The Harlem Renaissance denotes a movement formed by the African Americans during the 1920s and 1930s. It was a period of social integration and the development of literary and artistic skills by the African Americans. African Americans migrated from the south because they were running away from racial discrimination, violence and oppression and settled in Harlem. In Harlem, they encouraged each other to be proud of their culture and fight for social, economic and political justice as well as recognition from the whites.
The African Americans employed literature, art, music, drama and politics to make their desires known to the white Americans and the world at large. Harlem therefore became the centre for development of the African Americans culture as well as the home for their activities. This paper examines the historical and social background of the Harlem Renaissance.
After the abolition of slave trade, the African Americans moved north to New York City and settled in Harlem. During their days in slavery, the African Americans were denied adequate education and thus illiteracy levels among them were very high. “At the close of the Civil War, Black illiteracy exceeded ninety percent. By 1880, thirty percent had learned to read; by 1890 half the population read, and by 1910, two thirds possessed literacy” (Hamalian, 10).
This was a break through for the African Americans because the knowledge they acquired improved not only their literary work, but also enhanced their economic life and involvement in political issues. During this time, great musicians, singers, writers, artists, and actors arose. These contributed positively to the Harlem Renaissance. According to Ornberg, “the name of the movement is a little misleading, since this renaissance was not unique to Harlem. It might be seen as the capital of the movement” (para. 1).
The great writers of the Harlem Renaissance include W.E.B Du Bois, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale, Jean Toomer, and others. The work of these writers advocated for the fair treatment of the African Americans by the whites. It also encouraged the integration and cohesion of the black community and encouraged them to be proud of their culture.
In W.E.B. Du Bois’ book The Souls of the Black Fork, he analyses the situation of the blacks and advocates for a change of the whites’ attitude towards the blacks. Hughes’ essay The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain also encourages the blacks to cultivate their culture and stop considering themselves inferior to the whites.
These writers also wrote poems, which gave the African Americans hope for a better future. ”Hughes’ poetry depicts a Harlem, where prejudice is not part of everyday life and where music and entertainment seem to be open to everyone, regardless of ethnic background” (Ornberg, para. 2). Some of these writers continued writing even after the end of the Renaissance and their work has had a great impact worldwide.
Singers, musicians and actors also played an important role in the Harlem Renaissance. These dominated the African Americans’ nightclubs and theatres. The Apollo theatre is one of the most common and a lasting mark of the Harlem Renaissance. In this theatre, many African American artists realized their talents and nurtured them into full career. Some African American artists also worked at the cotton club as entertainers even though the club was for whites only.
Before the Harlem Renaissance period, the whites socially discriminated against the African Americans and did not associate with them as people of equal status in the society. The whites looked down on the blacks and considered them to be of low class and poor. With the advent of the Harlem Renaissance, the whites started associating with the African Americans.
The messages, which were presented by the African Americans in writing and in theatres, had a great impact on the whites to the extent that they recognized the worth of the black race. The whites started associating with the African Americans in many aspects. They worked together not only in theatres, writing and entertainment but also in war during the Spanish American War (Hamalian, 15).
The Harlem Renaissance not only awakened the artistic talents of the black Americans but also played a sociological role by creating a new dimension of race in America. Du Bois’ work in The Souls of Black Folk brought about a correct awareness of the black’s identity.
The Renaissance also led to a change in how the whites and the whole world viewed the black American population. It also gave the African Americans the chance to participate actively in the development of the American nation through active involvement in economic, social and politics issues.
The Harlem Renaissance was a period of artistic explosion of the African Americans and an opportunity for them to express their ability to do what whites could do. It also served the purpose of social integration and cohesion within the black community, which in turn led to the social integration of the whites and the African Americans.
The Renaissance period gave the whites an opportunity to experience the worth of the African Americans and see the need to integrate them in nation building. It also helped in the fight for the social rights of the African Americans in the United States.
Works Cited
Hamalian, Leo. Lost Plays of the Harlem Renaissance, 1920-1940. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996. Print.
Ornberg, Therese. “General Background – The Harlem Renaissance.” The Harlem Renaissance. 2001. Web.
The Harlem Renaissance was also referred to as the New Negro Movement. It spanned for about two decades from the beginning of 1920s. Besides, the movement tagged its practices to cultural matters among the African-Americans. The Alain Locke anthology of 1925 was the main impetus that gave rise to the name of this movement (Bean 76).
It is also imperative to mention that the Harlem Renaissance had far reaching influence. In other words, it did not merely impact the New York neighborhoods where it was founded. There were several black writers who were sojourning in Paris and speaking French that were equally influenced by this renaissance.
There are informal records which indicate that this cultural movement must have begun from as early as 1919 until before the close of 1930s. However, it is evident that most of the ideas curved out of the Harlem Renaissance left permanent influence.
On the other hand, there are conflicting historical records that this renaissance may have started during the mid 1920s and spanned up to the time when the Great Depression started. This was the time when there was a crash in the stock market (1929).
Background to Harlem
There were myriads of African Americans who went through traumatic period of slave trade until when the Civil War ended. Most of them were residing in the south and were mainly being used as slaves to work in plantation farms.
The culmination of the era of slavery ushered in a new generation of African Americans who were eager to attain cultural self-determination, economic empowerment, political fairness, and active participation in civic duties (Ostrom 154). When the Civil War came to a halt, several African Americans found their voice and were able to address and articulate their views.
For instance, the African American Congressmen had fully supported the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 that sought to balance political, economic and social equity among all races. It is understood that there were 16 blacks serving in the Congress by 1875 after being democratically elected. They equally gave resounding speeches in the Congress regarding the plight of African Americans.
Hence, it is worth to underscore the fact that the Harlem Renaissance was remarkably triggered by the desire to liberate African Americans who had undergone series of suffering as slaves. Besides, this was the same generation that had undergone the American Civil War and therefore needed to reconstruct itself (Perry 32).
Culture explosion during Harlem Renaissance
The Harlem Renaissance was first experienced towards the close of second decade of 1900s. For instance, the Three Plays for a Negro Theatre premiered in 1917. Although the plays were authored by Ridgely Torrence, a white writer, they depicted the yearnings and emotions of African Americans in a white dominated continent.
