Category: Renaissance

The failure of Reconstruction and the implementation of the racial segregation threw the Afro-Americans into a difficult dilemma. The majority of them lived in the Southern States and they faced open hostility and even violence. There were strong doubts that attempts of the Afro-Americans to assert their civil rights would be successful. Booker Washington was a prominent figure of the Post-Reconstruction Era and the leader of the Afro-American community. He was an adherent of the economic development of the Black American population. Another outstanding representative of the African-American civil rights movement was William DuBois who insisted on an uncompromising struggle for electoral and civil rights, which were codified in the Constitution and its Amendments.

Booker T. Washington was born in slavery. At the age of nine, his family gained freedom due to the Emancipation Proclamation. Later on, he entered the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute in Virginia and succeeded in studying here. He worked as a teacher at the same institute when he was proposed to head a new specialized educational establishment for the Afro-Americans in Alabama.

According to Washington’s opinion, the main factors of a wellbeing of the Afro-Americans are skills in craft and economic independence. As a basis of an educational program in the Tuskegee Institute headed by him, he saw the industrial training. Men learned such trades as blacksmithing or carpentry, while women were taught sewing or nursing. The Tuskegee Institute prepared teachers for Afro-American schools for the Southern states. Such an approach permitted to train skilled specialists and reliable taxpayers. At the same time, there was no need for the government to deal directly with the problem of the civil rights. This educational establishment had a very good reputation.

In his famous speech, which is also known as Atlanta Compromise, Washington states that the greatest dander “is that in the great leap from slavery to freedom we may overlook the fact that the masses of us are to live by the productions of our hands” (Washington 112).

It is no wonder that the representatives of the White population were satisfied with the idea that Afro-Americans would acquire knowledge in the spheres of real property and industrial arts and they would not engage in politics. In addition, the so-called laws of Jim Crow, according to which there were segregated community schools, rail wagons and public libraries, were preserved. In his speech, Washington states, “the opportunity to earn a dollar in a factory just now is worth infinitely more than the opportunity to spend a dollar in an opera–house” (Washington 114).

At the same time the careful examination of the Washingtons speech suggests that he is not about to bear with the permanent racial inequality. Instead, he proposes for Afro-Americans to cumulate social capital. The fact that workspaces are more important than a right to visit opera is a temporary measure for him. He believes in the future success of the Afro-Americans. However, in order to attain this success it is necessary to achieve the economic independence. As Washington puts it, “no race that has anything to contribute to the markets of the world is long in any degree ostracized” (Washington 114).

For many years, Washington was the prominent Afro-American leader in the country, though more and more Black people began to reject his views. The problem was that the Southern states were poorer in comparison with the Northern ones. The opportunities of the southerners were not as high as Washington hoped. His appeals for the slow development were unacceptable for those Afro-Americans who did not want to adjourn their demands for equal rights (Bauerlein 107).

Many black people preferred the views of the prominent historian and social scientist William DuBois. DuBois graduated from Harvard and he was a professor in Atlanta University. It was a specialized educational establishment training Afro-American teachers, librarians and other specialists. Dubois was the author of many scientific researches revealing the life of Black people in America. He was convinced that social sciences were a powerful method of struggle with the race discrimination.

However, in the Southern states there existed the official segregation often realized by means of the Lynch Law. The cases of violence became more frequent and DuBois came to conclusion that the only possible way to protect the civil rights of the Afro-Americans was a direct political agitation and protest. This position led to the confrontation with Washington, who was trying to establish the political connections with the Republicans. Washington considered the economic development of the Afro-Americans to be the most important factor.

Describing his contradictions with Washington, DuBois states that “his doctrine has tended to make the whites, North and South, shift the burden of the Negro problem to the Negro’s shoulders and stand aside as critical and rather pessimistic spectators” (Dubois 33).

DuBois was not agree with Washington s views concerning the prevailing importance of the industrial arts acquisition. He stated that only the most prominent representatives of the Afro-American nation would be able to change the situation. He was convinced that it was necessary to give Afro-Americans good education and not only those practical craft skills proposed by The Tuskegee Institute.

He says that “Mr. Washington’s program practically accepts the alleged inferiority of the Negro races” (Dubois 29). Criticizing Washington, DuBois states that there is a great danger in teaching people just how to earn money without additional disciplines. In such a way, they just bring up craftsmen, but not people. It is necessary to promote the development of such qualities as intelligence and world knowledge. On this basis, it is possible to teach the ability to earn for living.

In spite of the differences in their approaches both these political figures were eager to improve the living conditions of the Afro-Americans and to assert their civil rights. Nevertheless, their views varied greatly. It seems to me that Washington has had a pragmatic view of life. He realized that in spite of the recent Civil War and the Amendments to the Constitution, the existing prejudices in society concerning the race discrimination were too strong. He was convinced that several generations should change in order to make this race gap weaker.

As a basis for the further struggle, he saw the financial and economic independence of the Afro-Americans. DuBois, on the contrary, believed that only decisive actions were able to change the situation. He was one of the establishers of the organization defending the rights of the Afro-Americans known as the Niagara Movement. He was also one of the originators of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. It is rather difficult to judge the rightness of these two approaches, though it must be admitted that DuBoiss methods have been more effective.

Works Cited

Bauerlein, Mark. “Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois: The Origins of a Bitter Intellectual Battle.” The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. 46(2005):106- 114. The JBHE Foundation. Web.

Dubois, Williams, The Souls of the Black Folk. 1903. Web.

Washington, Booker, Up from slavery. 1901. Web.

Introduction

Many areas of Western Europe, particularly Italy, Germany and England had greatly advanced in various areas by the beginning of 12^th century AD. For instance, there were advances in social organization, technology, education and economic systems (Haskins 73). The need to acquire new knowledge and develop institutions of leaning was rapidly increasing, especially in religion, theology and nature.

Most people were eager to learn religion, natural science and law in a different way. In general, people were tired of traditions and wanted a change in social and cultural aspects. In addition, people were easily accepting and embracing new ideologies. For instance, Italian cities and city-states such as Florence and Rome were changing due to the presence of scholars in philosophy, law and religion (Haskins 88).

Any person who was willing to instil some change in the social system was in a position to influence large numbers of people. In fact, great leaders during the 12 century were supported by a public opinion. The desire for change motivated leaders to inspire their societies in a significant way (Benson, Constable and Lanham 53).

All these aspects and changes in leadership contributed to the 12^th Century Renaissance. The emergence of great religious leaders at the time is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the renaissance (Moorman 28). However, the emergence of St Francis of Assisi was one of the main forces that opposed change in various regions.

Francis and his followers (Franciscan Brothers) created a religious movement that greatly supported the way in which the church handled social, religious and cultural issues. They were advocating for spiritual life. In addition, they advocated for the ‘role and duty of poverty’.

In turn, this stand appeared to support the doctrines of the Church. Arguably, Franciscans reacted negatively to the people’s quest for change in Catholic leadership. However, they later benefitted from the 12^th century changes as they sought to free their movement from the church’s political and social influence.

Economic and Social Features of the “Twelfth-Century Renaissance”

Changes in various aspects of Christianity had the greatest impact in the contribution towards social, cultural political forms. Barbara Tuchman, a historian argues that Christianity was a key pivot in medieval life “…because it governed all aspects of life such as birth, marriage, sex and death…” (Moorman 31).

