings of Francesca, resembling a diptych in its composition. Visually, the piece consists of two parts, which, at first glance, are not related to each other (Picture 6). There is the scene of flagellation presented on the left side of the canvas, and a viewer sees a group of three men quietly talking on the right. This combination of cruelty and ordinariness gives the plot a dramatic sense and makes a new look at what is happening. In order to visually separate one part from another, the artist used the technique of a linear perspective, placing Christ and his executioners in the depth of the portico (Banker 120).

The rhythmic alternation of vertical and horizontal lines forming the floor, ceiling, and columns creates a frame, beyond which the Trinity is located, which is clearly oblivious to what is happening behind their backs. Compared to works of Uccello, those of Francesca have a more intimate effect, which is achieved by dramatic and solid figures perceived by a viewer closely.

Today, architects also use perspective drawing to transform the reality into appearance, yet they are more focused on psychological impact rather than divine plots. There are various applications of perspective drawing in the modern world, beginning from painting to 3D computer games. It should be stressed that with the rapid development of technology, perspective drawing opened more opportunities for those who want to use it.

For example, computer-aided design (CAD) software assists in calculating required distance between figures, setting trajectories, and pointing to mistakes. As for the future of perspective, one may state that it can be utilized to project innovative buildings as objects of arts or for living based on three-dimensional drawings. The creation of futuristic cities and computer games is another potential development area.

In conclusion, the Renaissance architects used the perspective drawing not only as a method of organizing the space but also as a way of organizing the audience perception. The architects set the distance to the drawing plane, which determined the location of a viewer and formed his or her perception. In general, the perspective drawing was applied by that period architects as the representation of humanistic ideas and great abilities of people. Nowadays’ perspective drawing targets the psychological impact and practical use, focusing on 3D technology and projects of futuristic cities.

Appendices

Works Cited

Banker, James R. Piero Della Francesca: Artist and Man. Oxford University Press, 2014.

Carman, Charles H. Leon Battista Alberti and Nicholas Cusanus: Towards an Epistemology of Vision for Italian Renaissance Art and Culture. Routledge, 2016.

Carpo, Mario, and Frédérique Lemerle. Perspective, Projections and Design: Technologies of Architectural Representation. Routledge, 2013.

Panofsky, Erwin. Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art. Routledge, 2018.

Puttfarken, Thomas. The Discovery of Pictorial Composition: Theories of Visual Order in Painting 1400-1800. Yale University Press, 2000.

The epoch of the Renaissance was marked by a conscious intellectual impulse that began in Italy in the XIV century. The culture of the Renaissance was based on the philosophy of humanism, which affirms the beauty and dignity of a person, the strength of his or her mind and will, as well as creative possibilities. The revival of interest in ancient heritage and return to antique forms in art included a realistic manner in architecture with the development of linear and light perspectives. This paper aims at examining how the Renaissance architects used perspective drawing to communicate and explain architectural constructions.

Architecture occupied a leading place in Renaissance art, which was expressed in simplicity and tranquility of volumes and shapes. The perspective was understood as the science of imaging objects on a surface such as they are perceived by the human eye. The linear perspective gave the possibility of constructing three-dimensional elements in two-dimensional space, developing more detailed forms (Carpo and Lemerle 13).

It should be emphasized that Antiquity and the Middle Ages periods solved the problem of finding a volumetric form without interrupting a construction. From the very beginning and through the entire Renaissance period, the principle of artistic individualism and reference to ancient forms remained popular. The rational forms appeared with visually clear boundaries – the key geometric shapes and bodies in the Renaissance architecture were a square, a rectangle, a cube, and a ball.

The first exact formulation of the laws of building perspectives belongs to Filippo Brunelleschi, who discovered the vanishing point on the plane, into which all parallel lines were to be directed (Pictures 1-2). In addition, this architect guessed the scale by calculating the ratio of the length of the figure to the length of the projection in the picture, depending on the distance from the picture plane (Panofsky 5).

Brunelleschi made these discoveries based on the thorough analysis and execution of drawings of ancient Roman buildings. In his turn, Leon Battista Alberti spoke of a picture of the plane as a transparent surface to represent forms of visible objects on this surface as if it were transparent glass (Carman 23). Through the latter, a visual pyramid passed at a certain distance, light, and position of the center of the drawing (Picture 3). Alberti suggested using a grid on the glass when drawing from life to build perspective through distance points where the diagonals of the squares of the floor or the square converged.

The plane solutions of two-dimensional space were replaced by those that create the illusion of depth, allowing the picture and the building to “vibrate” and represent the perspective. All these qualities of the plane help to influence a viewer in different ways – the effective perception of architecture and plane was replaced by the visual perception. The architects became more contemplative and designed a new architectural form and space, thus refocusing on the concept of space rather than a place.

In the history of architecture, there are many examples of drawings and layouts – models of natural and large scales executed in order to verify the artistic and design features of structures. The epoch of the Renaissance brought a new philosophy to architectural design, and the construction of a linear perspective became an organic phenomenon (Carpo and Lemerle 51). There was a process of developing a plane that became part of the architectural form.

The planar principle of the image gave rise to the perception of volume, the illusion of depth, the instrument for the achievement of which was a linear perspective. An example of this is the rusticated facades of the palazzo or the painting of churches, which organically continued the volumetric details of the eaves or domes. Thus, Alberti, Brunelleschi, and other architects achieved the unity of volume and plane in an attempt to make buildings look more realistic and, at the same time, reflective of the Renaissance.

The constructive solution of vaults and domes remained the main technical and artistic challenge. The closed arches and domes, which leave a lot of space for murals, were especially popular in combination with the ancient and medieval experience (Panofsky 38). At the same time, it should be stressed that the Renaissance tried to overcome the massiveness and simple accumulation of volumes. For example, Brunelleschi’s Florence Baptistery can be regarded as a revolutionary building that is attracted by its simple yet solemn lineament. To facilitate the construction of the system of vaults, various additional elements were used that were left open and sometimes interpreted as details of the artistic solution.

In conclusion, the Renaissance architects used perspective drawing not only as a method of organizing the space but also as a way of organizing the audience’s perception. The architects set the distance to the drawing plane, which determined the location of a viewer and formed his or her perception. In general, the perspective drawing was applied by that period’s architects as the representation of humanistic ideas and great abilities of people.

Works Cited

Carman, Charles H. Leon Battista Alberti, and Nicholas Cusanus: Towards an Epistemology of Vision for Italian Renaissance Art and Culture. Routledge, 2016.

Carpo, Mario, and Frédérique Lemerle. Perspective, Projections, and Design: Technologies of Architectural Representation. Routledge, 2013.

Panofsky, Erwin. Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art. Routledge, 2018.

Personal Reflection

The study of design and its evolution through the ages is very intriguing. The study of various trends and how they compare to each other has certainly made this semester exciting and intriguing. “Classification relies on time and space” is a statement that has echoed out throughout the whole semester and has made the understanding of past and present design trends easier and more relatable.

At this time of the semester, the study of 17^th century rococo design is by far the most interesting thing I have learnt. The rococo technique is the embodiment of beauty and finesse in design and has made this course particularly exciting to me.

One of the most intriguing aspects in the rococo technique had to be the use of elegant and florid designs that transformed architectural designs into works of art. Designers during this age rebelled against conventional design trends giving up symmetry in favor of smooth curves, complex shapes and incorporation of natural elements in the design. These designs were elegant and classy; they were true works of art.

A classic example of rococo designs is the Louis XV chairs and the installments within the Antechambre de l’Oeuil Boeuf in Versailles, France designed by Pierre Le Pautre and completed in 1707. These chairs were designed for both functionality and beauty describing the nature of rococo designs.

Technological advancements, need for sustainability and efficiency has led to decline in creativity amongst modern designers. Computer graphics have largely replaced the pen and paper system used in the past. Elegance and class have all been abandoned for the sake of efficiency and cost management. It was refreshing to learn of an age when designers strived to develop a distinct work of art that will astound people for generations to come.