The plays attempted to rebut all kinds of minstrel show traditions and blackface stereotypes that had been leveled against African Americans. As a matter of fact, the three plays marked the most important entry of the African Americans into the theatre.
According to Wintz (61), the Harlem Renaissance managed to grow as a result of the multiple transformations that had taken place during the slave trade era coupled with the northern expansion of the African American communities from the south.
They needed to search for better living conditions in big cities that were already developed. Nevertheless, one of the most vital changes that laced the Harem Renaissance was the culture of music as explored in the remaining section of the paper.
Music
The Harlem Renaissance led to the adoption of the Harlem Stride Style of playing piano. This new style came at a time when there growing disparity between the socially elite and poor Negros. Hence, it assisted in reducing the gap between the two social classes of the same race. The south was mainly associated with instruments made of brass that used to be played in all the traditional jazz bands.
However, the wealthy class was associated with the use of piano because the poor community could not afford it. However, after the existing genre of music was modified to fit all classes of the Negro in society, the jazz music became a common feature even among the wealthy blacks.
The popularity of jazz music grew quite fast among the poor and the rich across the country. It reached a point in time when jazz music was the best and most valued among all classes.
In order to boost the popularity of the jazz music, both liveliness during performance and innovation were considered to be critical. The two aforementioned values were vital especially at the early stages when jazz music was being introduced to the top class Negros.
Some of the talented musicians during this time included Willie “The Lion” Smith, Jelly Roll Morton, Duke Ellington and Fats Waller. They were extremely competitive among themselves. This led to increased innovative and performance skills.
The music that was played by the African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance continually became more appealing to the white population than before. This explains the reason why composers, dramatists, and novelists drawn from the white population braced their works with a lot of themes borrowed from this cultural movement.
The African American music tendencies and patterns soon became a common feature in both the black and white theatres. The poetic lines compiled by African Americans were frequently used by composers when writing their songs.
Besides, the African American melodies, harmonies and rhythms were heavily implemented in the new songs that were composed during and even after the Harlem Renaissance. For example, concert pieces were graced with jazz tones, spirituals and blues that had roots from the African American setting.
The field of musical composition was then transformed completely whereby both the whites and blacks began to collaborate when composing music. For instance, Roland Hayes gained a lot of popularity in music because he worked with both the black and white composers and singers. He grew into an international artist by defying all the racial odds and stereotypes that had existed since time immemorial.
The musician gained mammoth fame especially after he started producing together with musicians who were not from his race. He also underwent additional training at the Fisk University in Nashville. His singing career began when he was still a student. He could perform several shows in public. In addition, he managed to tour several destinations as an artist. In 1911, he performed alongside the Fisk Jubilee Singers (Hughes 62).
Themes and Characteristics of music during the Harlem Renaissance
The ideology of the New Negro and an overt racial pride were common characteristics of most African American compositions that were produced during this renaissance period. The stereotypes and racism were critically challenged by the music, art and literature that were eminent during the Harlem Renaissance.
In other words, the Negros used their musical and overall theater intellect to denounce all the negative aspects of racism that had been created previously. This broad step led to social and racial integration, and balanced socialist politics that were considered to be progressive among all races. Hence, the race was uplifted due to the development of art and literature (Hutchinson 106).
The general form of art and literature that took shape during the Harlem Renaissance could not be attributed to a single distinct factor. In any case, there were myriads of cultural styles and elements that adorned the African American music at this time.
Some of the dominant elements include the low culture or low life music, the high culture and as well as the African perspective. The blues and jazz later sprang out of the traditional forms of music that were valued among the African Americans (Patton and Honey 133).
The jazz poetry also took a new form during the Harlem Renaissance because there was innate desire to modernize the traditional jazz-like music in order to accommodate the white race.
While the latter was not an open attempt, it is definite that the white culture was capable of consuming the new form of jazz due to the modification that was injected in it. As a result, the conservatives conflicted with most of the African American artists who were quickly transforming in terms of culture in order to be compatible with the rest of the region.
Although the above mentioned themes were evident in the art and music produced during the Harlem Renaissance, it is prudent to mention that the emergence of the African American traditions coupled with the era of slave trade were the two major foundations of thematic art. The impacts of institutional racism were also instrumental in shaping the themes of musical art that were composed during this period.
The elite white audience had special taste for jazz music. Although they were not the main target, it is vital to note that they affected some of the thematic foundation and content of the black music. Needless to say, the modern African Americans who were residing in the white dominated north were also another experience to reckon with while composing the blues and jazz music.
The African American engagement was visualized in the Harlem renaissance since the period was marked with mutual support from publications, black-owned businesses, and black patrons. Nonetheless, the white Americans were also instrumental since they offered different types of assistance by creating an enabling environment where black writers could showcase and publish their art and literature (Lewis 142).
The Harlem Renaissance was also characterized with the desire among some whites to witness the so-called “primitive” culture among the African Americans. Hence, they embraced and displayed these works in order to demonstrate the southern culture that was largely perceived to be under-civilized. As a matter of fact, they showcased this black culture in their contents in order to gain wider publicity of their works.
Music and general art was used by African Americans to lobby for socio-economic and political equity and also in quest their humanity.
In any case, a lot of opportunities for the African Americans were created by the Harlem Renaissance bearing in mind that the era was instrumental in the development of the black theatre (Huggins 80). Moreover, the volume of newspapers, magazines and novels were published during this period courtesy of the renaissance impacts.
The entire country became ecstatic due to the large amount of fiction literature and art that were released by the African Americans. It is without doubt that the past slavery period that was characterized with social injustices was a key impediment towards the progress of the black race.
The Civil Rights Movement that emerged shortly after the Second World War was also attributed to the long lasting impacts of the Harlem Renaissance. The latter created a suitable environment where the black population could fight for their rights as equal citizens of the country.
This literary movement was the key source of inspiration among the African Americans who were already in the theaters performing soul and jazz music (Andrews, Foster and Harris 54).
To recap it all, the Harlem Renaissance marked an extremely significant period in the socio-cultural development of the African Americans. Although it was largely regarded as an artistic movement, this cultural movement affected all spheres of life especially among the blacks who had gone through trying times.
The slave trade era, the American Civil War and typical racial practices left the black community a more devastated segment of the population than any other race. Nevertheless, cultural integration that was brought about by the Harlem Renaissance worked against limiting the intrigues of racism and slave trade.