The historian says that Christianity controlled the law, medicine, science, and politics (Benson, Constable and Lanham 64). In addition, Tuchman argues that being a member of the church was a compulsory for every person (Moorman 51).

Although the church was the dominant force that supported political and religious leaders, there were several efforts to change this system in the 12^th century. For instance, the people were eager to see a church that was meant to care for them.

Thus, church leaders such as St. Bernard of Clairvaux became important figures of change during the 12^th century because they were entirely dependent on public desire to change (Moorman 114). One of the areas that people wanted change was personal devotion to a common person, which had been a common aspect of the Catholic Church.

Apart from forced membership, the church also required the followers to regard the popes, monks and clerics as religious and righteous figures (Benson, Constable and Lanham 171). In fact, it appeared that these church leaders were “gods” in some way, which gave them political, social and cultural powers to control the society.

Similarly, political aspects of life were under the control of the church. Any person with ideas on how to liberate the society from the church’s monopolistic control received an overwhelming support from the public. For instance, King Henry II of England obtained massive support and political strength because he was willing to do what the people wanted (Haskins 133).

Apart from the religion, the concept of justice was in dire need for change. According Haskins (143), the Church controlled the concept of justice system because every aspect of the law was based on divine law. The world politics revolved around the church, which in turn controlled justice system.

The public was willing to change these aspects. It was during the 12^th century Renaissance that the people of Western Europe, especially Italy, made great efforts in an attempt to free the judicial system from the divine law. For instance, Roman law was increasingly studied and revived. Gratian, a monk, became an important figure of change after he gave a summary of the laws of the church in his “Decretium Graiani”.

Finally, the desire for knowledge was on the increase during the 12^th century. Thousands of people from across the social classes sought to know more in science, religion and law. They wanted to learn these aspects free from the influence and control of the church. For instance, 12^th century scholars joined Latin classes, attempted to analyze the Roman law and the Catholic doctrine.

In addition, scholars attempted to learn and analyze Muslim faith and laws, Greek laws and other texts in order to compare them with Catholic laws. For example, Peter Abelard made significant influence in education and law because he developed ideologies that attracted people.

How did the Franciscans react and benefit from the changes in the 12^th century?

Although the Franciscan brothers and their movement did not support the changes in the 12^th century, they later benefitted from it in a manner that allowed them to spread their new ideologies, interact with the people and obtain support from both the public and the clerics (Senocak 192).

At first, Francis of Assisi himself reacted negatively to the changes the people wanted to see in the church, its leadership and control of social and political aspects (Sharp 126). For instance, with his group of about 11 followers, Francis travelled widely in Western Europe, where he preached the need to maintain the church traditions against the people’s desire for change.

For example, Francis preached in support of poverty among the Christians because he believed that Christians should devote their life (Senocak 136). He had a collection of scriptural passages from the bible and the church emphasizing on the duty of poverty. However, the Franciscan brothers did not provide a solution to problem created by superiority of clerics at the expense of the poor (Sharp 102).

Due to the ideologies that supported the church, the clerics, the pope and the monks to an extent that they were given food, housing facilities and other things (Sharp 96) supported the Franciscan brothers. For instance, Pope Innocent III considered the “Three Orders” developed by the Franciscans as a good tool for spreading his influence in order to deal with the 12^th century religious renaissance (Senocak 224).

The pope thought that by supporting the Franciscans, he would persuade the people to maintain a status quo rather than calling for changes. In fact, the church considered the 12^th century changes as a form of heresy.

Despite their support of the church and the status quo, the Franciscans later benefitted from the changes brought by the 12^th century renaissance. For instance, the control of “the Order” became a problem to the Franciscans. At first, the Franciscans had received support from the church, which gave them certain political and religious powers in certain areas such as France and Germany (Senocak 216).

However, several followers disagreed on the role and duty of poverty. There were disagreements on how Franciscans should live and lead the church. In addition, Elias, one of the most powerful Franciscan leaders, assumed the powers to govern a centralised government in Assisi. He sought to re-interpret the role of poverty (Sharp 56). He built several houses for the members.

He was in constant disagreement with the Pope and Italian President Gregory IX. Eias was deposed and replaced by Alberta of Pisa (Sharp 29). Due to the influence of the Pope and the government in Franciscan leadership, it was clear that the Franciscans needed to advocate for change in church leadership in order to maintain their influence (Sharp 34).

Members increasingly saw the need to change the church and reduce its control on the politics and their movement. Since the 12^th century Renaissance had succeeded in reducing the influence of the church on social, political and economic aspects of the society, the Franciscans benefitted from these changes in their efforts to reduce the influence of the Pope and the church in their movement.

Works Cited

Benson, Robert, Giles Constable, and Carol Lanham. Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. Print

Haskins, Charles. The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007. Print.

Moorman, Humpidge. A History of the Franciscan Order: From Its Origins to the Year 1517. London: Franciscan Institute Publications, 2008. Print

Senocak, Neslihan. The Poor and the Perfect: The Rise of Learning in the Franciscan Order, 1209–1310. Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2012. Print

Sharp, David. Franciscan Philosophy at Oxford in the Thirteenth Century. London: Oxford University Press, 2003. Print

Early Middle Ages as the “Dark Ages”

The fall of the Roman Empire marked the beginning of the Middle Ages divided into early and the later middle age (lecture 8). Historians refer to the early middle age as the dark ages to refer to people’s perception of knowledge and learning. The main reason why this age is referred to as the Dark Age is that historians expected people to value knowledge more than what people of the ancient era did.

However, this is not the case since people were more illiterate as compared to the ancient era. Also, people were more concerned with their religious beliefs than logic. Therefore, they valued the next life more than their present life. There was learning during the dark ages, although it took place on a small scale and among the elite class. The learning was also centered on religion, and the clergymen were the teachers (lecture 8).

The Causes of the Protestant Reformation

During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church experienced a crisis that it had not experienced before, which led to the inevitable protestant movements and reformations. The causes of this protestant movement can be linked to the poor leadership of the church and the ability of people to read the Bible on their own. The first reason that caused people to protest was the poor leadership of the Roman Catholic Church. Initially, people believed in the church without question. Therefore, they entrusted the church with all their finance without concern. During the Middle Ages, this changed as the people realized that the church took advantage of their faith and misappropriated their finances through corruption (Lecture 13).

Before the beginning of the protestant movement, the Bible was only available to the clergy, and they were responsible for reading and interpreting the Bible to the people (lecture 13). However, this changed, and the people realized that there was a lot that was not according to the Bible. In particular, the pope had elevated himself to the status of God, and he had the power to forgive sins and the keys to heaven (Gochberg 98).

Finally, the clergy lived a hypocritical life whereby they claimed the status of holiness that they could not maintain. The clergy was supposed to observe celibacy, but instead, some of the clergy members chose to keep mistresses and marry in secret (Lecture 13). The most important reason that led to Protestantism was the elevated status of the pope. After people read the Bible, they were determined to know and pursue the truth. Therefore, they could not withstand something that was against the truth.