Rococo designs renewed art and design that had died after the collapse of the great Roman Empire. I believe that the renaissance designers were heavily influenced by classical works hence they lacked true creativity. Rococo designers rebelled and sought to institute their own trends in design.

These trends have spilled over to our generation influencing most artists and designers. The Pink Salon in G Hotel located in Galway, Ireland is one example of modern designs inspired by Rococo. The building completed in2005 and designed by Douglas/Wallace designers contains aspect of rococo both in its designs, installations and furniture. The Preference of curves common in modern architecture can also be traced back to Rococo designers.

I have truly enjoyed this course especially learning about the rococo technique. It is common to hear people looking for antiques and by looking at the various rococo designs one can understand why. Art is about beauty and elegance, capturing something that people will marvel at for years to come.

The rococo technique achieved all this and as such learning about this fashion has been both exciting and informative. The rococo technique also introduced many new ideas and trends. Playfulness in art, asymmetry and naturalism are some of the trends that resulted from this technique. As a designer in the 21^st century, the rococo technique can offer many lessons. I expect I will continue enjoying this course and I wait to learn more about design, art and architecture.

Important 21st Century Design Trends and their relationship with past design trends

Design in the 21^st century has undergone a dramatic change from classical design. Designers are no longer constrained by rules and guidelines set by earlier design schools. Design in the 21^st century is heavily influenced by modernism rejecting traditional ideologies about art. The various trends in modern design depict the progress made by human beings in improving and reshaping the world they are living in.

There are many trends common to modern designs however three trends have played a big role in defining design in the 21^st century. Environmental concerns during design, design as a brand and the fusion of architecture and fine arts are three trends that best describe design in the 21^st century. These three trends are completely new to design and have led to drastic changes in design concepts leading to new and more innovative projects.

The first important trend in modern design is environmental sustainability. The wide publicity on global warming has made people to become more environmentally friendly and as a result modern design has been heavily influenced by sustainability. The use of recyclable materials, reduction of waste and energy efficiency are just but part of the many steps taken by designers to protect and conserve the environment.

Design in the 21^st century seeks to work with regards to the environment and not against it. The Al Nasser Capital Center in Dubai is an example of modern projects that have integrated sustainability considerations in their design. The project designed by ONL (Oosterhuis Lénárd) and was completed in 2007 has integrated various sustainability aspects. The shape and design of the tower are such that it utilizes nature to reduce on building and maintenance costs.

The project also uses mass-customized components reducing waste during construction. Another project that can be noted for its environmental concerns is the Melbourne rectangular stadium in Australia. The project designed by Cox architects started in 2006 and was completed in 2010. The project uses a bio frame design that is more efficient and cost effective as it utilizes less steel than classic cantilever structures. The roof is designed to collect rain water in order to reduce the amount of potable water in the premise.

There are many aspects of sustainability within the project highlighting the level with which environmental concerns have influenced modern designs. Sustainability is a fairly new term that describes steps taken to conserve the environment. Earlier designers did not have to consider global warming or pollution during their design since it was not a pressing problem at the time. Before the industrial revolution, pollution was not a problem and most materials used at the time were environmentally friendly.

Environment considerations during this time were only in the form of reconciling man to nature and understanding the natural order of things. In the 21^st century design, environmental concerns during design has enabled construction activities to be carried with more concern for the environment and the future generations It has also led to the reduction of cost by reducing waste and the efficient use of materials and natural products such as light.

Sustainability has also led to the development of more peaceful and harmonious designs by incorporation beautiful landscapes within the design. However, sustainability has led to the constraint of artistic freedom. By concentrating more on sustainability functions designers are forced to work in a predefined manner leaving little room for experimentation. Designs that are too concerned with sustainability may suffer from poor form and aesthetics.

The next trend that stands out in modern design is that design seeks to establish a unique brand for a product. Globalization has led to increase in competition in many aspects of life, art included. Modern designers must therefore make their products stand out from the rest. The book spiral installed in the Seattle Central Library in Seattle, Washington designed by Ren Koolhas of OMA and completed in 2004 has attracted many people promoting the library and strengthening its reputation.

The book spiral installed in the library is designed to exhibit non-fiction books while conserving the Dewey Decimal System used in the library. Visitors to the library can access any book from the spiral without traveling to other parts of the library. The stairways in the library are also dynamic containing variety staircases that relate to the variety of books within the library. Design as a brand can also be witnessed in the furniture collection of Roche Bobois.

The French company has distinguished itself by producing elegant collections that combine art, fashion and interior design to produce unique products. One of the main attractions in the company is the Gaultier furniture collection designed by Jean Paul Gaultier in 2008. The printed pillows assembled to look like a sofa is the unique signature of Roche Bobois. Their products are so unique such that one can identify the company by looking at a single piece of their furniture.

Design as a brand is not a new concept as it relates as far back as the 16^th century design. During the 16^th century, class segregation was an important aspect of society and this was reflected in many designs of the time. The Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire, England Constructed during the late 16^th century is one such project designed to display the status if the owner within the society and to cement their name as a brand.

The building designed by Robert Smythson was a prodigy house that was used to entertain Queen Elizabeth during her visit to the country side. The manor designer included large windows which was uncommon during the time. The windows were so design to reflect the source of Bess Hardwick’s wealth which was lead mining and glass manufacturing. Design as a brand has led to the immortalization of individuals, buildings and corporations.

It is now possible to identify an individual or corporation by a particular design connected with it. Buildings such as the Burj al Arab are icons in their country and by looking at the Burj one instantly thinks about Dubai in the UAE. Branding using design however can lead to disharmony in the design process. A well design project must fit with its surrounding environment. By using design as a brand, one may develop a project that is out of synch with the surrounding environment.

This is one of the main criticisms that have been put forward about the Seattle Central Library in Seattle, USA. Critics say that the building is mismatched with an unusual design that does not fit with the surrounding area. It has been called ugly mainly due to the fact that it does not complement its surrounding environment and was designed with disregard to the external environment.

The final important trend in modern design is the fusion of ‘fine’ art and architecture. In the past, ‘fine’ art was seen as just a small part of architecture. However, modern designers are using the basics of art for architectural designs. Artists are turning to architecture in order to escape the old-fashioned gallery framework.

The fusion between art and architecture can be seen in the butterfly house in Surrey England. The house was designed by Laurie Chetwood in 2000 who was inspired by butterflies. The whole house is based on the metamorphosis of a butterfly from the early phase to the blossoming of the fully grown insect.

The awnings are shaped like butterfly wings while the stairs are designed to evoke the unfurling of new wings. Robert Venturi has also campaigned for the fusion of art and architecture in design. In his book “Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture” written in 1968, he argues that narrative and symbolism are required in architecture to make it human. He advocates the fusion of art and architecture designs so that projects are not just functional.

The fusion of art and architecture has evolved over a long period of time. In the past, architectural designs were based on a distinct set of universal laws. After the building was constructed, it was common for artist to display their works in different ways in the building. The installation of sculptures or the painting of walls to complete the project was very common during the 18^th century and the renaissance period.

The Vestibule and staircase of the Laurentian Library in Florence, Italy is an early example of the fusion between art and architecture. The structures were designed by Michelangelo and Ammanati in the period between 1524 and 1550. The walls of the vestibule were designed and built as sculptures with advancing and receding planes. The design of the convex staircase was also artistic emulating the flowing of lava by expanding as one descends while at the same time curving outwards.

In the past, art was a subset of architecture and was usually used to add beauty to architectural designs. In modern design however, art and architecture work hand in hand in some case architecture is being used to bring to life what art has conceived. The fusion of art and architecture has led to the development of exciting and innovative architectural projects. Conventional box structures are now considered boring and modern architecture is adventurous, engaging and elegant.

The fusion of art and architecture has led to projects that people can relate to on a personal level. “Architecture is for people, not for abstract, conceptual conversation as its primary function”. The fusion of art and architecture however can lead to confusion when people fail to understand the final product. People should be able to identify with a building and due to the dynamic nature of art, it may became difficult for some people to identify the theme of the design.

Modern design is described by several trends that have developed over the years and can be seen in modern works of art and architecture. In many modern art and architectural projects, environmental concerns make up one of the crucial elements of designs.