On the same note, the traditional jazz music that was mainly a preserve of the south was gradually accommodated by the white population since it was more appealing, entertaining and refreshing than the conventional and dormant culture of the white.
Works Cited
Andrews William, Frances Foster and Trudier Harris (eds). The Concise Oxford Companion To African American Literature. New York: Oxford Press, 2001. Print.
Bean, Annemarie. A Sourcebook on African-American Performance: Plays, People, Movements. London: Routledge, 1999. Print.
Huggins, Nathan. Harlem Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Print. Hughes, Langston. The Big Sea. New York: Knopf, 1940. Print.
Hutchinson, George. The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White. New York: Belknap Press, 1997. Print.
Lewis, David Levering (ed). The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader. New York: Viking Penguin, 1995. Print.
Ostrom, Hans. A Langston Hughes Encyclopedia. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002. Print.
Patton, Venetria and Maureen Honey (eds). Double-Take: A Revisionist Harlem Renaissance Anthology. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2006. Print.
Perry, Jeffrey. Hubert Harrison: The Voice of Harlem Radicalism, 1883–1918. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Print.
Wintz, Cary. Harlem Speaks: A Living History of the Harlem Renaissance. Naperville, Illinois: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2007. Print.
Harlem Renaissance is, undoubtedly, a phenomenon unmatched in the strength of its impact both on the contemporary culture of the 1920s and 1930s, but also on the very identity of all African-Americans to this day. It is hard to underestimate the energy that Harlem radiated at the turn of the century – given the fact that its influence echoed across numerous black communities throughout the country. With its significance reaching its peak in the 20s, existing as a cultural phenomenon for just around three decades, Harlem managed to achieve a status that made it much more than another New York borough. It was the embodiment of the so-called New Negro, a symbol of promise of a new and bright future for all African-Americans. Later, Harlem came to surpass this idea as well – remaining a symbol of Black power in a myriad of aspects – whether political, cultural, economic, and even spiritual, the notion that is of particular interest to this research.
Purpose, Specificity of Literature Selected, and Structure
The borough of Harlem is a known symbol for strong black self-consciousness, radical political movements, garish night life and endless creative expression. The history of Harlem is very multifaceted, and Harlem Renaissance is the most complex phenomenon of it all. Cultural subjects as poeticised as Harlem Renaissance tend to be obscured in the literature written by those aiming to inspire rather than illuminate. The following literature review attempted to synthetize a realistic image of Harlem Renaissance, which was the purpose of this study. It was crucial to select the titles that
both glorified Harlem and criticized it;
covered the greatest variety of aspects of the lives of Harlemites;
analyzed it against the historical background of the time and in a retrospective.
The structure of the present literature review partly mirrors chronological flow of events because it attempts to unfold the moving forces behind its inception, prominence, and subsequent international impact. This is best accomplished when studying a phenomenon in accordance with chronological order; moreover, most studies follow this structure as well.
Harlem’s Historical Roots and Sociopolitical Climate
The point of departure of the discussion is set in the times of Emancipation Proclamation and proceeds by carefully examining the tendencies that shaped the nature of black people of the era. “Measuring Harlem” by Michael Soto serves as a comprehensive guide into the jazz age, with the author elucidating societal changes along with the historical events that stimulated them. The method that is employed in this work is highly analytical; with step-by-step evaluations of a wide array of aspects that led or directly pertained to the cultural phenomenon that is known as the Harlem Renaissance. The term itself is analyzed in retrospective of a several authors’ works, such as Brent Hayes Edwards or John L. Jackson Jr – and deemed “overburdened” (Soto 15). The author touches upon economical reasons for the inception of Harlem, which are explained in detail along with the present-day concepts of black self-identification and its origins in the Jazz Age.
The work is fantastic in a sense that it gives a unique perspective into the Harlem Renaissance by tying it to U.S. census and the black experience. In a strict chronological order, the author reviews core examples of literature of Harlem Renaissance, identifying quintessential concepts expressed in these works and viewing them from the perspective of contemporaries. Via structured analysis that covers the subject from multiple points of perspective, Soto manages to get unbiased view on not only the cultural, but also sociological aspects of the era.
A compelling work of another author, “the Harlem Renaissance” by Nathan Irvin Huggins, is qualified for both an accurate historical account of the core events and a well-written piece of literature. Perhaps, in this work, the reader sees the historical figures of Harlem Renaissance from a more one-sided, strongly opinionated perspective rather than in the previous title. W. E. B. DuBois is compared with James Weldon Johnson, who were a part of the first wave of black intellectuals that came to Harlem to be heard. In contrast to DuBois, Marcus Garvey was known for his simplistic rendering of ideas that nevertheless captured the public’s attention, making him “a spirit moving the men’s souls to a dream” (Huggins 45). This analytical strategy employed by Huggins in which he observes the phenomenon of black leaders from different points of view, including opposed contemporary opinions, is eternally beneficial for achieving an objective perception of a historical case.
The leaders, despite being majorly successful, were deemed to be useless by Huggins – which is characteristic of him, as his work is highly critical of Harlem Renaissance in its entirety. According to Huggins, the leaders were unable to commit a relevant social change, as they remained mostly theoretical and uninvolved in the district work that “might have given them political leverage” (63). This level of detachment of the movement’s proponents from their people was one of the greatest weaknesses of the New Negro era. In spite of this, Harlem still radiated a spirit of opportunity and new beginnings, and it was because of the older generation of notable people that Harlem’s intellectual and bohemian community bloomed.
Cultural Significance and Role of Harlem Renaissance
Later on, perhaps, the most prolific aspect of Harlem Renaissance should be expounded upon: its literary heritage. None of the sources discussed previously go into the emotional depth exhibited by “the Aphrodite’s Daughters: Three Modernist Poets of Harlem Renaissance” by Maureen Honey, which covers the lives and creative journeys of three prolific women poets. Addressing the matter of notable literature of the age directly in enriches the narrative in a number of ways. Firstly, it demonstrates the fact that Harlem was an inclusive society: women voices were heard and moreover, celebrated. Secondly, the poems themselves serve as the greatest illustrations of the Harlem, and more importantly, the feelings that this place incited in its residents. As spoken in Angelina Grimke’s well-known lines, “a spirit of daring delight compels me to wander this rollicking night”, Harlem in the 1920s actually had an intoxicating quality (Honey 6). Such an emotional account can be an invaluable contribution to the research, especially in the light of deeply analytical sociological studies discussed earlier.