Renaissance as the “Birth of Modernity”

Renaissance is a major and important period in history since it marked the beginning of modernity. The modern era is characterized by politics, science, history, and ideologies, such as capitalism and socialism (Lecture 12). These characters show that modern man celebrates and values life more than before. However, in the ancient and the Middle Ages, this was different since man based all his faith knowledge. Therefore, the Renaissance period marked the rise of all these characters that shape the modern world.

Science, politics, and history are bodies of knowledge, and they are founded on education. Before the Renaissance, people had no freedom to read since all literature was the property of the church, and it was in the Latin language that many people could not read. Renaissance period marked the beginning of reading and writing in the common people since literature was available to them in their local languages (Greer 20). Following the ability to read and write, people developed the available knowledge to what we have today.

Works Cited

Gochberg, Donald. Classic of Western Thought Series: The Ancient World, Volume I. New Jersey: Cengage Learning, 1988. Print.

Greer, Thomas. A Brief History of the Western World, Volume I: to 1715. New York: Thompson learning, 2005. Print.

Introduction

Answering the question about the importance of the Renaissance and the Reformation for the shaping of the European society, it is important to consider the background of these epochs. The Renaissance was the rebellion against the church-dominated life in the early Medieval Europe, which was reflected in the artistic masterpieces. The Reformation was the direct struggle with the church whose overall influence people could not stand anymore. Accordingly, the Renaissance and the Reformation were similar processes in the aspect that they freed the human beings from the religious dogmas and shaped the modern European society (Stearns, Gosch, & Grieshaber, 2005 ).

Discussion

“The cultural rebirth or Renaissance did not take place in a vacuum. Prior to the twelfth century, almost all learning in Europe was under the control of the church, and medieval art and the literature reflected the church’s influence” (Brummett, Edgar, Hackett, Jewsbury & Molony, p. 399). In these lines, the whole essence of the Renaissance, as well of the Reformation, lies. Starting from the early 14^th century in Italy, the Renaissance developed due to the work of such geniuses as Dante, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and others. Further on, the Renaissance spread to other parts of Europe and the so-called Northern Renaissance developed in the Netherlands, Spain, Scandinavian countries and Germany. Humanism, presented in works by Montaigne (1533 – 1592) and other prominent scholars, was the main idea of the Renaissance.

Accordingly, humanism was put by Martin Luther into the basis of the Reformation started in 1517: “…Luther denied the infallibility of the Pope and church councils, declared the Scriptures to be the sole legitimate doctrinal authority, and proclaimed that salvation could be gained only by faith” (Brummett, Edgar, Hackett, Jewsbury & Molony,, p. 418) Later, in 1536 – 1538, Henry VIII of England implemented the Reformation in his country, this time for the practical purposes – he needed his marriage annulled and Catholicism did not allow that. So, the Anglican Church headed by Henry was introduced as the major one in England (Brummett, Edgar, Hackett, Jewsbury & Molony, p. 420). Thus, the German Reformation and its consequences in other European countries led to the decrease of the Catholic Church authority and influence, and put it on the edge of collapse. Only the activities of Pope Paul III (1534 – 1549) rescued the church and established the modern state of things when the state and the church are separated and do not rule each other (Brummett, Edgar, Hackett, Jewsbury & Molony, p. 427).

Conclusion

So, it is obvious that the Renaissance and the Reformation are the processes of the same nature. Their uniform direction towards granting freedoms and rights to human beings is what leads this paper to such a conclusion. Masterpieces by such artists as Jan van Eyck (c.1395 – 1441), Albrecht Durer (1471 – 1528), Miguel de Servantes (1547 – 1616) and many others glorified the human being and its freedoms as the basic values of the society. The humanist works by Montaigne, Sir Thomas More and Ulrich von Hutten confirmed the irreversible change that both the Renaissance and the Reformation brought to the European society (Brummett, Edgar, Hackett, Jewsbury & Molony, p. 409). From a theological one it turned into a democratic phenomenon which praises human freedoms and rights (Stearns, Gosch, & Grieshaber, 2005 ).

Works Cited

Brummett, Palmira J., Robert R. Edgar, Neil J. Hackett, George F. Jewsbury, Barbara S. Molony. Civilization: Past & Present, Volume II: From 1300. Longman, 2006

Stearns, Peter N., Stephen S. Gosch, Erwin P. Grieshaber. Documents in World History: The Modern Centuries, Volume 2 (From 1500 to the Present). Longman, 2005.

Despite the fact that Renaissance occurred several centuries ago, it continues to fascinate people and attract substantial attention from researchers. Many books talk about the Renaissance period in European history, particularly in Italy. The conventional view of people about the Renaissance rests on the idea that it was the era of great advancements in technology and art. As a result, the majority of people’s understanding of the period is limited by the knowledge about artists such as Da Vinci, who lived during Renaissance. Therefore, the information about the life of ordinary people of the period is often ignored. Nevertheless, there are many researchers who extensively study the unexplored aspects of the Renaissance era and uncover much interesting evidence. One the such researcher is Rudolph M. Bell, who wrote the book “​Street Life in Renaissance Rome.” ​ Bell offers an alternative perspective on the period and focuses on the streets of Rome. The book complicates the readers’ understanding of the Renaissance by allowing them to view the life of ordinary citizens, social rejects, and the experiences related to urban existence in Rome.

One of the most interesting phenomena described by Bell in his book was the concept of pinzochere, a name for women who were regarded as part of the existing religious communities. At the same time, pinzochere did not have the status of nuns, and quite often, they were former prostitutes. Nevertheless, the pinzochere community was not homogenous; generally, two types of pinzochere were common in Rome. The first type of pinochle were women who blinged to Christian religious orders, many of whom were venerated by Romans for their work. For instance, St. Catherine was a notable pinzochere who actively called for Pope to move to Rome and establish his residence there (Bell 43). The information presented by Bell about the existence of pinzocheres, such as St. Catherine, demonstrates that the politics of Rome was not only influenced by the people who had religious or secular authority. Such evidence complicates the understanding of the Renaissance in a way that the conventional view of the period promotes the idea that it was the time when only the rich and powerful impacted society.

At the same time, Bell presents evidence about the second type of pinzocheres, namely, former prostitutes who were encouraged by the religious communities to leave their profession and devote their lives to Christ. There were many women who were denied the right to belong to a religious order due to the fact that they were married or had been observed to lead sinful life. Simultaneously, the local magistrates forced many such women to abandon prostitution and thus had to find new ways to earn a living. Many of such pinchers turned to sell magic potions on the streets of Rome. There are many sources that talk about the life of such women. For instance, Bell presents a carnival song about pinzocheres in which they present their services and even promise to “stretch the wrinkle and harden the breast” (Bell 54). The stories about pinzocheres complicate the understanding of the Renaissance by presenting information that it was not only a time of freedom but also of oppression (Dabashi 47). Such evidence demonstrates how sex workers were negatively treated and ridiculed in Roman society.

Another interesting piece of information that defies the common understanding of the Renaissance is the description of the dietary habits of Romans. Quite often, people perceive Renaissance as a period of time when the majority of people struggled to ensure proper nutrition and starved (Wolf 82). Yet, the evidence offered by Bell indicates that people in Rome had appropriate diets and consumed sufficient amounts of food. Specifically, Bell presents the notes of a popular Roman doctor and philosopher named Alessandro Petronio. The doctor recorded his observations about the diets espoused by Romans and their health habits. For instance, Petronio wrote, “they eat at least twice a day… they eat more meat than elsewhere…” (Bell 64). Although it is unclear whether Petronio describes the average diet in Rome or the habits of those who were more privileged, it is still certain that during Renaissance in Rome, food was not a luxury. At the same time, such information complicates the understanding of the Renaissance because it is unknown what foods the poorest Romans consumed and how nutritious they were. Thus, Bell once again offers an unconventional aspect of the Renaissance period.