This can be seen through the use of ‘green’ materials, use of energy efficient designs and interaction between the project and the natural environment. Another important design trend is the development of art or architecture as a brand. Corporations and other individuals strive to stand out in the global village.

This has thus transformed design in that many projects symbolize their function and strive to strengthen the brand of the client or artist. Creativity is used to link the project and client in such a way that the design leaves a lasting impression on others. The final important trend is the fusion of art and architecture. In the past, art was use to complement the architecture, wall details and the building elements with the structure.

However modern designers use art as a starting point for architectural projects. Art is a now a source of architectural designs and acts together with architecture. Design in the 21^st century has been termed as revolutionary in that new concepts are used discarding the old, conservative concepts. In the past, there was a gradual evolution in design concepts however developments in the modern world have led to the overhaul of old concepts with new, innovative and efficient concepts.

Continuities between renaissance period and the 17th-18th centuries

Design usually falls under classifications based on time and space. Designers from a given period in time from a particular place on the planet usually follow a given set of trends. However some design trends transcend both time and space and can be seen throughout different time periods. Although different generations have different design trends, it can be noted that there is continuity between these trends. The trends of past generations are just refined and improved but the underlying principle or motivation is largely the same.

The first important continuity between the renaissance and the17^th to 18^th century design trends is gout grec (Greek taste). Designers during the renaissance period were very intrigued by Roman architecture and art. The teachings of Vitruvius were very important to many architects and designers during this time.

Ancient roman buildings such as the Coliseum acted as inspiration to many architects. One of the most significant renaissance buildings in the world, the San Pietro in Montorio, Rome in Italy is heavily influenced by classical Roman architecture. Designed by Donato Bramante and constructed from1502 to 1503, the building contains domes and Doric columns arranged in the circular plan of Greek temples.

Bramante adhered to Vitruvius beliefs about symmetry and order within his designs. The building was also inspired by the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli. This fascination with classical designs was revived in the late 17^th century when ancient Greek and Roman artworks were discovered.

The armchair for Princess Marie of Prussia designed and built by Karl Friedrich Schinkel in 1827 is an example of the continuity in classical imitation. The chair is design using specific harmonic proportions that was conventional in the renaissance period. The chair was intended to be used when learning about renaissance traditions and engagement with antiquity. The use of classical architecture and design has however diminished in the 21^st century.

Modern designers have moved towards new and more artistic ways of designing structures and other projects. The use of domes can however be seen in many Arabic buildings such as the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, UAE. The building designed by Adam Smith contains aspects of Islamic architecture and art. Modern architecture has moved past classical model and the utilization of technology and scientific principle has enabled designers to develop more efficient, economic and artistic design projects.

The next important continuity is the use of ornamentation in design projects. The use of genre pittoresque (rococo) witnessed during the 17^th and 18^th century has its roots from the renaissance ornamentation system.

During the renaissance period, ornamentation was in the form of elaborate sculptures, symbolic marquetry and tapestry, and the use of C and S scrolls for finishing (grotesque). During the 16^th century, a new form of ornamentation called Baroque developed in Italy. Baroque was more elaborate than previous forms of decorations and was more concerned with the natural order of things (Panofsky, 19).

Baroque art was more lavishing with designers concentrating on shapes derived from nature such as shells, leaves etc. The Loggia in Vatican, Italy designed in 1515 is a fine example of renaissance grotesque design. The designers Raphael and Giovanni da Udine used grotesque as ornamentation to the loggias in the palace. They combined living and inanimate components to develop a system of ornamentation which would thrill artists for many generations.

During the 17^th and 18^th century, baroque evolved into rococo which was more elegant, playful and ornate. The spirit of rococo is best represented by Louis XV designs in France during the period of the Monarch. The furniture was designed with floral decorations, curved legs, rounded backrests and wider padded seats. In terms of interior design, the Sanssouci palace in Potsdam, Prussia is a good example on how rococo developed in Europe.

The interior design was carried out by Johann August Nahl used aspects of rococo extensively in the building. The sculptures in the building are more fluid and softer in color as compared to baroque sculptures. The use of carved wood in columns and other elements in the building is evident and can be traced back to early renaissance design. Rococo unlike baroque was largely composed of unsymmetrical object and broken curves (Lingwood, 1).

This trend is especially evident in Louis XV ornaments and chairs such as the bergere in France. The baroque and rococo techniques have not been lost in the 21^st century as certain designers still use their concepts. The use of intricate patterns and incorporation of natural patterns can still be seen in modern designs. Landscaping in the 21^st century is usually based on themes that can be traced back to rococo design.

The use of curves and asymmetrical shapes common in modern designs has its roots back to the 17^th and 18^th century after designers rebelled against the symmetrical forms that were common during the renaissance period. The city of arts and sciences in Valencia, Spain is an example of modern buildings that have incorporated rococo aspects in their designs. Designed by Santiago Calatrava and whose constructions works began in 1991, it incorporates various design features that were common during the rococo era.

The museum of science section of the building contains asymmetrical repetition of tree like forms while at the same time utilizing glass to illuminate the building. The ribbed forms in the building also modulate light enhancing the impression of light and shadow. This aspect conforms to rococo design where by asymmetrical shapes, use of nature inspired forms and playfulness with color/light (illusions) were very common.

The final continuity between the two generations is the incorporation of human values in design. This was mainly seen in paintings and sculptures where designers tried to display their understanding of morality, divine order and understanding of nature.

During the renaissance period, it was common for major buildings to include works of art to signify their purpose, standing in society and beliefs. Iconography was used to complete designs and reflect human values. The wall details in the Sala di Gallatea villa located in Rome, Italy is an example on how iconography was utilized for this purpose.

The building completed in 1512 was designed by the famous renaissance designer Raphael who used art to tell a Greek story on the wall. He uses various Greek characters to tell a story of love and beauty all intended to display the wealth and class of the client. The client also wanted the house to tell the story of his love affairs. This was achieved through the use of tapestry and paintings in the form of Cupid and Psyche.

The whole house is full of intricate patterns and complex forms which was the trend of the renaissance period. The 17^th and 18^th century designers were also fascinated with aesthetics and design as reflection of humanity. The Villa Albani in Rome designed by Winckelmann utilizes sculptures as a means to interact with nature. The sculpture niche and the garden design create a place where people can interact with each other, nature, ideals and ancient antiquity.

The use of design to communicate human values and relationship with nature is still evident in 21^st century designs. Although very few buildings contain authentic wall paintings, the use of wall papers and strategically placed windows serve as a means for people to connect with nature and humanistic values. Unlike the renaissance and 17^th-18^th century designers, modern designers do not place such a huge attention to ceiling paintings preferring to send their message on the overall design of the structure or project.

The D-Tower in Doetinchem, Netherlands completed in 2004 and designed by Lars Spuybroek is a prime example of modern projects that allude to humanism and nature. The project shows how aesthetics as understood in the renaissance period has evolved over time. In the project, aesthetics are designed not for mental judgment but for physical experience.

The tower is linked to a website where people can interact and communicate their feelings and day to day emotions. The emotions are then linked to lamps illuminating the building such that everyday one can know the most prevalent emotional condition in the neighborhood. As it can be seen, the use of aesthetics has evolved over the generation and has reached a point where it interacts directly with the people.

From the renaissance where it was used to reflect humanistic values such as love and beauty, to the 17^th century where it was used to reflect the natural laws of God, aesthetics has reached a point where it interacts directly with the people reflecting emotion, beliefs and values. In the 21^st century aesthetics do not portray what people aspire instead it portrays what is (problems, ideologies beliefs etc.).

Design is governed by time and space however it is evident that there are continuities between one generation of designers and the next. The renaissance period was characterized by the use of symmetry, iconography and ideals inspired by ancient roman antiquities and art.

The baroque system was developed at this time and was characterized by the use of dynamic movement, religious themes, dramatic techniques and wide spaces. Baroque art mainly alluded motion as can be seen by the painting of many artists of the era such as Barocci and Michelangelo.