Global Impact
After experiencing a phenomenon overtly via inspecting various aspects of cultural, political, social, and economical lives of Harlem, it would be helpful to gain a perspective of its cultural significance as it reflected through time and space. This task is somehow accomplished in an article by Bailey and Rosenberg, titled “Reading twentieth century urban black cultural movements through popular periodicals” which draws comparisons between Harlem in the 20s and South Africa’s Sophiatown in the 50s.
Here one encounters the most well-known figure of Harlem Renaissance – its greatest ambassador and proponent, Langston Hughes. For it was him, who played a major part in spreading the influence of Harlem Renaissance abroad. Interestingly enough, his poems traversed the Atlantic not long before Hughes himself did – finding their first international audience in Germany (Wipplinger 170). This particular moment can serve as an ignition point for the spread of Harlem’s cultural heritage and its innovative ideas about the new black identity, in particular. An outstanding demonstration of this would be the case of Johannesburg’s Sophiatown, whose periodical Drum, following the blueprint of action pioneered by the Crisis, allowed the oppressed black people to find a voice (Bailey and Rosenberg 67). In a sense, literature and music, both of which Langston Hughes embodied, served as a primary moving force behind the sociopolitical changes that took place in Harlem and in other black communities within the boundaries of its cultural influence.
Conclusion
In essence, a comprehensive portrait of an era can only be compiled from a number of sources, with each one covering a specific dimension characteristic of the life of an era under discussion. A holistic image of Harlem in the times of its cultural uprising was obtained. Several sources, like Soto’s and Huggins’, exhibited wholesome analysis of social and political tendencies dominant in Harlem at the time; the reciprocal connections that they made with culture, in the form of literature and jazz, were also illuminated. The literary legacy, published in the crucial periodicals like the Crisis, proved to be defining voices of the age that, in their turn, transformed not only Harlem, but spread internationally. Thus, a well-rounded characteristic of the movement was found, however, there exists a gap in knowledge about the phenomenon – and that is, the lack of analytical approach in the literature on the topic. An advised subject for further study would be tracing Harlem Renaissance’s influence into the present day.
Works Cited
Bailey, Julius & Rosenberg, Scott. “Reading twentieth century urban black cultural movements through popular periodicals: a case study of the Harlem Renaissance and South Africa’s Sophiatown”. Safundi, vol. 17, no. 1, 2016, pp. 63-86. doi: 10.1080/17533171.2015.1112938
Honey, Maureen. Aphrodite’s Daughters: Three Modernist Poets of the Harlem Renaissance. Rutgers University Press, 2016.
Huggins, Nathan. Harlem Renaissance. Oxford University Press, 2007.
Soto, Michael. Measuring the Harlem Renaissance: the U.S. census, African American identity, and literary form. University of Massachusetts Press, 2016.
Wipplinger, Jonathan. The Jazz Republic: Music, Race, and American culture in Weimar Germany. University of Michigan Press, 2017.
The renaissance is a very interesting era in the history of humanity. It is an era which has been associated with many discoveries and changes in the life of mankind. To have a clear picture of the significance of the renaissance it is better to slightly examine the way of life just before 1400.
Before 1400 and actually the early part of 1400, the Roman Catholic Church had a great influence on the society. The church was supreme in every way and commanded unrivalled authority on both religious issues and politics. The pope wielded immense influence on political leaders and kings likewise. What was communicated from the pope was final regardless of who the subject was.
The Catholic Church was the only church in the world and its branches were in many countries. It is also worth noting that the church was the wealthiest organization and this wealth was acquired by means which were later found to be unacceptable.
Payment for services rendered by the church was very frequent actually there was not a single activity that the priest would preside over without any payment being done weather it was a funeral, baptism or any other. Selling of indulgence and some pieces of artwork representing saints was a common practice.
This sounds ridiculous and this is where the Renaissance man comes in. The church had used some weird philosophy to tame the thinking of the society to view the pope and the church in general as divinely superior to them and that the pope had the power to determine whether a person could access heaven or not. With this nature of thinking people were subjected to a rigid way of life where everything started from and ended with the church.
The wakeup call
The Renaissance period can be said to have stirred people to wake from some kind of sleep they were in. The renaissance period was a time when humanism for the first time was experienced. It must be pointed out that renaissance was very secular but not necessarily evil as such. It has also been pointed out that the renaissance weakened the influence of the church but helped to spread it further; the roman church was weakened as reformations broke up all the over Europe.
The renaissance was an invitation to reason and question issues about life – the church was questioned about some of its practices and it was found wanting. According to Kreis (2008), “the return to favor of the pagan classics stimulated the philosophy of secularism, the appreciation of worldly pleasures, and above all intensified the assertion of personal independence and individual expression.”
It is recorded that man started to appreciate the pleasures of this world and less depended on supernatural teaching from the church. This period has often been described as the “germinal period of modernism” with the Renaissance man being said to have “stood at a point midway between medieval supernaturalism and the modern scientific and critical attitude.”
The renaissance brought in great surprises to humanity as reasoning and thinking was put to test producing great works in the fields of “art, literature, exploration, mathematics, science and religion.”
People were able to think independently testing new ways and ideas which originated from their minds and not from the church. Some of the achievements of this period are still a great inspiration today for instance the great Mona Lisa was an art work of this period. The renaissance brought in secular thought to people helping to reduce the influence that the church had on their lives.
Bibliography
Kreis, Steven. “Lectures on Modern Europe Intellectual History.” The History Guide, 2008. Web.
“The Renaissance and the Church.” All About Renaissance Faires. Web.
The period of Renaissance was a unique age marked by liberalism in art and the new vision of the world. The artists depicted human beauty and physical strength. During this period, historical painters might like to think that he represented the supreme achievement of the age, but something still remained to spring up in the shadow of his vast canvases. The movement developed its precise, unrhetorical portrayal of particular fact, and enriched it with the distress and resignation of the poor. Such painters as Donatello, Michelangelo, Albrecht Durer depicted physical beauty of the man as the main ideology of this historical period.