Finally, the book further complicates the understanding of the Roman Renaissance by providing information about street life in Rome. It is a common view of the Renaissance as the time period during which society was significantly influenced by Christianity and its main values (Meserve 56). Yet, in reality, Rome in the Renaissance era was a city where people engaged in all kinds of sinful activities which were normally prohibited by the church. Nevertheless, Romans generally did not experience any difficulty finding a prostitute or participating in a brawl.

Benvenuto Cellini, a notable sculptor of the period, described in detail all aspects of street life in Rome during the Renaissance period. Nevertheless, the most interesting story described by Cellini concerns his killing of another individual in Rome. Most importantly, despite Cellini committing the murder, the Pope allowed him to flee the city to avoid facing punishment (Bell 120). Such a decision is difficult to understand, given the fact that Christianity condemns murder and views it as a sin. Yet, the story of Cellini once again complicates the understanding of Renaissance Rome as the place where anything was possible.

The book “​Street Life in Renaissance Rome” written by ​Rudolph M. Bell, is a source of quality information about the unexplored history of Rome during the Renaissance period. The author offers an alternative description of Roman society, which is different from the conventional view. Bell primarily focuses on the streets of Rome by providing primary sources on the life of ordinary people. Bell particularly highlights the experiences of women and other less privileged people of the Renaissance period. Bell utilizes an extensive selection of sources, including those which are often neglected by researchers, such as poetry, autobiographical stories, songs, and diaries. For instance, Bell presents information about the experiences of pinzocheres, women who previously led unacceptable lifestyles and often were forced to abandon their primary profession and enter religious orders. Yet, most importantly, Bell complicates the reader’s understanding of Renaissance Rome by featuring information that does not fit the mainstream narrative. At the same time, as more information the reader discovers by reading Bell’s book, the more questions they may have about Renaissance Rome.

Works Cited

Bell, Rudolph M. Street Life in Renaissance Rome: A Brief History with Documents. Macmillan Learning, 2013.

Dabashi, Hamid. The End of Two Illusions: Islam After the West. The University of California Press, 2022.

Meserve, Margaret. Papal Bull: Print, Politics, and Propaganda in Renaissance Rome. Johns Hopkins University, 2021.

Wolf, Norbert. The Renaissance Cities: Art in Florence, Rome and Venice. Prestel Verlag GmbH & Company KG, 2021.

When considering the effect of long-range propagandistic activities, no campaigns have been more successful than those waged by the great proselytizing religion of Christianity. Moreover, that propagandist’s symbolism can be found almost in all spheres of human life. Therefore, we can consider art as the most long-lasting mean of this propaganda.

The medieval period is significant for its inseparability from religion. It is obvious that art had also undergone its influence. Most works of art created in the medieval period revealed only religious themes, the depiction of which was usually not naturalistic. The non-realistic depiction of people and backgrounds was common in artworks of that period. Human images had little in common with their natural look; many different details were used in the backgrounds as both propaganda and philosophy were theocentric in that period.

The church was the main medium of propaganda with Biblical tales on the walls, various moral lessons on the stones, etc. The main task of these artworks was to inspire and awe the people, to show the greatness and almightiness of God. However, sometimes propaganda was performed in quite unexpected ways as an example we can provide churches built in the so-called “French-style”. Later during the Renaissance, critics disrespectfully called it “Gothic”. Many critics found reference to barbarian tribes (Goths) and their lack of culture. This was regarded as an act of disrespect for pre-Christian symbolism and was indirect propaganda of Christianity.

The beginning of the Renaissance period marked the influence of so-called humanism on the Arts. For this reason, artworks of religious content became gradually more realistic and natural. An array of art masterpieces began to emerge, as new extraordinary artists appeared.

The Christian values were a general target for religious propaganda at those times. The most successful contributors to that cause were painters, sculptors, architects, and artists in general. Their works were aimed to propagate and teach the Gospel among those, who were illiterate. Many artworks had specific messages, understandable for a wide range of people who lived at that time (Woods, 2007). One of the most significant roles in the art of those times was also played by church paintings and frescoes, depicting scenes from the Bible.

As an example, we can provide the frescoes Michelangelo’s painted on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, a large chapel in the Vatican City, which took its name after Pope Sixtus IV and has served as the residence for the papal conclave for centuries. Michelangelo Buonarroti lived in the XV-XVI centuries and was a very talented and outstanding architect, sculptor, and painter. The frescoes of the Sistine Chapel are among his most famous works.

The process of painting the ceiling frescoes took four years and it is believed to be the best Renaissance masterpiece of religious content (Forcellino, 2009). The Sistine Chapel has been known to have a collection of frescoes, with the unanimity of purpose: to glorify God in the Divine creative mode. There is an overall plan of the chapel and every fresco scene has its own theological story to tell in relationship with others.

Michelangelo’s frescoes depicted main vital scenes and events for Christianity, in such a way propagating the power and wisdom of God, the necessity of following the Ten God’s Commandments, and imperativeness of respecting all Christian values. Taking into account the popularity of Michelangelo’s works and their significance in the modern world culture we can state, that Christian propaganda still works and does it well.

It should be made clear that the aspects of propaganda of Christian religion should not be considered as negative phenomena (not taking into consideration inquisition and crusades) as long as they propagate the best human or divine qualities and values.

References

Forcellino, A. (2009). Michelangelo: A Tormented Life, Cambridge, Polity Press.

Woods, K. (2007). Making Renaissance Art, London, Yale University Press.

The main idea behind studying the European History since 1450 is to evaluate the past developments especially in political, social, economic and cultural fields which are considered highly important in shaping the present-day world. Besides the highly valuable narrative of past events and great historic movements, the motives of the AP Program in European History include the development of:

1. The understanding of fundamental themes in the European History.
2. The skills to analyze historical evidence and interpretation thereof, and
3. The expertise to express the understanding of the modern history.

Note: The study-collections relating European history helps students with the Graduate School of Arts & Science programs enabling them to acquire the BA, MA, and Ph.D. degrees in history. The history department offering graduate study in European history from the medieval period to 20^th century focuses on:

• The Medieval Europe i.e. the fall of Europe to 1453,
• The Early Modern Europe i.e. from1400 to 1789,
• The Modern Europe i.e. from1789 to the present-day.

The Medieval Period

The period from 400s to 1400s in European history has been termed as the Middle Ages or Medieval Period, by the historians simply because it lies between the ancient times and the modern world in which we live today. The most turbulent and revolutionary part of this period between 1300s and 1400s was later termed by them as Renaissance. The Middle Ages, in fact, was a dynamic period in Europe history during which Europe had achieved political, linguistic and ethnic modernity. (Deborah, n.d.)