This technique was replaced by the Rococo technique of the 17^th to 18^th century. The Rococo technique was more graceful, articulate and elegant. Basic furniture was designed playfully with intricate curves and ornate decorations. During this period, mirrors were also utilized to complement the architecture of the buildings. The Rococo technique was later replaced by the neoclassic technique which led to the modern 21^st century technique. The 21^st century broke the chain of evolution by taking art to a different level.

The continuities noted in the past generation are rarely seen in the 21^st century. However aspect such as the use of ornamentation, curves and humanistic ideologies still exist to some level. The reduction of walls and the use of wide window spaces facing well designed landscape still offer a means for people to connect to the environment and humanistic values such as transparency.

Works Cited

Lingwood, Anthony. A brief history of interior Design. Lingwood, 20^th Nov 2010. Web.

Panofsky, Erwin. “What is Baroque?”-Three Essays on Technique. Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1995. Print .

Introduction

The renaissance period was a time when the fashion of both men and women in Europe underwent a radical change with the discarding of some parts of the medieval style of clothing and the invention of completely new pieces of cloth. Much like today, fashion in the renaissance period was used to define the social status of the wearer; and some fashion accessories were used to identify the position of the person in the hierarchy in the society. People in this period (as do people today) spent vast amount of money buying elaborate clothes that would accurately reflect their social status at the time.

The craftsmanship of the clothing became more elaborate; additionally, there was a preference for more expensive fabrics such as silk and cotton that were mainly imported from Asia.

The ruling class in many European countries generally determined the trends of fashion during this period; this is mainly due to the fact that only they could afford some of the new fads invented as the days went by. However, this class also attempted to control how much the lower classes could express themselves in form of fashion; this was through the enactment of laws requiring that ‘commoners’ wear clothing of one color only. This did not go down well with this class resulting in the invention of another renaissance fashion of slashing. This involved wearing two layers of clothes of different colors then making a thin slash on the outer garment so that the color of the inner garment can be seen ever so slightly. This eventually evolved to a situation where the inner garment was pulled all the way out through the slit.

Some of the more prominent fashion accessories during this period are discussed below.

Ruffs

This refers to a band worn around the neck by both men and women during this period. This accessory was usually made of lace or linen; while the original ruffs were modest in dimension, with the invention of starch the size became bigger in terms of both width and height; and the resultant garment was pleated and radiating.

The ruff was worn in Europe between the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries; from their original sizes, ruffs became bigger aided by the strengthening ability of starch that made sure that they remained rigid around the neck; with the increase of size, some even required support by wires so as to retain their desirable shape.

The popularly of the ruffs began to wane at the close of the sixteenth century; however, before this it was a fashion accessory for the cream of the society at the time; even that of the queen such as Queen Elizabeth.

Doublet

Like many other pieces of cloth in the renaissance fashion period, the doublet started out as a practical piece of cloth with no special emphasis or distinction with any other that might have been worn in the same manner. The doublet is a close fitting jacket worn by men and had buttons on the front part.

The doublet was worn from the middle ages in Europe especially in the highlands where its design served the purpose of preventing bruising and chaffing from other courser clothing worn on the outside. However, by the close of the fifteenth century, the doublet had attained an identity of its own.

While the basic shape was retained over the years, the separation between the garment worn by everyone and the fashionable doublet was made by elaborate decorations and embroidery carried out for the owner who could afford it. The rise of the doublet as a fashion accessory was however permanently stemmed in the middle of the seventeenth century when Louis XIV and Charles II, the kings of France and England respectively created a new fashion for men which is the predecessor to the modern suit; this consisted of a relatively longer coat, a waistcoat, a cravat, a wig and breeches.

Jerkin

Worn together with the doublet, this piece of garment survived the fate of its companion in regards to disuse as it found a place in the wardrobe of the military as a practical standard issue item. The jerkin, a male garment was a close-fitting jacket, without sleeves and usually made from light colored leather.

The peak of the jerkin as a fashion accessory was in the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries; during these periods, the jerkin was created in a manner that reflected the affluence of the wearer; with the lower classes wearing less elaborate garments in terms of decoration that their wealthier counterparts. Additionally, the general shape of the garment was modified from time to time to shapes that complemented the men fashion at the time.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the wide use of the jerkin somewhat declined; it was not until the twentieth century during the first world war that British soldiers were issued with brown leather jerkins which were lined with wool; these garments had the double benefit of giving the soldier both agility and keeping him warm; the former function could not be afforded by the greatcoats issues to the other armies. The jerkin was used in a similar manner in the Second World War.

Hennin

This is a headdress worn by women in Europe. The center of this fashion accessory seems to be France and Burgundy; however, other parts of Europe also experienced the same phenomenon. The peak period of the hennin was in the fifteenth century.

Contrary to other fashion accessories that were developed out of practical day to day clothing, the hennin was developed as an aristocratic accessory during the middle of the century. The gear consisted mainly of a conical hat ranging between twelve to eighteen inches in length from base to pointed end. While the original hennins were all conical, later there appeared those that had a truncated end resulting in a flat top.

More often than not, the hennin was accompanied by a veil; this was attached to the top of the hat. The veil could then either flow down the shoulders extending even up to the ground; or was positioned in the opposite direction so as to cover the face of the woman. The common position of the hat was where it was tilted at an angle toward the back part of the head. A lappet made out of fabric that extended from the front part of the hat commonly covered the upper parts of the face; and sometimes was long enough to fall downward towards the shoulders. Additionally, there usually were straps attached to fasten the hat preventing it from being blown off by the wind.

Another fashion practice associated with the hennin was plucking of hair from the neck and the brow hairline so as no hair would be visible when the hat was worn. The remaining hair was tied tightly inside the hat and completely hidden.

Various artists have depicted aristocratic women wearing hennins; while the general style of wearing it is generally accepted, there are variations in shape with some being more elaborate that others. Commonly, hennins were made from a light material such as card or by making a wire frame then mounting a thin fabric on it. The aristocratic hennins were made out of rich fabrics and materials; from the basic conical shape, hennin had a variety of shapes including the truncated (flower pot), heart shaped, and beehive shaped hennins.

Others were divided into two potions on the left and right side. While the shape of the hennin is pretty simple, as with other accessories, the complexity of construction was able to effectively portray the social status of the wearer; additionally, the hennin could be decorated with jewels to give it a more exclusive and expensive look. Some of these are depicted in various portraits of royal aristocratic women during the period (Arnold, 1986; 1988).

The Trends in the Renaissance Period

The Burgundian had an immense influence in the fashion of the renaissance; this stemmed mostly from the head start that it could afford since it was not bogged down by the effects of the Hundred Years War that France and England were engaged in at the time; and thereafter the War of Roses which occupied the latter in a large remaining part of the century.

The relative peace and prosperity enabled the duchy of burgundy influence the trends of aristocratic and royal clothing; this was augmented by the access of rich fabrics from Italy and Asia; and importation of wool from England. The ruling class delved freely into the public coffers to fund these purchases of both fabrics and finished garments.

The defeat of the Duchy of Burgundy by Swiss Soldiers in the Battle of Grandson and the plundering of the fashion centers in 1476 was a major turning point in the fashion history of Europe. After successive unstable governments, Charles VIII of France eventually invaded Italy and went ahead to rule the occupied period for a while. This had the effect of introducing the dynamics of renaissance fashion to France and England; which went ahead to become centers of fashion development from the dawn of the sixteenth century (Payne, 1965).

Conclusion

The renaissance period marked the beginning of many aspects that continue to influence our lives today; no doubt, some of the fashionable garments and accessories evolved to much of the conventional clothes we wear today.

Work Cited

Arnold J: Queen Elizabeth’s Wardrobe Unlocked, W S Maney and Son Ltd, Leeds 1988. (ISBN 0-901286-20-6).

Arnold J: Patterns of Fashion: the cut and construction of clothes for men and women 1560-1620, Macmillan 1985. Revised edition 1986. (ISBN 0-89676-083-9).

Ashelford, Jane: The Art of Dress: Clothing and Society 1500-1914, Abrams, 1996.

Chappell, Mike. British Infantry Equipments 1908-1980 Men at Arms series, Osprey Publishing Ltd., London, UK.

Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, 15th-18th Centuries, Vol 1: The Structures of Everyday Life, p. 317, William Collins & Sons, London 1981.

Kohler, Carl: A History of Costume, Dover Publications reprint, 1963, ISBN 0-486-21030-8.

Payne, Blanche: History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century, Harper & Row, 1965. No ISBN for this edition; ASIN B0006BMNFS.

Sherrill, Tawny: Fleas, Furs, and Fashions: Zibellini as Luxury Accessories of the Renaissance. in Robin Netherton and Gale R. Owen-Crocker, editors, Medieval Clothing and Textiles, Volume 2, p. 121-150.

Tortora, Phyllis and Keith Eubank. Survey of Historic Costume, 2nd Edition. Fairchild Publications, 1994. ISBN 1563670038.

Abstract

The historical perception of the distinction between Sculptors of the Italian Renaissance and others is traceable back to the great historical artists like Donatello and Michelangelo.

They are arguably big sculptors of the Italian Renaissance, who were both original and catalysts for revolution. Their works have realism through implementation of versatility, emotional and psychological effects. These aspects are evident among current sculptors.

Thesis/Problem Statement

“Significance of Sculptors of the Italian Renaissance” This is a research investigating and analyzing the different arguments on philosophical nature of Sculptors of the Italian Renaissance, from various art histories to the current state of affairs, with the aim of providing a personal point of view regarding the subject matter.

Purpose/Significance of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the consequences and key concepts involved in the development of Sculptors of the Italian Renaissance and offer personal suggestions or opinions over the issue of relationship between various historical stages.

Objectives of the Study

This research paper lays down the need for finding the background of the understanding of various Sculptors of the Italian Renaissance over the relationship as presented by diverse great artists. The study is equally an assessment of differences of sculpture work at different times.

Significance of the Study

The key topics to be covered entail the focus over Sculptors of the Italian Renaissance. This is in the aim of finding the reasonable conclusion on this type of work.

The Procedure of the Study/Research Methodology

The paper highly utilizes the literature reviews to enable better understanding of the topic. Preparation of the research over the chosen topic will enhance and quantify the research as a study topic and prepare for respondents.

Information collected will equally tabulate and assist in ranking the findings from various eras, and help to narrow the scope to the objectives of the research. The analysis of findings will then draw conclusions from generally analyzed data in the literature review.

Literature Review

Historical Overview

The Sculptors of the Italian Renaissance is arguably one of the most reflective and productive period regarding the history of art. Some of the outstanding fields of Italian art include architecture, sculpture and painting. The early nineteenth century marked the revolution of art history. Good example of the sculptural work was by Donatello (Meyer& Konody, 2010). The Italian renaissance saw a great combination between science and art.

Today we celebrate heroic artists like Michelangelo and Titian who had genius personality that currently emphasize the need for enhanced creativity in artwork. According to Woods (2007), “Some men were both artists and scientists, notably Leonardo da Vinci and Piero Della Francesca. It is doubtful whether they would have understood our distinction between art and science.”

Sculpture

Sculptors of the Italian Renaissance have a close connection to architects. Like the cases of paintings, there is a great rebirth or revival of other forms such as sculptures and architectural designs.

According to Detroit Institute of Arts (1995), traditionally, painting was a revival and the need for revert to appreciation of nature, reinforcement of architecture was in the course of the pressure for ancient histories or classical influences and renaissance of the sculptures was because of both the paintings and architecture.

The revival of sculptures is traceable to the sixteenth century when art historians like Giorgio Vasari promulgated art. In line with Detroit Institute of Arts (1995), sculptors lack distinctive accuracy due to historical classical influences.

Arguably, Nicola Pisano and the son, Giovanni Pisano were Italian architects and sculptors who form the basis of renaissance sculptural work. The art presents great ancient monuments such as the Roman Sarcophagus that gives the historical tale concerning Phaedra and Hippolytus in Pisa (Detroit Institute of Arts, 1995).

Nicola work gave a combination of classic with Gothic elements, while the son, Giovanni had some reactions against classical tendencies and the reaction is evident in current international Gothic styles (Detroit Institute of Arts, 1995). Although the themes in Giovanni’s work are highly medieval, he has good advancement toward faithfulness to nature (Detroit Institute of Arts, 1995).

The successors included paint artists such as Giotto, thus the Italian Renaissance present him as a fighter from the classical approaches through his own renditions and personality. According to Cox (2009), “The inscriptions he left on his work, especially the pulpit in the cathedral of Pisa, show an extraordinary sense of his own worth.”

Artists have the tendency to leave behind self-praising unique signature on their works but Giovanni had a unique style of exalting his personal style compared to other artists of his style and time.

Italian Renaissance has outstanding designs of simplicity and clarity. The artists carry on the aspects of individuality and self-consciousness. They present individual concepts or traits as a signature and expression of showing importance. The sculptural work is a huge revolution from the simple and direct work to enhance the illusions of space, charm and elegance for instance the grouping of objects to achieve architectural effects.

Italian Renaissance is a conceited in Today’s advancement of sculptural work such as Dale Chihuly’s glassware. His contribution to artwork extends to greater heights today. The sculptor is reputable for enhancing change of glass art gallery from their original premise of solemn studio environment to better establishments where the lifestyles of art world involve the collaborative endeavours and a dissection of work forces within creative environments.

He embraces the strategy of pulling a team of artists together with exceptional practice of glass blowing skills that is the foundation for complex multipart sculptures. His artwork places him to the leadership position concerning advancement of the blown glass from the confines of small, precious objects to highly structured sculptures and environmental arts.

According to Taragin (1995), Dale Chihuly was an art student at Florence who turned to be a prolific artist whose work balances content to properties of the glass material such as transparency or translucency.

Today, sculptors of Italian Renaissance also use different material and style as a paramount strategy of enhancing creativity. Style emerges and gets it influences through the captivating processes that get over the boundaries, which separate all forms of arts.

A good example of uniqueness is Dale’s room-sized installations of organic/plant like, freestanding sculptures that stylistically explore colour, contours and, assemblage fitting both indoor and outdoor. The artwork ranges from single and general structures to site specified or customized installations.

Some of his unique but best and famous artworks include small designs or large sculptures placed on various surfaces to bring out the natural effects. The current styles incorporate the plastic polymers for the outdoor environments.

Future trends

Today, the sculptural Italian Renaissance has a wide vocabulary of exiting new elements depicting creativity. The blown forms have styles in terms of type of material, colour, texture and shapes.

The artwork on paper reflects new interests due to incorporated prominent line element in majority of his styles. Some of the sculptural works such as blown glass depict optical moulds, thus producing surfaces with repeated ribbed designs. Another significant part of the style is the elongated sculptures with linear forms.

We are able to enjoy a wide range of Italian Renaissance today especially in our lifestyles such as chandeliers, towers in our streets, and through art paperwork demonstrating similar linear qualities. Whether a sculptor communicates through pencil, painting or blown glass, the same style of attenuated lines still dominate the composition.

Conclusion

A person mesmerized by Italian Renaissance sculptural artwork cannot miss distinctive by unique styles as well as signatures. The artwork is formal, elegant, and extravagant.

It also has a variety of dramatic emotional and visual effects due to incorporated colour themes, baroque, dazzling, and enormous appeals that traditionally lacked in majority of the art forms. Evidently, the imagery style of an artist is strongly evident even when there is some historical decorative aspiring in an art form. Initially, the aspect of harmonizing distinctive element to form decorative artwork was not evident in majority of the artworks.

For a glass blower such as Dale Chihuly, the diversity of form in terms of colour, design complexity and interplay with glass transparency the outcome is a very different world of design. Italian renaissance has always had a strong engagement to nature and thus has brought out the engagement with nature in such a perfect and impressive way.

References

Cox, K. (2009). Old Masters and New. South Carolina, SC: BiblioBazaar LLC

Publishers. Print

Detroit Institute of Arts. (1995). Italian renaissance sculpture in the time of Donatello: An exhibition to commemorate the 600th anniversary of Donatello’s birth and the 100th anniversary of the Detroit Institute of Arts. Michigan, MI: Founders Society, Detroit Institute of Arts.