The Renaissance man can be described as a philosopher who tries to understand the world around him through ideals of beauty, philosophical concepts and religion. The Renaissance is considered as the age of the bourgeois, humanist and cultivated–or at any rate paying homage to the ideal of humanism. The greatest moments of his day are those spent in some Renaissance palace, conversing with men like-minded with himself and feasting his eyes on scholars and discoverers, statesmen and condottiere. The church becomes, exteriorly, a magnificent palace; interiorly, a hall where the humanist can meet Christ the Hero in company with the saints. A polite, hierarchical society sets the tone, in which the humanist, enlightened bourgeoisie and nobility can meet and mingle. Its culminating image is that of the absolutist prince, and the background to its spacious living is the Baroque castle, set in its formal landscape. Its great state-room, where the prince receives his people, answers to the interiors of the churches of the period, which often stand with a monastery, built, like the castles, into the landscape (Koestler 294).
For a Renaissance man, a church always succeeds in being religious, i.e. validly itself, when an architect with artistic talent has applied himself to meeting the requirements of the liturgy with the means which his own contemporary style places at his disposal. A truly religious interior has never been the fruit of deliberate historicism; it comes into existence as a genuine statement of reality, as at this present moment, in architectural terms. And it is entirely beside the point for those who stand for a historically conservative style in Christian churches to cite Chinese and Egyptian temples in their support. Readers see Moore as a forward-looking progressive thinker attempting to chart a course into the future that would move beyond the mistakes of the past. Others, on the other hand, see him as a conservative, longing nostalgically for the bygone days of complete Catholic hegemony in Europe and hoping somehow to restore the medieval order. Citizens of Utopia can and do vote in local, state, and national elections outside the community itself, though even there they are expected to vote as a bloc for candidates. In particular, this political activity is part of a plan of gradual expansion that Moore sees as leading in a relatively short time to control the entire communities. The Utopian society goes to great extremes to negate any differences in material circumstances that might lead to rivalries, jealousies, or competition for material gain. For example, the houses of the Utopians are as far as possible all identical. Moreover, to ensure that there can be no question of one family’s house being preferable to another (and that the citizens do not become too attached to their houses), the citizens change houses by lot once every ten years. In short, a principal goal of the Utopian society is to negate differences among individuals. Individual freedom is sacrificed in the interest of universal equality, resulting in a tendency toward conformism that has been a major concern of modern fiction (Koestler 142, 421).
In sum, during the Renaissance, human nature was seen as a part of God’s nature and reflected this ideal. A modern man affirms his freedom through resolute choice and thus attains integrity, or he can abdicate his freedom, neglect to choose, lose his existential centeredness, and succumb to unauthenticity. This factor is as crucial for an understanding of analysis and interpretation of a Renaissance man as is his description of the self as a synthesis of possibility and necessity. The Renaissance paid special attention to the soul and divine power on the Earth. Painting, buildings and sculptures reflected and ideals of renaissance philosophy. Today, the crowd divests the individual of his unique responsibilities and confers upon him at best a numerical significance. It reduces him to a fractional man who is identified with his functions and is thereby replaceable. This does not mean that the crowd possesses some kind of a group substance through which it can act. Action is always the action of individuals within a crowd. Incorporate action each humanist could do what he was unable to do alone. Hence, when one is sacrificed to the crowd, one is sacrificed to the actions executed by the individuals who constitute it. The Renaissance architects worked out plans for such “parochial units”; and sculptors have long since achieved grave stones of worth and dignity. It has always been the privilege of the patron to give his architect and artists directions concerning the requirements of the cult and of local conditions.
Works Cited
Koestler, A. The Sleepwalkers A History of Man’s Changing Vision of the Universe (Arkana). New York: Penguin (Non-Classics), 1990. Print.
The Renaissance and Reformation were some of the most significant events of human history that shaped the future of the world. Many contemporary and modern researchers contributed to reviewing and analyzing the impacts of the changes that happened in the period from 1527 to 1625 in England.
The exceptional volume of the innovations introduced to the life of people and the developmental power it had on the country appears to trace the connections of those changes in the 21st century. In this essay, the evolution of the English reformation movement and Renaissance will be discussed in relation to the consequences these events had on the 21st century with evidence drawn from contemporary and modern sources.
Evolution of Reformation Movement in England
Reformation in England concerns the period from 1527 to 1625 when the principles of the Catholic faith were challenged across many European states. As claimed by many historians, one of the first events that triggered the change was the request of Henry VIII to annul his marriage which is considered a politicized matter rather than a theological one. Later, however, it evolved into religious disputes and reassessment of Catholic religious doctrine in many aspects. The main underpinnings of the Reformation still happened in the political arena.
The Catholic doctrine at the time mostly presupposed the union of the church and monarch into a single political power, with the key sources of the political power being the pope and the king. The latter, on the other hand, desired broader freedom of decision-making and resorted to a doctrine that supported such nationalistic and absolutist aspirations. The Supremacy Act of 1534 de-facto declared the submission of the church to the rule of the King of England not in all aspects but in a substantial portion of questions.
The harsh response from the pope triggered civil unrest in Ireland, Armada, and other lands under the British crown. Approximately at the same time, the church of England was established, yet its political and doctrinal status was disputed throughout the seventeenth century, which eventually was one of the precursors to the English Civil Wars. As a result, the monarchy and the positions of the church were mostly restored. However, the reformation brought democratic liberties to the public, including the parliament that gained more power.
These events unfolded within the framework of the period in human history that was called the “renaissance” only in the 19th century by Jacob Burckhardt. According to Bireley, the Renaissance constituted five major areas of life that ensured the transition of Europe and England from a medieval state to early-modernity. Among them were the political changes in the governance of the state, demographic, social, and economic alterations.
The fifth change was predominantly concerning the reformation of faith institutions and the review of their position in the life of different layers of society. Printing aided the dissemination of information and increased the speed at which ideas traversed the world. Continuous conflicts between European monarchs and the Papacy eventually consolidated the authority of Kings over their countries on the grounds of their new source of religious power.
The demographic and economic growth within urban areas predicted the emergence of the new social class, the bourgeoisie, from traders and artisans. The Renaissance was also imbued with literature, where drama and poetry witnessed a rise in the richness of themes and depth. Some of the finest works in the sphere of visual arts, music, and architecture, were produced in this period which marked the spiritual and educational growth of society. Given the number of above-mentioned innovations and events in the life of late-medieval England, the Reformation and Renaissance appear to have produced a significant impact on the country and the world.