Introduction

An enlightening movement in Europe that started in Italy in 1300s and later spread to major parts of Europe like Spain, Holland, Germany, England etc. and ending approximately in the year 1600 has been termed by historians the ‘Renaissance’. During this period of Renaissance, many eminent scholars in Italy studied the arts and learning of the ancient Rome and Greece in their endeavor to capture their great works in the fields of philosophy, art and literature.

So renaissance, in a way, can be called a period of the revival of Roman and Greek cultures and learning. Theology was considered the prime subject by renaissance philosophers. One religious leader Girolamo Savonarola believed corrupt towns could be changed only once their dwellers passionately practiced Christianity. The renaissance which spread gradually saw the peak of its glory during 1500s. Many men of letters, famed scholars and scientists have accepted beyond doubt that nearly all facets of modern life today has its roots embedded in the renaissance period. (James, n.d)

The Renaissance Starts in Italy

At the beginning of the Renaissance, Italy was politically unstable and was split into 250 states, each separately governed by a city. Some of the largest cities like Venice, Florence and Milan had approximately100, 000 people each and were ruled by the Roman Empire. Since most emperors lived in Germany and virtually had no control over their states, and since there was no central authority who could unify these states, the popes began to take over the whole of Central Italy especially Rome.

During 1400’s, several major cities of Italy came under the dominance of prominent families. The form of government established by the ruling families of the Italian cities was like the principality called Signoria. Other cities had a form of government known as republicanism. The republican government of Florence, for example, was made up of nearly 800 cities mostly the wealthiest of contemporary families. Most proficient Renaissance architects had constructed great monuments and most impressive civic and religious buildings across Florence.

The Medici family dominated the ruling class of Florence until the closing of1430’s. The republican government of Venice, like that of Florence came from the most wealthiest and influential families. Venice was governed by almost 180 of such families. Venice also became a leading center of Cultural Revolution most peculiar to Renaissance art, architecture and philosophical learning, and soon became popular as the great seat of civilization. (James, n.d)

The Spread of Renaissance in Larger Europe

After its rebirth in Italy, and with untiring efforts for the revival of learning, the renaissance gradually spread outside Italy to larger Europe and in other parts as Germany, France, Spain and England. The scholars and visitors like diplomats, merchants and bankers especially carried forward Renaissance culture to the places they migrated especially in late 1400s. The humanity study tools like history and philology which the scholars carried invariably related to the knowledge and learning of humanistic study.

Another factor leading up to the spread of renaissance to remotest corners of Europe was a series of invasions of Italy. The armies of Germany, Spain, and France continued with their invasions of Italy from 1494 to 1500. Dazzled and greatly impressed by the charm and beauty of the Italian art, the invaders, while on their return, carried Italian culture back to their homes and respective countries The ruin of the Roman Empire as depicted from monuments and buildings that stood in every Italian city showed evidence of classical pieces of antiquities that once flooded the capital city of Rome.

This connection or relationship especially between the present and the classical past was not much to be seen elsewhere in Europe. In the wake of Roman conquests and Italian invasions most of the ancient Roman culture had been directly or indirectly thrust upon the western and northern Europeans. An example of the classical antiquity which was imitated throughout Europe was the Gothic art of the middle Ages.

The Renaissance painting outside Italy appeared in the works of artists living in Flanders, a region that lies in what is now France and Belgium. In Flemish Painting particularly even minute details were taken care of very precisely. But the human figure painting, which was although realistic, it lacked the sculptural quality characteristic of the Italian painting. (James,n.d)

The Political Aspect

In the renaissance period the political set-up of western and northern Europe differed drastically from the political structure of Italy. France and England had united under monarchies by the end of 1400, providing to their countries cultural and political stability and leadership. Like Italy Germany too was split-up into many independent states seeking partial unifying or cohesive force through Roman renaissance culture.

The renaissance in western and northern Europe was able to muster support from the great royal courts similar to those provided by princes in Italy. The then king of France, Francis 1 (1515 to 1547) was completely surrounded by the Italian artists like Leonardo da Vinci, and various other reputed scholars and ambassadors of the renaissance. The house of Tudor in England was considered the patron of renaissance. King Henry VII was the first Tudor monarch of England. The Tudor dynasty ruled England from 1485 to 1603 with eminent English scholars always turning to and advocating the renaissance philosophy of the ancient Rome and Greece. (James, n.d)

The Christian Humanism

In the late 1500s, the famously known Humanists in the northern Europe stressed on the study of Bible and encouraged the revival of ancient Christian teachings. These religious scholars called Humanists also edited the ancient text of the Bible and removed many distortions that had been inserted into its text over the years. The texts included pertained to the Bible and such Catholic scholars and churchmen as Saint Jerome and famous Saint Augustine.

Also included were the works by the ancient Greek Church. This editing effort into purgation of the holy text from distortions and perversions was, in fact, a great attempt to purify nearly all of the biblical texts of the Roman Catholic Church. In fact the Humanists believed that in doing so they would be doing a great service to humanity by reforming the Christian religion through logical and educationist approach. (Deborah, n.d.)

The Renaissance Heritage

The Renaissance had left indelible imprints of cultural, artistic, and intellectual heritage on the minds and hearts of subsequent generations. The scholars especially of humanistic approach had been attempting over the centuries to improve upon the works of eminent Renaissance writers such as Boccaccio and Petrarch. The swaying power of the Renaissance architects, painters and sculptors in particular had been very strong indeed. Especially the painters of Rome and Florence have set the lasting standards in painting in the Western world. For centuries together, painters have been traveling to Florence to capture the artistic touch and great skills available in the Giotto and Masaccio’s paintings.

The artists and painters from all over Europe also had been visiting Rome to study the paintings of Michelangelo and Raphael particularly. Besides, the works of Michelangelo and Donatello have greatly inspired painters and sculptors for generations. The stunning paintings of Brunelleschi involving scaled buildings and other Renaissance architects still serve as models for architects today. (Deborah,.n.d.)

Break Away from Medieval Thought

It was in the period from1300 and 1500 that the Medieval Europe very steadily succumbed to today’s Modern Europe. In this period especially between 14^th and 16^th centuries, the period of the Middle Ages overlapping the period in European history came to be called as the Renaissance. However a halt in progress within European nations was made mainly because of factors as:

1. Natural Calamities as Floods badly affecting Agriculture and causing great famine.
2. The outbreak of Plague also called ‘ Black Death ‘ killing half of European population
3. The famous Hundred Years’ War (1337 to 1453) between England and France almost broke the backbone and crippled the economy of the two nations, so also casting adverse effects on the overall economic conditions in Europe. (Deborah, n.d.)

The Mundane Philosophy

It was during the late middle Ages that scholars, scientists and artists started to show lesser concern for religion and religious thinking and devoted more time in the understanding of worldly affairs, the world and people. This new approach or the outlook was termed as Humanism. In this renaissance period more and more authors composed poetry and prose mostly in their native languages (vernacular), and not specifically in Latin.

This increasing use of the vernacular opened a new literary era, and gradually brought learning and literature to the common people. Eventually in the year 1450s, the invention of the printing press in Europe showed that all printed material for learning could thus be created much cheaper. As a result of this different books on myriad subjects began appearing on the market as well as on shelves for many more people to read and make further research in the art of learning.

Thus the cultural, political and economic changes of the Medieval Ages in particular the renaissance period gradually changed the entire Europe, and therefore by the early 1500’s, Europe had no longer been a medieval one. Instead the institutions and more strongly the renaissance culture of the Middle Ages or Medieval Period continued to cast its influence on modern European history. (Deborah,.n.d.)