Meyer, A. & Konody, P. (2010). Donatello. South Carolina, SC: BiblioBazaar LLC Publishers. Print

Sayre, H. (2007).A World of Art. Fifth Ed. New Jersey, NJ: Pearson,

Taragin, D. (August 1995). Racine Art Museum: Curator. The Detroit Institute of Arts, Toledo Museum of Art. Vol. 56, No. 8, p. 10-14. 4 Nov 2010.

Woods, K. (2007). Making Renaissance art. London, UK: Yale University Press. Print

One of the foremost characteristics of Classical artistic style, associated with Greco-Roman antiquity, is the fact that it is being concerned with the celebration of bodily perfection.

This can be explained by the fact that Greco-Roman artists of the era were convinced of the existence of dialectical relationship between the concepts of aesthetic/intellectual finesse, civil virtuousness and the notion of physical health, as such that organically derive out of each other.

According to Yalouris (1960): “(Greco-Roman) statues of gods and heroes exemplified youthful strength and tended to show episodes that emphasized their physical prowess… Simply clad, or naked like the hero, the noble and free citizen was represented by a body of marvelous proportions and calm expression” (p. vii).

The earlier mentioned aesthetic feature of Greco-Roman sculptures (and Classical art, in general) appears to be the consequence of the fact that, throughout the course of Classical period of Western history, the continuous development of philosophic thought has not been affected by any form of ideological/religious oppression, whatsoever.

In its turn, this naturally prompted Classical thinkers to promote an idea that the physical constitution of one’s body is indeed being reflective of his or her mind’s workings, which is exactly the reason why most survived Classical sculptures simultaneously emanate the spirit of physical strength and intellectual self-confidence.

The validity of this suggestion can be well illustrated in regards to the marble sculpture of ‘Spearbearer Polykleitos of Argos’ (440 B.C). As it can be seen on the picture, the depicted ‘Spearbearer’ appears to be no stranger to physical exercises. His naked body is being perfectly proportionate, in anatomic sense of this word.

The expression on man’s face radiates calmness and the strength of his resolution to remain in full control of its destiny. This, once again confirms the soundness of an idea that Classical art cannot be discussed outside of what happened to historical/intellectual preconditions for this particular artistic style to thrive, such as the continuous progress in variety of empirical sciences (medicine, anatomy) and the absence of ideological obstacles, on the way of this progress.

However, the adoption of Christianity by Romans in 4^th century A.D. produced a powerful blow on the ideals of artistic Classicism, as these ideals were absolutely inconsistent with the dogmas of newly adopted religion from Middle-East. After all, the very essence of Christian doctrine is being concerned with the ‘destruction of flesh’ as the pathway to heaven. This was exactly the reason why, after having obtained legal status in Roman Empire, Christians instantaneously preoccupied themselves with destroying what they considered the artistic emanations of ‘paganism’.

As it was pointed out by Bourgeois (1935): “Christianity strived to annihilate the antique – classical sculptures were smashed as idols in untold numbers as being too dangerous to the new faith to survive” (p. 7). Therefore, it does not come as a particular surprise why, during the course of Dark Ages, when Christianity enjoyed an absolute dominance in Western intellectual domain, the very concept of art undergone a dramatic transformation.

The Classical ideals of bodily perfection, embodied in Greco-Roman antique sculptures, were replaced by the ideal of ‘Christian humility’, which is why the images of Jesus and countless Christian saints, depicted on Catholic and Orthodox icons through 5^th-14^th centuries, radiate the spirit of physical inadequacy, suffering and death.

Nevertheless, once Christianity’s ideological grip onto Western societies began to weaken, it resulted in gradual resurrection of Classical aesthetic ideals –hence, the artistic/cultural movement of Renaissance, which from French literally translates as ‘revival’. Just as it used to be the case with Classical Greco-Roman art, Renaissance art celebrates bodily beauty and establishes dialectically predetermined links between individual’s physical appearance and the extent of his or her existential adequacy. This is the reason why Renaissance artistic masterpieces (particularly sculptures) are not only being anatomically accurate but also charged with the same humanist spirit, as it is being the case with Classical examples of art.

The legitimacy of this statement can be explored in relation to Michelangelo’s sculpture ‘David’. Whereas; medieval artists used to depict David as having already accomplished victory over Goliath, Michelangelo’s David is only getting ready to a fight. David’s facial features leave no doubt as to the fact that, prior to beginning to work on this sculpture;

Michelangelo closely studied Greek depictions of God Apollo – narrowed skull, particularly high forehead, blond curly hair, protruding chin. The proportions of David’s naked body are close to ideal. Just as it is being the case with ‘Spearbearer’, Michelangelo’s ‘David’ appears to be in perfect physical shape.

Thus, it is not only that David’s posture alone provides spectators with the insight on the strength of his resolution to fight Goliath – while observing ‘David’; they get to realize where such his resolution originates. Just as ancient Roman and Greek philosophers, Michelangelo was well aware that healthy spirit could only reside in one’s healthy body.

While referring to this particular Michelangelo’s artistic work, Murray and Murray state: “Michelangelo’s choice of subject was not the battle itself but nude studies of the warriors preparing to fight: it was a hymn to the perfection of male beauty and virility” (p. 241). Therefore, there can be few doubts as to the fact that Classical and Renaissance artistic styles are not only being closely related – the latter is nothing but logical continuation of the first.

The same can be said about many latter Western artistic styles, which have clearly been influenced by Renaissance art, such as Romanticism and Realism. For example, just as it is being the case with Renaissance paintings, most Realist and Romanticist paintings feature perceptual depth, realistic coloring and the anatomic life-likeness of depicted human figures.

It goes without saying, of course, that despite Renaissance art being concerned with exploration of the same aesthetic ideals as it used to be the case with Classical art, it nevertheless operates with Christian themes. Apparently, during the course of 14^th-15^th centuries, the power of the Church was still considerable, which is why such prominent Renaissance artists, such as Giotto di Bondone, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, had no choice but to utilize Biblical motifs as thematic framework for their art.

This art’s relation to Christianity, however, appears utterly superficial, as the very essence of how of how Biblical fables are being represented by earlier mentioned artists stands in striking opposition to Christian worldview.

Therefore, it will only be appropriate to conclude this paper by reinstating once again that, despite the fact that there is a gap of thousand years between the historical periods of Greco-Roman Classicism and Renaissance, these two periods are being interrelated in rather inseparable manner.

This point out to the fact that the apparent similarity between Classical and Renaissance artistic conventions is not being accidental, but as such that derives out of the very nature of how intellectually liberated Westerners assess the aesthetic significance of surrounding reality.

In its turn, this also explains why even today, both artistic styles are being commonly regarded as archetypical of the Western sense of artistic finesse.

References

Bourgeois, S. (1935) Italian Renaissance sculpture. Parnassus, (7)3, 7-8.

Murray, P. & Murray, L. (1963). The art of the Renaissance. New York: Praeger.

Sporre, D.J. (2009). Perceiving the arts: An introduction to the humanities (9th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Yalouris, N. (1960). The sculpture of the Parthenon. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society.

The Patriot is a 2000 war movie that Robert Rodat wrote. Ronald Emmerich directed this three-hour movie starring various high profile actors. The movie portrays the events that were taking place in South Carolina during the American Revolution War. It was filmed in South Carolina where these events used to take place.

The main actors in this movie include Mel Gibson (Benjamin Martin), Heath Ledger (Gabriel Martin), Joely Richardson (Charlotte Selton), Jason Isaacs (Col. William Tavington), Chris Cooper (Col. Harry Burwell), Tom Wilkinson (Gen. Lord Charles Cornwallis), and Adam Baldwin (Apt. Wilkins).

The other high profile characters in the movie include Reverend Oliver, Anne Howard, Jean Villeneuve, Dan Scott, John Billings, Occam, Peter Howard, Thomas martin among others. The movie portrays the American’s victory over their English armies.