In the 21st century, people enjoy many rights and freedoms guaranteed by the constitutions, including the freedom of religion, expression, dignity, and so on. The roots of those rights were, arguably, born in the Reformation and Renaissance periods. Thus, the religious clashes between the Catholic and Protestant churches led to the acceptance of both within the borders of one state. The Protestant faith, due to the status it received after emerging victorious as the dominant doctrine in a number of European states, was exported to other nations and now represents one of the pillars of the Christian world.
The expression and dissemination of revolutionary ideas aided by print evolved eventually into the freedom of speech, and the continual practice was forged into the law. Thus, the echo of reformation and renaissance helped shape many pillars of 21st-century society.
Historiography of the Renaissance and Reformation
The views of contemporaries on the events of the reformation were different from the ones expressed by modern intellectuals and academics in several aspects. Modern historians are privileged with the benefits of retrospection and the ability to create a more or less full picture of the political, economic, and social situation on a large scale. The contemporary thinkers were often immersed in a much smaller information field.
Thus, Mandelbrote argues about the practice of religious toleration being the weapon turned against the Catholics by many theologians and social activists. He draws evidence from a variety of sources and quotes many contemporaries such as John Strype and a vast body of 20th-and 21st-century research. Richard Baxter, a Puritan poet and a theologian, in his writings, draw conclusions about the causes of English Civil Wars mostly on observations and anecdotal evidence.
Baxter explains the reasons or “fundamental” of the Civil War. He claims that it was lawful because of the rebellion instigated by Charles I and Irish Catholics. Also, given the pro-Catholic teachings of Laud and others, a retaliation of Puritans that followed was justified. Puritans, as he highlights, were not the originators of this war and were mostly “unrevolutionary” in their beliefs.
Here the business of his views can be attributed to his adherence to the Puritan teachings. Modern historians are not exempt from bias, yet in questions of religion, they tend to consider more than one side of the issue and base their assumptions on a variety of sources. In addition, the tensions between Catholic and protestant churches, if not entirely gone, have subsided sufficiently through the ages. Orr, a modern historian, tends to offer a more analytical approach and strives to be impartial. He claims the reasons for war to be purely religious, yet he also argues that it was a struggle for power.
Among other things, he establishes that the views of personal rule and the role of the parliament were what drew the line between Charles I and puritans. Von Ranke, who contributed substantially to the development of modern history, also tended to use multiple sources. Thus, there is a significant difference between the historiography of modern and contemporary academics.
Conclusion
The roots of the privileges and freedoms granted to people today can be found in the reformation and renaissance period. The fundamental changes that took place at that time significantly influenced the political and social ordinance of the word. Yet, there is a difference in the way contemporaries viewed the historical events. While modern intellectuals use the power of a wide variety of sources and try to stay objective, contemporary academics express their own views and employ anecdotal evidence.
Bibliography
Bireley, Robert. “Early-Modern Catholicism as a Response to the Changing World of the Long Sixteenth Century.” The Catholic Historical Review 95, no. 2 (2009): 219-239.
Karant-Nunn, Susan, and Lotz-Heumann, Ute. “Confessional Conflict. After 500 Years: Print and Propaganda in the Protestant Reformation.” University of Arizona Libraries, 2017. Web.
Lamont, William. “Richard Baxter, ‘Popery’ and the Origins of the English Civil War.” History 87, no. 287 (2002): 336-352.
Mandelbrote, Scott. “Religious Belief and the Politics of Toleration in the Late Seventeenth Century.” Dutch Review of Church History 81, no. 2 (2001): 93-114.
Orr, Alan. “Sovereignty, Supremacy and the Origins of the English Civil War.” History 87, no. 288 (2002): 474-490.
Weber, Wolfgang. ““What a Good Ruler Should Not Do”: Theoretical Limits of Royal Power in European Theories of Absolutism, 1500-1700.” Sixteenth Century Journal 26, no. 4 (1995): 897-915.
The Renaissance movement introduced many changes in the garden design in Italy, France, and England. Medici family is accredited for the new design concept that spread from Italy to the rest of Europe (Sider 119). The villas in Florence and Rome inspired a new design of gardens in Italy. The villas embraced the classical ideals of beauty. Turner argues that the de Medici family promoted Renaissance ideas by designing elegant country villas with gardens in order to entertain people (182). The gardens were exposed to the public and ceased being a preserve of monasteries and monks. In this respect, the gardens became a platform for social interaction, as well as a venue for philosophical debates. In essence, the Renaissance Movement introduced a modern technique for designing gardens using mathematical lines.
The Renaissance movement introduced a stylish technique of expanding gardens. The gardens were grander, larger, and symmetrical. For instance, gardens such as Medici Villa, Palazzo Piccolomini, Villa Madama, Villa do Castello, and Villa d’Este were filled with statues and flowers. The architects used plants to divide and decorate the space of the gardens. The compartmentalization of the gardens took effect during the Renaissance era. The notable plants in the gardens included flowers, orchards, and herbs (Turner 183). Similarly, the Renaissance movement changed the architecture of the building from that of the ancient Roman. Turner contends that the movement introduced central axis and linear aspects of geometry that linked building with the gardens (183). The architects constructed magnificent terraces and staircases to connect the levels of the gardens. Moreover, the gardens had covered walkways. Thus, the Renaissance architecture introduced the art of decoration of gardens in Italy.
The Renaissance movement initiated the element of measurements, as well as symmetry in the designing of gardens in England. Sider contends that “the first noteworthy Renaissance garden was created at the end of the fifteenth century for the royal palace at Richmond” (119). Essentially, the garden reflected the ideas advocated by the proponents of the Renaissance movement. The gardens had galleries with well-covered walkways. Turner contends that the Palace gardens such as Hampton Court feature the elements of geometry that characterized the Renaissance movement (182). The Hampton Court consisted of terraces. Other magnificent gardens that embraced Renaissance ideas were in ancient buildings such Godolphin, Hardwick Hall, the Vyne, and Moseley Old Hall.