References

College Board. “European History”. Web.

Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. “Middle Ages.” Web.

Hankins, James. “Renaissance.” Web.

Bobst N.Y. Library. “European History Collection Development Policy.” Web.

“Renaissance”. Web.

“Renaissance-Architecture”. Web.

Exhibits Collection – Interactives. “Renaissance”. Web.

The presented project is devoted to comparing the perceptions that can be viewed as dominant for Early Renaissance and modern people. In particular, the perceptions related to the topics of money, wealth, and power are of interest. This project can provide insights into the evolution of mindsets and improve our understanding of modern views.

Topic Review and Bibliography

• Brucker (2015): Renaissance money and power (Florence).
• Burke, Clossey, and Fernández-Armesto (2017): European Renaissance: cultural impact on values.
• Cohn (2012): Renaissance possessions.
• Huber (2016): Renaissance money and art.
• Petrocchi (2017): Renaissance business.
• Huey-ling (2015): money in Renaissance literature; contemporary perspective.
• Salvatore (2013): Medici: wealth and power.
• Strathern (2016): Medici: money and art.

This slide describes some of the modern literature that will be employed in the project. For example, Brucker (2015) discusses the Renaissance notions of money and power in Florence. Similarly, Burke, Clossey, and Fernández-Armesto (2017) focus on the European Renaissance values in general. Also, the authors demonstrate the fact that Renaissance values may have been influenced by culture. Cohn (2012), Huber (2016), and Petrocchi (2017) discuss money and wealth to some extent: in the form of possessions or business in general and in relation to art.

Strathern (2016) also considers the relationship between money and art, using the House of Medici as an example. Salvatore (2013) also considers the House of Medici and related values of wealth and power. Finally, Huey-ling’s (2015) work introduces the modern perspective on the topic of money in Renaissance literature.

Conclusions

• Renaissance is better-researched.
• Power: not a worthy pursuit; humility and power; more upheavals.
• Money: can be used for evil or good (art).
• Wealth: attachment to possessions; Black Death-related interest in balancing secular and spiritual.
• Led to consumerism?

In sum, it seems that the topic of Renaissance values is well-researched, but they are rarely compared to the modern-day perspective. Still, some conclusions can be drawn from the information provided. For example, in the Renaissance period, power was a questionable pursuit and could be viewed as less stable due to more frequent upheavals (Salvatore, 2013). Also, Salvatore (2013) reports that the period’s population saw a connection between humility and power, suggesting that the former can be the basis of the latter. This view appears to be rather foreign to the modern world.

According to Huber (2016), the concept of money in the Renaissance era included the perception that it could be used for good or evil, and the good usage of money could be related to artist encouragement. As for wealth, Cohn (2012) highlights the importance of the aftermaths of the Black Death for the people of Renaissance: the tragedy taught them to be attached to their possessions and seek a balance between secular and spiritual life. In general, the above-mentioned perceptions on money and wealth are rather familiar to the modern people and might have been connected to the more modern mindset of consumerism. The search for such similarities and differences is the aim of the project.

Methodology

• Qualitative design.
• Data collection: literature review and analysis (Renaissance); interviews (modern).

The project is going to work with qualitative data, which is why its design is qualitative. The data collection tools will be defined by the specifics of the data: the Renaissance information is likely to be gleaned from literature reviews and analysis, but modern information can be gathered from interviews with modern people.

Work Plan

Renaissance data collection → Modern data collection → Analysis.

The plan of the work involves two stages of data collection (one for each period) and their analysis. Before the process, the project plan will be finalized and approved; after it, the final report will be prepared.

Results and Implications

• Focus on similarities and differences.
• Outcome: improved understanding of concept evolution and their effects on human lives.

The results of the project will focus on the similarities and differences that can be spotted between the periods and their values. These results will be employed to enhance our understanding of the evolution of the mentioned concepts and the effects of the Renaissance period on modern perceptions.

References

Brucker, G. A. (2015) The civic world of Early Renaissance Florence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Burke, P., Clossey, L., & Fernández-Armesto, F. (2017). The global Renaissance. Journal of World History, 28(1), 1-30.

Cohn, J. S. (2012). Renaissance attachment to things: Material culture in last wills and testaments. Economic History Review, 65(3), 984-1004.

Huber, R. (2016). Oh death: Death, dying, and the culture of the macabre in the late Middle Ages. Web.

Huey-ling, L. (2015). The social meaning of money in Dekker’s The Shoemaker’s Holiday and Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice. Comparative Drama, 49(3), 335-366.

Petrocchi, A. (2017). Mercantile arithmetic in Renaissance Italy: A translation and study of a vernacular abbaco work. Ceræ: An Australasian Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies, 3, 1-30.

Salvatore, C. (2013). “God, power and money:” Did Cosimo de’Medici deceive Renaissance Florence? Intersedes, 14(29), 180.

Strathern, P. (2016). The Medici: Power, money, and ambition in the Italian Renaissance. New York, NY: Pegasus Books.

Introduction

The Renaissance is characterized as an era of examination and detection. The word “renaissance” translates as “re-birth,” suggestive of knowledge and detection of the personality as well as of the earth. The expeditions to far-away lands contributed to the propagation of the humanist group as a simultaneously theoretical and politically conscious group. Gasping in awe at the scale of man’s achievements, the humanists developed a burly appreciation for a gentleman as a human being, “the language animal.” They sought to uncover the mind’s full likely without no having it laden by the “ecclesiastical tyranny” that was rife near the beginning sixteenth century. There was extensive dissatisfaction by means of the papal organization which, according to Erasmus, was under enemy control by unaware monks. The following improvement distorted not only the form and sympathetic of religion, other than also of the following type of weather.

The first semi of the twentieth century saw America emerging as a World’s wonderful authority, and as one of the grown-up democracies in the middle of the British colonies. However, the change was not flat and the Nation has had its ups and downwards touching from agrarian to manufacturing society through the excess and glum of the “noisy twenties” and depressing thirties.

Renaissance Era (1400 A.D. to 1600 A.D.)

The Renaissance Era range from c. 1400 to 1600. It is supposed that the spark that in progress the rebirth flame came from an existence that lay latent in Italy. After approximately a millennium, the populace of Italy came rear to life and began to focus additional on humankind than focusing on faith. People began to study more and study the splendor of painting, and there was a belief in the authority of the human life form. In the art, more statues and pictures were depicting nude humans. The body had turned out to be more of a boat for pleasure since of the lack of pleasure previous to the age Three-dimensional room was the new fashion of the rebirth. The sculpture was three hundred and sixty degrees in its place of relief sculpture; the painting had intelligence of three-dimensional space (Kissick 168-176).

U. S. Social History

If we analyze then we come to know that all through American history, the U.S had fought many wars all through time. The cold war was a conflict in which America had fought flings other countries and threw their arsenals. America more often than not used repression quite then counters revolution throughout the cold war. The U.S used a lot of ways to stay communism as of spreading, for the terror of the welfare of the democratic system and one more war from the captivating place. America was prepared to preserve the wellbeing of the earth as two superpowers emerge following World War II, the United States, and the Soviet Union.