In this movie, Benjamin Martin (Mel Gibson), a South Carolina farmer and a hero of the French and Indian war is shown as being reluctant to join the Revolutionary war of 1776 (The American Movie Database, para. 1). Martin is a widower and lives with his seven children in South Carolina.

One of his sons, Gabriel, becomes a member of the Continental army contrary to his acknowledgment. One day, Gabriel comes home wounded from war and the British army comes for him to hang him. His younger brother tries to release him from the British army but Tavington shoots him.

Benjamin, with the help of his other two sons, manages to rescue Gabriel after killing a number of the British soldiers. Benjamin then is drawn into the revolutionary conflict against his anti-war feelings. He makes a vow to exterminate Tavington before the end of the bloody battle and allows his children to go to his wife’s sister while he links with his old friend Colonel Burwell, and, pilots the local army in the conflict against the British forces.

In the end, Benjamin succeeds in killing Tavington and Cornwallis moves back and admits defeat. The arrival of French forces to confront the weakened British army in the battle of Yorktown is what compelled the opponents of the Americans to give in.

The Patriot has both historical accuracies and inaccuracies. The writer of this movie wanted to bring out the events that took place during the American revolutionary war when the American people were fighting to get their independence from the British government. The movie uses characters that represent the real people during this revolutionary war but with changed names (Lindahl, para.3).

Many of the battles in the film are also historically accurate as well as other events, which the writer did not openly mention. It is important to note that the movie is not a historical documentary and therefore contains some historical inaccuracies. The author had to fictionalize the characters and some events in order to tell the best drama story.

The battles presented in this movie are historically accurate in that they are those that took place during the American Revolutionary war. These battles include those at Camdem, Charleston, Cowpens, Guilford Courthouse and Yorktown.

The author used Benjamin Martin to represent other personalities who played a significant role during the revolutionary war, but also added some other elements to him to suite other prominent historical figures, and, the approach shown in the movie of using the band of soldiers to draw British Army in the last battle is the same approach that Daniel Morgan used in the Battle of Cowpens. General Charles Cornwallis was an actual historical character making this movie historically accurate. It is also true that Cornwallis mentored Lt.

The other events depicted in the movie that are historically accurate include Martin’s raid on Fort wilderness, Tavington’s acts of burning a militia leader’s home and killing his son, use of projectiles during the revolutionary war, and the existence of slave colonies during the revolutionary war. It is also true that slaves became free after participating in the Revolutionary war for one year. These and many other events in the movie show the historical accuracy of this movie.

The movie also has some historical inaccuracies. Because the movie is not a historical documentary, the author added some fiction, which makes it historically inaccurate.

The movie gives a number of misrepresentations of the battles and other incidences surrounding the American Revolutionary war as well as the personnel used. The movie does not use the actual historical characters in presenting the message. The author had to incorporate many characters in Benjamin in order for him to represent more than one of the historical characters.

The battles in South Carolina were also brutal than portrayed in the movie. The movie also shows Benjamin killing Tavington but this did not happen historically. General Cornwallis also never lost any battle in the field as the movie portrays. In the movie, the British army releases the members of the militia group an issue that never happened with the army in history. These and many other events portray the historical inaccuracies of this movie.

The Patriot Presents the historic victory of the Americans against the British in the battle of Yorktown. This happened in 1781 when the forces of the Americans, led by General Washington, with the help of the French forces, led by Comte Rochambeau, forced the British army, led by Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis, to surrender. This historically happened as it is shown in The Patriot.

The French army came in to give reinforcement to the American Army in fighting the British army and end its control over Yorktown and America as a whole. The American patriots were determined during this time to gain their independence. Lord Cornwallis surrendered on October 19, 1781. He surrendered to the American army through his second in command and this action ended the revolutionary war with Britain.

The writer of The Patriot tried to bring out the message of the revolutionary war in his own style. He tried to bring out the events as they happened during the Revolutionary war. Most of the events and actions of the patriots during this revolutionary period were true as presented in the movie (Leong, para. 1). It is true that most of the patriots, as shown through Benjamin, did not want to participate in this revolutionary war at first.

The historical accuracies presented in the film also support the authenticity of this film. The film shows that some colonists wanted independency, a rare tactic was employed to defeat the British at the battle of Hanna’s Cowpens, and the French assisted the Americans to make the war unsustainable for them. This was factual in the history of the Revolutionary war. Even though this was the case, the author presents gross misrepresentation of some events and characters in the movie making The Patriot a propaganda film.

The movie shifts blame between the two rival groups making the movie a propaganda film. Most of things that the movie portrays the redcoats doing, especially their deeds and purposes, were really those of the patriots towards the redcoats who were devoted to the king and the film illustrates the wicked character of Tavington on Britain’s Dragoon Colonel Banastre Tarleton.

However, it is of essence to note that even though Tarleton was not an angel, he was not the kind of giant that the film wants to portray him to be and he did not pass away in the conflict as portrayed in the film; however, he passed away some fifty years afterward.

There are also many misrepresentations in the movie that are misleading as far as the patriot’s history is concerned. The movie managed to depict happy slaves in the farms when in the real sense slaves where not easily granted freedom and were not happy. The author shows that the colonists beat the French and the Indians but this was not the case.

The riots in Charleston in the movie look very normal while in the real case they were brutal and bloody as they were a show of one against the loyal majority. Generally, the movie gives a wrong impression of the war and depicts the Britain army in a negative way, which was not the case. The filmmaker seems to shift the blame to the British and make them seem bad than they actually were.

Stereotypes are evident in this film. The film presents stereotypes about women and ethnic groups, including Africans (slaves) and the British army. The movie shows women performing a secondary role of taking care of children during the Revolutionary war. In reality, women were actively involved in the war and some of them joined the army to fight the British army. The movie also brings out stereotypes about the British army.

Whenever a British soldier comes to stage, he is backed up with all sorts of negatives and evils to make him appear bad. The patriot is presented with positive characters and inaccurate facts to make him appear good. The movie also shows the British army gathering people into a church and burning them all in it. As much as this shows the stereotypes that the movie presents towards the British army, it also presents religious stereotyping. In reality, the British army never burnt people in a church.

The events and personalities presented in this movie reflect what is happening in our society currently. Many militia groups have formed in many countries to fight the ruling governments. Brutality is a common happening and people witness bloody attacks that disrupt peace and development in these regions. Stereotypes still exist in our modern society. Racial discrimination, though reduced, is also common in some areas. These negative attributes have led to poor developments in our countries and regions.

In conclusion, The Patriot is a movie that depicts the events that were taking place during the American Revolutionary war. Even though this movie has some historical accuracy, it also has gross inaccuracies that misrepresent the events of this war; therefore, this reduces its overall credibility.

Works Cited

Leong, Anthony. “The Patriot Movie Review.” Media Circus Navigation. 2000. Web.

Lindahl, Lars. “The Patriot Review.” Killer Movies, 2000. Web.

The American Movie Database (IMDb). “Storyline for the Patriot.” IMDb, n.d. Web.

Renaissance was considered to be a time where there was exercise of a lot of inventiveness in art, structural designs, science, and writing in literature. This period lasted in Europe at an approximated period of three centuries between 1300 and 1600 which led to the interventions of the printing press as well as telescope.

There were also construction of beautiful buildings and great practice of theater thrived during this time. It is a new birth which happened through the resurrection of the dead ideas and taking a new state of action. In this exercise humanism was promoted in that there were changes which were made on the human role and figure. Therefore, humanism development during the renaissance period was considered as an attempt by the renaissance artists to perfect the perfect man.

To start with, there were visual and the literal work which were done by different artists such as the Da Vinci, Bellini, Van Eyck, and Titian among others which were meant to show man in a more perfect light. The whole reason behind the renaissance artists was the representation of nature in their work where the standards were however deviated into the reflection of the human beings as the central focus.

Through the art work, there was also the achievement of beauty which happened to surpass the humanistic values by then. In the exercise, there was the revise of the artistic treasures as well as the intellectual ones that lead to more inspirations into artistic greatness (King, 2003).