The Renaissance movement brought about the interlacing technique in France. Notably, French gardens such as Chateau de Fontainebleau, Chateau de Bois, Chateau de Chenonceau, and Chateau d’Amboise featured interlacing strips of plants that created elegant geometric beds. The design of the interlacing patterns was intended to offer a clear view of the gardens at distant localities (Sider 120). In addition, the gardens had monumental fountains, moving water, ramps, and stairways.
In conclusion, the Renaissance movement brought about changes in the garden design. The movement introduced geometric patterns in the designing of the gardens. Notably, the Renaissance movement pioneered the adoption of linear elements in the designing of the gardens. In Italy, the gardens became a public platform for socialization and entertainment. The terraces and plants decorated the gardens. In England, the gardens had terraces and a series of gallery that created beautiful scenery. Similarly, the interlacing patterns of plants that characterized the design of gardens in France was attributable to the Renaissance movement.
Works Cited
Sider, Sandra. Handbook to Life in Renaissance Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print.
Turner, Tom. European Gardens: History, Philosophy, and Design. London: Routledge, 2011. Print.
The question of the architecture of both key urban buildings and the general spirit of urbanism is a pressing issue in contemporary American society. The country’s architectural traditionalism has been displaced by the architectural brutalism of the 1950s, represented by “tasteless concrete blocks” (Blair, 2020, par. 4). However, in recent years, society has become concerned about the trend and has expressed a desire for urgent change (Blair, 2020). Such a solution was the “Make Federal Buildings Beautiful Again” campaign and the subsequent Executive Order Draft, which proposed the refurbishment of the facades of buildings and government offices (Blair, 2020, par. 1). Thus, it is necessary to summarize current public trends toward traditionalism and brutalism in architecture and the document mentioned above.
First, one needs to analyze statistics regarding people’s attitudes toward traditional architecture. Based on publicly available data, regardless of social status, political preference, or level of education, most people support traditionalism over brutalism or modernism (National Civic Art Society, 2020). A similar conclusion can also be drawn for the Executive Order Draft based on independent analysts and government workers (Blair, 2020). As a result, this decision is fully justified with a predominantly positive evaluation and will positively impact both the visual factor of urbanism and the public mood.
Moreover, such a phenomenon is comparable to the Renaissance due to its specificity manifested in the need for nostalgia. Following the Middle Ages, was a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, and institutional “rebirth” characterized by the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature, and art (Onion et al., 2021, par. 1). The situation with the rejection of brutalism is a complete analogy of the period mentioned above in terms of architecture and approach to design. However, in the current situation, the focus is on the period of the formation of America, based on the statements of public figures about the founders and their attitude to urbanism (Blair, 2020). Thus, the traceable connection between these events may speak of a recursion of public interest in art matters.
In conclusion, the summary and analysis show a positive public attitude toward the coming changes. Moreover, such a phenomenon has proven to have manifested itself in the past and shows signs of recurrence, which may indicate its possible future manifestations. The conscious rejection of some innovations and the revision of old visual trends in the visual arts speaks of the public’s awareness and readiness for large-scale changes.
References
National Civic Art Society. (2020). Americans preferred architecture for federal buildings. Web.
Blair, E. (2020). “Ugly,” “discordant”: New executive order takes aim at modern architecture. NPR. Web.
Onion, A., Sullivan, M., & Mullen, M. (2021). Renaissance. HISTORY. Web.
Design trends vary from country to country, from century to century. Each creator tries to introduce his/her own vision of the beauty and uses various methods to express the chosen ideas.
The Renaissance and the 17th and 18th centuries (Baroque and Rococo) were regarded as the two unbelievably beautiful periods when architecture, painting, and furniture underwent a number of changes and improvements. During that period of time, the following trends introduced: circling in squares (Italian Renaissance architecture Andrea Palladio), entwining (works by Rococo artist Giovanni Piranesi), and frame of space (Baroque bedrooms and furniture from England).
In this paper, the design trends like entwining, circling in squares, and frame of space will be discussed in Italian, English, and Japanese to prove that their impact on human lives and perception is huge indeed and to demonstrate how the same trends are used in the 21st century by such amazing people like Emilio Ambasz from Argentina, Alessandro Mendini from Italy, and Shigeru Ban from Japan.
Body
The Three Trends From the Past
In spite of the fact that Salem is considered as one of the largest and magnificent places where the 17th-century architectural design trends may be discovered (Tollens et al. xvi), there are also many other places like Seville, Derbyshire, or Paris where talented architectures offered their ideas.
Among the variety of the existing design trends, such ideas like circle in square, entwining, and frame of space deserve attention due to their uniqueness and appropriateness for different periods and styles of life. In comparison to Renaissance style where humanism was the main point, Baroque art was characterized by human enthusiasm and the desire to create magnificent buildings and surround space. Rococo ideas seemed to be more playful and florid that allowed the artists and architectures of that period focusing on decorations.
Circle in square is an important design continuity that is supported by the architectures from Japan (Shigeru Ban works in different countries, and his building in Paris is one of the successful examples of this trend, and Andrea Palladio created the Auditorium, Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza). For a long period of time, this trend was a kind of controversy that united several styles and ideas. It is a kind of “space of scent and mystery” for people (Bastea 329) that amazes and captivates.
Another significant trend is entwining. Not many architectures and designers are ready to entwine several objects to create one image, still, the attempts by Giovanni Piranesi and Alessandro Mendini prove that it is captivating to unite the objects which are different in nature. On the one hand, it is hard to choose the things which may be perfectly entwined. On the other hand, such design trends will be always in demand.
Finally, the value of frame of space that came from Renaissance will be discussed. It is a kind of rigid construction that is used to span huge objects with the help of several interior supports. In spite of its fragile image, such construction is usually strong and immovable. The examples of this trend may be found in Seville (Emilio Ambasz) and England (famous English beds of ware). Space frame is not frequently used by architectures, still, such choice is appreciated in some Asian countries and in the USA.
Examples of the Continuities in the 17th and 18th Centuries
The architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries plays an important role in the history of art and design. Though Italy was the center of the development of the spheres of art and design, English works are also identified as successful examples. As it has been already mentioned, Giovanni Piranesi was an Italian artist from the period of Rococo who offered his own vision of entwining in his pictures.
In 1756, Piranesi introduced his Imaginary View of the Via Appia, Le Antichita Romane, Vol.2 (Figure 1). In his work, trees and buildings are entwined with the nature so that one divine image appeared. It is hard to define the roles of each image or even the setting of each image. However, this complex environment provides people with the required portion of inspiration and awareness of what happens around.