Social and Cultural Changes in Europe during the Renaissance

Different communal classes were allowable to be part of the committee differentiate between the 60 members it had. The cause of the constancy of Venice lies quite in a mixture of circumstances that were established in union nowhere else. Unassailable from its place, it had been clever from the beginning to the luxury of foreign relationships with the fullest and calmest reflection and ignores almost altogether the parties which alienated the rest of Italy, to run away the mess of permanent alliances, and to put the highest price on those which it considers fit to make. With the center in the Italian Renaissance being, personal achievement, self-satisfaction, and the quest for community appraisal and following power, changes occurred in the natural world of government. People who required fame and authority in this new earth of humanism and complacency had to merit it. No longer did the highest authority, such as the pope, employ officials and leaders. The power rested in the hand of the being willing to take accuses.

Cultural Changes in European Renaissance

Between the 1300s and 1500’s Europe knowledgeable an educational rebirth recognized as the Renaissance. It is progress in one of the period’s the majority authentic, wealthiest metropolis state known now as Italy. The foremost force of the Renaissance was a group known at the present as Humanism. Humanism was an occasion when they put the uniqueness of one’s center on society not towards faith. In the prior time period, religious attitude dictated every facet of being, art, and administration and still to the books that could be understand writing and the originality experimental. Generally, humanism stresses the individual’s original, reasoning, and artistic powers. However, throughout the Renaissance, personal ideas concerning humanism grasp a different view. During the renaissance, a group of dramatic changes occurred in the fields of philosophy, art, government, and text. Most of them developed inside the Roman territory. (p.36, Manchester William, A World Lit by Fire, The Medieval Mind and the Resurgence).

Social Change in European Renaissance

The main reason for European Integration (or Union), originated following the 2nd World War when the objective was to reconstruct a Europe which was shattered by conflict and to avoid new confrontations flanked by nations that share alike histories and topography, while custody their identity, verbal communication and culture. This dream of a new, joint Europe started from confrontation actions against dictatorships after the subsequent World War, despite this fact, it was too a vision shared by rulers such as Hitler and by Napoleon, who required to obtain over Europe and form a combined Europe beneath their manage.

Political Institutions During The Renaissance

If we analyze US politics due to renaissance event then we come to know that politics is a wide theme that includes lots of points but the present is not a clear meaning of government, it is known that government is present in all communal relations no substance how little the collection or the civilization. Politics might most excellent be characterized as the forced use of social authority. Politics occurs where there is an authority relationship. The idea of authority lies beneath the government. Therefore, of course in this competitive stadium violence is feel with it is used as income. Until today all of the civilizations and states contain had aggressive reminiscences, a war or a move violently, fight, revolt, etc. In the following structure, aggression is the unlawful use of authority.

“At the end of the Renaissance, the Italian states were the best of the world in discipline, arts, arms, and economics. Leaders of the World! But they did not combine. And they misplaced their right to be heard on the earth. That is the class for us today…Europe shall guide.” This was supposed by Romano Prodi, leader of the European Commission, about the European Union. The formation of the European Union has been of the main activities of all time. Now Europe is oriented at flattering the new ‘world head focusing on peace and fairness from the extreme commencement of the addition process to their time.

During the formation of the European Union, significant treaties were shaped and symbol by the members who slowly unified them more and additional. In that period, following the war, the Community was seeing as a way of custody peace by bringing jointly these states to cooperate with every other as a generation. There were four major treaties that were significant to the Union’s achievement.

European Coal and Steel Community- political institute

The Treaty of Paris institutes the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (1951) was seen as the primary step. The group of people’s goal was to create an ordinary marketplace in coal and steel sandwiched between the six originator members (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg plus the Netherlands).

European Atomic Energy group of people (EURATOM) – political institute

The Treaties of Rome and the European Atomic Energy group of people (EURATOM) treaty were together signed in Rome in 1957. The Rome treaty additional recognized the European Economic Community (EEC) and the EURATOM agreement was to expand the European Nuclear business through the creation of an ordinary marketplace of nuclear equipment and resources.

Despite these four life form the majority key treaties, there were other significant treaties such as The Solitary European Act signed in 1986, which on the whole set in place the objective for a Single European Marketplace, and The Amsterdam Treaty symbols in 1997, which shaped the foundation of the Union and strengthened the Union’s policies and authority.

Through these treaties the slow process of altering towards the amalgamation of European nation began plus the basis for any prospect expansion of the amalgamation was shaped.

Renaissance Events Shaped United State Political Life

Machiavelli was a huge political interpreter throughout Renaissance. However, as time passed by, a lot of different political system has occurred. What Machiavelli unsuccessful to understand is that the types of administrations belong to the ancient societies? Machiavelli’s primary mistake was that he looked at government from the dictator or monarch’s tip of sight. He did not understand that if the democratic system had life, there would be no require to reason terror or some violence. Unfortunately, the advice to maintain absolute authority in a person’s life form will last forever. If this intention sees the government as a way to gain power, there can occur violent actions, similar to terrorism, rebellion, massacres, etc. Today, the majority important instance is Usamah Bin Ladin who was accountable for the 9/11 event in the USA. Bin-Ladin is currently preparation soldiers, creating threats, publicly support other terrorist behavior, and building more hold up for prospective terrorist acts or wars. He is a persuasive populace that the United States is a country of pure corruptness. Hence, it would be beneficial if the American administration no longer carries on. He obviously, be in opposition to challengingly to the USA. He uses faith as a device to uphold authority.

Some of the same inexpensive and political troubles still exist today. Although the matter of slavery has been all but extinguished in the U.S. slavery still exists but in dissimilar forms such as child labor and overseas sex slaves. Americans need to be conscious of the history and admiration that it might do again itself.

Renaissance Events Shaped United State Social Life

Despite the urban “renaissance” of the 1990s, the tendency in the direction of deconcentration and toward lesser communities continued throughout the previous decade. For every three housing households who enthused to the city, five-city households dead for the suburbs, with the best growth rates in the majority peripheral suburbs. This is not, as sometimes claimed, the responsibility of government officials in cahoots with developers and thoroughfare builders, but a substance of option. A 1997 survey established that fewer than one in ten Americans wanted to live in the main city. Even ethnic minorities are opting more and additional to shift to slighter communities.

Renaissance Events Shaped United State Cultural Life

One beneficiary might be the “animal protein loaf” communities–comforting village vicinities that boast restricted recreational and cultural possessions. These can be established all across the state, particularly in places similar to New England, eastern Ohio, northern California, Oregon, and the small-city South. New communities that plea to “post-nomadic” businesses and persons may also be constructed–inhabits that provide an easy right of entry to local cultural, civic, retail, instructive, employment, and activity facilities, as healthy as high-speed telecommunications relations to the wider earth.

Conclusion

America from the knowledge’s of World War II wanted to give confidence democratic system in other to stop the rise of authoritarian governments. America required to join Germany, believing that it would be improved for the U.S to make new American markets for its manufacturing, rather than chastise them unsympathetically

References

Craig, Albert M., et.al. (2005). The Heritage of World Civilizations (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. (Pgs 315-321).

Maasik, Sonia and Solomon, Jack. Signs of Life in the USA. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford/St.Martin’s, 2000.