Da Vinci in his work portrayed the ideal and the real human efforts as it was possible to view into the inner essence presented in the paintings. He therefore made a change on the way paintings and the carvings or sculptures which were made by presenting misty scenery in the set backgrounds such as the Mona Lisa yet she had no eyebrows.

Bellini also a renaissance artist brought the human work of art on paintings in the realization of a different degree through the production of softening effects on his work. In his paintings, there were synchronization of colors, presentation of light, and the mood.

Van Eyck perfected the perfect man through oil painting sighting which was associated with the limitless effect. In his paintings, there was presentation of any form of emotional status. Before then, tempra which was composed of just one layer was not used in paintings but Van was among the first artist to use it followed by the use of the oil layer.

In conclusion, renaissance is said to place and value human beings in the central positioning of the life’s phase and there was therefore an infusion of ideas and thoughts which were promoted by the acts of art with creation values. The art work achievement was seen as one way which indicated the human ingenuity through his efforts thus it promoted meeting of their daily needs. The civilization which happened in Greek was no longer considered as partial influence.

A return into consciousness was experienced on people’s ancient culture which was made possible by the high desires which were held in the re-production of their culture where the renaissance artists played a very significant role on the same. Therefore, the perfect man was finally perfected through promotion of order, sense of balance and also harmony in the development of the humanism and renaissance (Duiker & Spielvogel, 2006).

References

Duiker, W. J., & Spielvogel, J. J. (2006). The Essential World History. New York: Cengage Learning.

King, M. L. ( 2003). The Renaissance in Europe. New York: Laurence King Publishing.

The High Renaissance is often referred to as the dawn of the epoch of the modern art. Those were great times of changes in the world of art and in the minds of people. The three geniuses of the Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Rafael, were the cornerstones of the new era, the era when the boundaries between the art and life began to vanish.

The film The High Renaissance portrays the major peculiarities of that remarkable period focusing on the most important works of the masters of the High Renaissance. The film starts with the impact of Rafael on the development of art. It is stressed that Rafael was among the first artists to create such lively images in motion, using such bold and bright colors, light and shade. Then Leonardo’s works are depicted.

His precision and attention to any detail are pointed out. It is also stated that Leonardo’s affection to science enabled him to develop new forms in painting. Michelangelo’s genius is justified by his magnificent sculptures which were revolutionary works of marble. The film also reveals the art of such prominent Venetian artists as Titian, Tintoretto and Palladio. It is underlined that the artists revealed the peculiarities of the contemporary society. The works revealed the principles of humanism and people’s progress.

Sayre also claims that the period of High Renaissance was marked by increased naturalism, Humanism and growing affection to Greek philosophy (Sayre 418). Remarkably, any painting or drawing of Leonardo is very naturalistic because he was not only an artist but a talented scientist.

For instance, his Battle of Anghiari is astonishingly naturalistic (Pic. 1). Michelangelo’s works are also very naturalistic. For instance, his David seems to be a living young man due to exclusive precision of the artist. Of course, only the development of science could be the appropriate background for such divine works of art.

Pic. 1. Battle of Anghiari

The art of the twentieth century also revealed the changes in the contemporary society and responded to emerging scientific and philosophical thoughts and trends (Sayre 461). One of the great examples of the symbiosis of art and science is June Wayne’s lithography. This remarkable woman was the one to bring to life almost forgotten technique of lithography.

Moreover, the lithography obtained a new life due to the affluent energy of the artist. She promulgated quite revolutionary thesis since it was inacceptable to mix the work of a printer and an artist for centuries. Some critics even try to compare Wayne’s works to a craftsman’s works.

However, Wayne is the artist which proves that art is an indispensible part of life which is in every sphere of humans’ life. She can be compared with the three giants of the High Renaissance since her precision, the use of scientific knowledge and attention to details enables her to create unique works which really extend the boundaries of art. For example, her Fable Series (Pic.2) reveal her absolutely magnificent technique.

Moreover, Wayne can be compared to Rafael since she also creates new forms new medium to express her artistic vision of reality. It goes without saying that the contemporary arty should reveal the development of science because scientific discoveries open up new horizons for the development of humanity. It is the major aim of art to notice the slightest changes and possibilities for humans’ development.

Pic. 2. Fable Series: Tower of Babel “C”

Works Cited

Sayre, Henry M. A World of Art, 5^th edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc, 2007.

“The High Renaissance.” Art of the Western World. Dir. Geoff Dunlop. WNET/New York, 1989. DVD.

A perfect specimen of the Flemish oil painting style with its attention to the tiniest details, the picture under the title The Ambassadors by Hans Holbein the Younger is truly a masterpiece embodying the ideas and world vision of the XVI Century.

With a distinct scent of the German, namely, the Augsburg (Bavaria) culture, this piece makes one plunge into the 1533 and see the world through the prism of the then philosophical ideas. Indeed, if there is anything that can intertwine the Bavarian and the Flemish, this is the painting by Holbein. With help of his peculiar style, the two cultures came as close as ever, making the philosophies of the two countries merge.

Taking a closer look at the picture, one can notice that time proved completely helpless to make any damage to it. Each detail is still there, perfectly outlined and impeccably expressed.

It is truly unbelievable that the size of the picture correlates with its grandeur and magnificence – the canvas make 81×82.5”. Created with careful strokes of oil paint on oak panel, this masterpiece is shot through with the spirit of the Renaissance.

Depicting the two ambassadors, the painting makes an impression of a piece of the Renaissance life frozen for a moment for the people of the future to see it. Depicting numerous details, the painting creates an impression of a part of real life snatched from 1533 and put into the frame of the XXI century.

On a second thought, the picture can tell much more than merely the historical traits of the epoch and the details of the Renaissance epoch. Helping the spectator understand the art of the Renaissance from within, the picture reveals the ideas and philosophies of XVI century together with the temper of the artist and the thing a that inspired him and guided on his way to creating this masterpiece.

It is obvious that the picture is rectangular, which is the most frequent and the most logical picture shape. Since the piece embraces the entire room and the two people in it, it cannot be square – to show the spaciousness, Holbein uses the rectangular and two-dimensional shape.

It must be also mentioned that the use of the light in the picture is quite unusual. With help of the shadows and spots of light, the author emphasizes the most important parts of the picture an places the less significant ones into the background. Thus, the two ambassadors are in the limelight of the picture in the literal sense of the word, whereas less important details are left in the periphery.

One more peculiar thing about the painting is the color casts used y the author. With help of the dark-green background, Holbein created the atmosphere of calm meditations and the air of political secrets. It is remarkable that the other colors, including the shade of red, are dark as well, with the white color being the only exception.

Although it is clear that tae painting must have a hard and somewhat rough texture, it seems as if the painting were made of velvet. Looking at the dark-green curtains, one cannot help feeling the wish to touch the material and see it swaying in the candlelight. Though this is merely an illusion, the painting does leave a feeling of something extremely soft and refined.

Despite the fact that at very first sight the picture might seem a bit shallow, further on it reveals the special depth that the spectator had no idea about previously. Since the people in the picture are set in a single line, the illusion of a flat image is retained for a while; however, as time passes, the spectator catches the play of light and shadow that create additional spaciousness. Leading in the background of the picture and beyond its actual boundaries, this spaciousness sets the imagination of the spectator loose, making him/her see the world of the XVI Century in its beauty and innocence.

With help of the lines in the picture, Holbein makes the impression of the striking reality complete. It is peculiar that the even and straight lines of the table and the devices in the picture are combined with the natural curves and roughness of the curtain, the folds of the ambassadors’ dresses, etc. Altogether, this draws a distinct line between the world of nature and the artificial world of the mankind.

What strikes most in the painting is that it looks completely real. Each detail, each shadow and line makes the spectator dive deep into the Renaissance epoch. Even the eyes of the ambassadors seem live and haunting. Looking wise and breathing with the new ideas and scientific innovations, this piece of Renaissance culture can take one five centuries back.

With help of this amazing picture, time traveling becomes possible. With help of this amazing piece of the XVI Century Renaissance art, one can feel the pulse of the great scientific discoveries and even greater expectations. For a moment, it seems that the world has held its breathe to meet the future – the XXI Century.