Figure 1. Imaginary View of the Via Appia. Le Antichita Romane. Vol. 2. Piranesi. 1756
Great Bed of Ware. England. Late 16th Century (Figure 2) is an example of Baroque furniture that provides the public with an opportunity to understand better the essence of the trend called frame of space. There are a number of details which are united in the way one massive image of a bed appears. In spite of the fact that oak, the material of which the bed was created, seems to be one of the strongest and safest materials for furniture, it seems that the absence of one small detail will lead to immediate destruction of the image.
Figure 2. Great Bed of Ware. England. Late 16th Century.
Finally, the trend of circle in squares may be observed in the work by Andrea Palladio, Auditorium, Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza, 1580-1585 (Figure 3). The idea to create a circle in the square building is a new for Renaissance. For a long period of time, the similar constructions were observed without the square around (Greek amphitheaters). This is why this room seems to be a magnificent achievement in the field of art and design.
Figure 3. Auditorium. Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza. Andrea Palladio. 1580 –1585
Examples of the Continuities in the 21st Century
The same trends may be observed in current works of art. For example, a Japanese architect, Shigeru Ban, introduced an interesting work in Paris in 2004-2010. It is an Office. Paper Temporary Studio. Pompidou Center (Figure 4). The trend of circle in square is properly observed in this room. The ceiling is all about the square figures which contain round windows and holes. Such decision attracts the attention and makes the visitor being amazed with its simplicity and beauty.
Figure 4. Office. Paper Temporary Studio. Pompidou Center. Paris, France. Shigeru Ban. 2004 – 2010.
Casa de Retiro Espiritual (House of the Spiritual Retreat), Seville, Spain is created by Emilio Ambasz in 1975-2005 (Figure 5). At first sight, this work of art does not contain any specific trend. It is possible to observe a lot of ideas, still, nothing particular will come to mind.
Figure 5. Casa de Retiro Espiritual (House of the Spiritual Retreat). Seville, Spain. Emilio Ambasz. 1975 –2005
However, it may become a good example of frame space, where the air and the nature are combined with the walls and stairs created. This unique construction seems to be a powerful contribution to world’s architecture with the help of which a person may improve his/her vision of the life.
Finally, the trend of entwining is discovered in the work by the Italian designer Alessandro Mendini. It is Byblos Art Hotel, Valpolicella created in 2005 (Figure 6). The 21st century is actually enriched due to this work: incredible union of flora and rock shows how it is possible to improve the things around. It is not enough to create a wall but it is necessary to add some elements of green nature that will make the image softer and more attractive.
Figure 6. Byblos Art Hotel. Valpolicella, Italy. Alessandro Mendini. 2005.
Conclusion
In general, the three trends identified in this paper play an important role in the history of art and design. Circling in square, entwining, and space frames are the trends which are used by the artists, designers, and architects to help people around develop their imagination, prettify the conditions under which they have to live, and identify the beauty that is near.
Art is the sphere where people may develop their skills and imagination in a variety of ways, and such figures like Ban, Piranesi, Palladio, Ambasz, and many others have already contributed to the world’s development in the best ways they can.
Works Cited
Bastea, Eleni. Memory and Architecture. Albuquerque: UMN Press, 2004.
Tollens, Bryant, F., Tollens, Carolyn, K., and Norton, Paul, F. Architecture in Salem: An Illustrated Guide. Lebanon: UPNE, 2004.
The Renaissance period is known for its impressive innovations and progress in almost every field that defined science and culture of that time. In many areas ranging from art to mathematics, gardening, and fortifications, it has produced numerous examples of advanced and original thought. One of the classic symbols of the Renaissance period is the Italian garden. These gardens were much more than just places of beauty, tranquility, and oneness with nature. The people of that time perceived the garden as a way of communicating with God, as a work of art equal to the creations of sculptors and painters, and as a symbol of majesty and power. This paper is dedicated to furthering the knowledge on this subject.
The first examples of Italian gardens appeared in Italy at the end of the 15th century. Italy was known to be the cradle of the Renaissance, as many famous artists, engineers, and gardeners of that period were born in that country. The gardens appeared at the villas in Rome and Florence and were intended to be places of rest and contemplation. The design of the gardens was inspired by the classical views on order and beauty. A particular trait present in all gardens, big or small, is the symmetry and axial alignment of the garden and the house. The first gardens were rather small and meant to recreate the styles of classical Roman gardens (“Italian Renaissance Villas and Gardens” par. 4).
However, after the practice had been adopted by the noble and powerful houses of the region, the gardens became much more elaborate. Many of them were decorated with fountains and statues as a way to show the owner’s wealth, power, and generosity. The Italian Renaissance gardens were lauded and praised in music, paintings, and poetry. They had a great influence on the development of the French and English gardens, who tried to replicate the classic Italian designs and adjust them to their traditional patterns.
The Italian Renaissance Gardens were significant for the arts and culture in Italy and beyond its borders. The garden was a joint effort of an artist, a sculptor, a gardener, and an engineer. Also, they were often viewed as sources of solace and inspiration. The literary works influenced the designs of the gardens in turn, as was shown by the romance novel Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, published by Francesco Colonna (Turner 1). The Medici, who were ruling the province of Florence at the time, was famous for using their splendid and massive gardens not only to impress the guests but also to demonstrate their power and significance. The statues depicting famous events of the past were often used as hidden warnings to those who may try to oppose the ruling dynasty. The statue of Hercules defeating Antaeus featured at the fountain at Villa di Castello was erected as a powerful symbol, celebrating the victory of the Medici family over its enemies (Ballerini 34).
Unfortunately, many famous and beautiful gardens did not survive up to this day, due to their ever-changing and withering nature. The gardens are known to die with the families that took care of them. The only traces of their former glory could be observed by looking at the numerous fountains and stone statues left behind. Nevertheless, the traditions still live on, as efforts are made to recreate the beauty and splendor of the Italian Renaissance Gardens. This shows how enduring the legacy of the gardens is. They will remain relevant for many years to come.
Works Cited
Ballerini, Isabella Lapi. The Medici Villas: Complete Guide, Florence, Milan: Giunti, 2011.