The Harlem Renaissance is widely known as a period in the history of the United States that greatly influenced the general development of American society and in particular the development of Afro-American culture. It was the time when African-American culture flourished producing enormous amounts of literary, music, and artworks that redefined the following course of American history and social makeup.

This phenomenon has received several names. Apart from the Harlem Renaissance, it was also referred to as Black Literary Renaissance (highlighting the flourishing of the Afro-American writers and unprecedented scale of their talent) and New Negro Renaissance in more general terms describing the development of African American art, literature, drama, etc. Overall, it was the time when black artists, writers, and dramatists invented their own methods and styles rather than imitating the achievements of the white population. The Harlem Renaissance continued throughout the period that between 1919 and 1930 with the highest point of its progression located between 1924 and 1929.

The Harlem Renaissance received its name from a historic district of New York City – Harlem where at that time a large population of African Americans settled down. From Harlem, the renaissance spread to other urban centers of the United States, the original name, however, was preserved (Bloom, 1995).

The appearance of this cultural and social phenomenon was predetermined by a number of historic events: the end of the Civil War manifested at least partial liberation of the African American population and resulted in increased migration from the South to the North in search of a better future (Wintz, 1988). The migrants brought with them largely unknown to the North before Jazz and Blues music, the life of African American nightclubs, and dancing.

In addition to that, the African American community was able to become a part of the American middle class changing the face of American class stratification. These changes were also associated with increased levels of African American advocacy and the appearance of such organizations as the NAACP, and at the same time with the increased levels of violence as not all people easily accepted the changes through which the country was passing at the time (Helbling, 1999).

All these changes lead to an unprecedented rise in the amount of literary, art, music African American creations that influenced not only the status of African American community but the whole society.

The group of people who built and developed the Harlem Renaissance was comprised of African Americans that fell into three primary categories: descendants of slaves, migrants from the Southern communities who searched for an environment with lower levels of prejudice, and improved living and opportunities. The third category consisted of black immigrants from other countries who traveled to the United States in the hope of a better life.

All these segments of the population came together in the district of Harlem in New York City to create and develop a new culture and new forms of social phenomena.

Those who belonged to the Harlem Renaissance tended to identify themselves with the idea of New Negro – an educated artistic person that through creations in various spheres, such as art, music, and literature could address important social issues and break groundless racial stereotypes (Kramer & Robert, 1997). This theme became a widely discussed topic analyzed in numerous literary works and depicted in pictures and paintings.

The Harlem Renaissance was not identified with any particular form of art that resulted from the development of this era. This renaissance was characterized by a mix, a variety of experiments, and diversity of expression that encompassed all manifestations of new and traditional: traditional African American music and jazz and blues; use of traditional poetry forms, and such new form as “jazz poetry”.

Such a mix of forms and styles appealed to a mixed audience. The works of the Harlem artists and writers were equally interesting for the black population and large portions of the white population and actually relied in many ways on the magazines owned by white people (Bloom, 1995).

Similarly, Harlem entertainment attracted a variety of people, not necessarily African American, a lot of white people visited Harlem nightclubs and cabarets searching for good entertainment. Especially popular and interesting in this respect was the White Cotton club of New York City that provided black entertainment for only white clients.

Unfortunately, very little of the Harlem Renaissance promotion at the time when it existed would have taken place without the protection from the white people. The whites helped African Americans to publish their novels, to popularize their music, to sell their art.

As historians point out, they did so for three main reasons: some of them considered African American culture to be primitive and found joy in almost “playing” with the bright minds of Harlem, others quickly realized that African American culture was in fashion, and wanting to keep up with the pace of ever-changing fashion helped the black (Singh, 1976). A relatively small portion, however, strived to help the African Americans as they realized that the changes that occur in the society were important democratic changes that lead to the collapse of much of prejudice and stereotyping. While for some of the white population, the Harlem Renaissance did not seem a worthy and fertile endeavor, for the majority of African Americans it was a chance to state their identity and fight for equality and opportunity (Bloom, 1995).

It is believed that the most prominent field of the Harlem Renaissance development was literature. Literature was something like an escape for African Americans through which they could express any of their fears, hopes, and aspirations. The era of the Harlem Renaissance introduced to the world such renowned authors as Langston Hughes, Claude Mckay, Countee Cullen, Zora Neale Hurston, Nella Larsen, and many others who opened the realities of the black community to the rest of the world representing in their works the struggle of African American identity to ‘fit in’ (Kramer, Robert, 1997).

Among the main themes explored by the Harlem Renaissance authors were the issues of racism and segregation, defining new Negro identity, fighting for equal opportunities, and securing rights and freedoms, etc. The range of themes was extremely large and covered the majority of aspects of the day-to-day existence of the African American community at the time, those changes that were brought by the Civil War, and those obsolete ideas that still circulated in society.

With the evolution of the Harlem Renaissance, the writers received increased opportunities for self-determination, and often discussed and analyzed such themes as alienation and marginalization which had never been done before. Many authors also relied on the rich traditions of African Americans drawing their inspiration from folk, different dialects, blues, and jazz music creating unique forms of literature (Kramer, Robert, 1997).

Apart from that, the literature depicted the development of the black community in terms of its educational opportunities and sophistication in the context of growing urbanization and migration.

Although the creations of the Harlem African American community grew more and more popular with the general public, in reality conquering the white reader was not as important to the “new Negroes” as “expression of our individual dark-skinned selves”, as Langston Hughes pointed out.

Just like the upheaval of the Harlem Renaissance, its decline was defined by several aspects. The biggest factor for the decline of the Renaissance played the Great Depression that raged in the United States in the 1930s. Consequently, many of those who created the atmosphere of Harlem left New York City, and riots that happened in Harlem at the time mainly due to economic and financial issues (Wintz, 1988). Of course, Harlem Renaissance did not disappear in a day, and many Harlem Renaissance books and artworks were produced after the renaissance had already declined (Helbling, 1999).

It should be noted that like during any other period when significant changes take place, a conflict occurred in the African American between an old conservative community that did not want to accept the modernization of the black population, and the creative minds of Harlem who expressed themselves through every possible means and medium (Bloom, 1995).

The Harlem Renaissance laid the foundation for the United States Civil Rights Movement and is a period where many contemporary writers and artists still draw their inspiration from. It was during the Harlem Renaissance that the American mainstream publishers accepted the works of African American authors to make it accessible to a very wide range of populations, and the white population accepted them and expressed great interest. It was then that African Americans were able to prove that culture, literature, music, and art did not belong solely to the white population. This discovery was extremely empowering and vitally needed to the black community that after so many years of slavery and oppression finally was able to hope for a change and a change for the better.

References

Bloom, Harold, ed. Major Black American Writers Through the Harlem Renaissance /. New York: Chelsea House, 1995.

Helbling, Mark. The Harlem Renaissance The One and the Many. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999.

Hill, Anthony D. Pages from the Harlem Renaissance: A Chronicle of Performance. New York: Peter Lang, 1996.

Kramer, Victor A., and Robert A. Russ, eds. Harlem Renaissance Re-Examined. Rev. ed. Troy, NY: Whitston Publishing Company, 1997.

Singh, Amritjit. Twelve Black Writers, 1923-1933. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1976.

Wintz, Cary D. Black Culture and the Harlem Renaissance. 1st ed. Houston, TX: Rice University Press, 1988.