Renaissance Humanism: During the period of 1400 and 1650, the humanism term was used for main social philosophy and intellectual and literary works.
“Expansion of trade, growth of prosperity and luxury and widening social contacts created great interest in worldly pleasures, in spite of formal adherence to ascetic Christian policy.” In that case people welcomed such classical writers or artists who conveyed same social values and secular attitudes in their creative works (Kreis, 2008, 1).
In 1808, a German educator, F.J. Niethammar described the term ‘humanism’. It was to describe some scientific and educational study programs.
“The term ‘umanista’ or ‘humanist’ was described in the fifteenth century that told about a professional group of teachers who were related to the subject called ‘studia humanitatis.” Humanism never opposed logics but it was not in favor of Scholasticism(Hooker, 1996, 2).
“The man of renaissance lived in two worlds-the world of the medieval Christian matrix, in which the importance of every phenomenon was eventually indomitable through similar point of view. The man felt himself deferring between reason and faith” (Kreis, 2008, 3).
Beauty was understood a major part of life and humanist cult of beauty was explained that made it simple that humanism is above everything.
It was called an aesthetic movement. The aestheticism became the major element that superseded supernatural and scientific elements. “The man became the part of everything and he dealt with an ideal life which was no longer an escape from monastic kind of life rather it was a full participation in rich and varied human relationships” (Kreis, 2008, 4-5).
About Johannes Vermeer:Among all the Dutch Masters of Renaissance age, besides Rembrandt of course, Johannes Vermeer is maybe the most popular today. He was born in October 1632 and died in December 1675, lived and worked in Delft.
Though his life was short lived but he left most exquisite paintings in Western art. Until the end of nineteenth Century, he remained relatively obscure and was not much known in his own days, as he produced not many paintings, may be around forty five of which only thirty seven are known today (Liedtke, 2011, Para 1).
His works are rare and portray figures in interiors. His work is distinguished by the poetic quality of images and the effect of strong and bright colors. Though Vermeer’s work was famous in The Hague, Antwerp and Amsterdam but nearly half of his work was acquired by Pieter van Ruijven (Pioch, 2002, Para 2).
Very little is known about Vermeer or his teacher and evidently he himself had no pupils. His teacher could either be Leonaert Bramer or Carel Fabritius of Delft. He was a respected member of the Delft painter’s guild (Liedtke, 2011, Para 2).
“Vermeer’s father was a silk weaver but by about 1630 became an innkeeper and art dealer. He got married in 1653 to a wealthy catholic divorcee and converted to their religion” (Liedtke, 2011, Para 1). He moved into his wife’s house in the heart of Delft. He died at a young age of forty three leaving his wife with eleven children and his paintings. Though his paintings commanded high prices but due to the miserable Dutch economy of 1670’s made his last few years miserable(Liedtke, 2011, Para 1).
Vermeer’s original concept was not like today’s balanced composition. In the period of 1950s and 1960s the Dutch genre painters most commonly used the theme of a woman at her toilette. Vermeer’s famous painting ‘The Young Woman before a Mirror’ in 1962 was an iconographic work. “He made some critical changes in his composition according to the revelation of neutron autoradiography”(Janson, 2011). He concentrated his vision on the upper part of the composition.
“He reshaped the bluish clothe of the still life and removed many black and white floor tiles and many other complex structure of table” (Janson, 2011). That is why the viewers mainly focus on the upper portion. His major modification was to exclude the musical instrument like cittern (Janson, 2011).
According to Arthur Wheelock, “in the present work the artist minimized the apparent physical activity of the figure, portraying her at the moment she has the ribbons pulled taut.
Her thoughts may be inward, but they are expressed through her gaze, which reaches across the white wall of the room to the mirror next to the window. The whole space between her and the side wall of the room thus becomes activated with her presence.
It is a subtle yet daring composition, one that succeeds because of Vermeer’s acute sensitivity to the placements of objects and to the importance of spaces between these objects”(Janson, 2011).
In the painting ‘The Young Woman before a Mirror’ the most exclusive modification was “the exclusion of a large wall map that surrounded the standing girl absorbing her from into the rest of the composition and eliminating the direct line of her gaze towards mirror” (Janson, 2011). Wheelock mentions that “the map, representing the physical world, and the musicalinstrument, referring to sensual love, would have given a context for interpreting the mirror and the pearls negatively rather than positively.
Indeed, the sensual earthy connotations are similar to those associated with ‘Vrouw Wereld” (Janson, 2011). “The Vrouw Wereld (the Lady World) was a well-known allegorical figure dating back to medieval times who personifies worldly pleasures and transience.
By removing the map and musical instrument, Wheelock proposes that Vermeer transformed the image into a poetic one evoking the ideals of purity and truth,” which actually have been the main qualities of renaissance era (Janson, 2011).
The importance of mirror in his paintings: Normally the mirrors can be associated with many innovative meanings and associations.“They are used generally as the symbol of wisdom and self-knowledge built at the same time they can be associated with vanity, an unhealthy amount of self-regard” (Janson, 2011).
Renaissance artists are popular for using the mirrors more objectively to analyze reality. The Roman goddess Venus’s characteristics also can be associated with the use of mirrors as in the olden time, “the mirrors could be related with the world of women” (Janson, 2011).
“From the Renaissance, Vanity and Deception were the connotations the mirror carried most often rather Truth and Prudence”(Janson, 2011).
There is no evidence about Vermeer’s interaction with his colleagues. He boldly did not follow the innovative themes and painting techniques as his colleagues did. His paintings reflect his character and nature and present him as a quiet and balanced person. He seems to be an “even-tempered, confident, controlled and likely graced with above average social skills” (Janson, 2011).
The renaissance era refers to the period between the fourteenth century and the seventeenth century when a transformational wave moved across Europe. This paper seeks to discuss the history of the renaissance period. The paper will look at the history of some people and events that took place during the period.
King Arthur’s Biography
King Arthur was born in Britain in the region of Tintagel. Information about his time of birth is not clearly defined. It is however agreed that Arthur was the only son to Uther Pendrago and Igraine.
With his birth coming at a time when magic was a much developed practice, Arthur’s birth is believed to have been prophesied and a product of magic which was enlisted by his father. Arthur was upon his birth taken away from his parents, subject to the agreement that his father, Uther, made with Merlin the magician, that Arthur would grow as Merlin wanted.
Arthur was therefore taken care of Sir Ector who nourished the boy (Cutler, 2009). Even though Arthur was raised away from his farther, nature also later dictated this as his farther died, in a battle when Arthur was still a child. Arthur received the help of Merlin to reclaim the kinship of his father.
Using his magic, marline had “set a sword in a stone” and made a contest out of it from the contenders of the kinship (Caerleon, n.d.). The person who withdrew the sword would become the king. It was Arthur who managed to by chance withdraw the sword thus becoming king after his father.
On taking the throne, King Arthur organized his group and fought Saxons who had been advancing to take over the country. King Arthur then built a strong emperor at Camelot where with his knights (Caerleon, n.d.). Arthur also led the search for the Holy Grail, which they believed would help cure all diseases. A civil war, however, broke in the territory and Arthur was critically wounded. He was sneaked away from the battle and treated though his body is then believed to have mysteriously disappeared (Caerleon, n.d.).
Queen Mary (Bloody Mary)’s Biography
Queen Mary, also known as Mary Tudor was born in the year 1516 to king Henry the eighth and Catherine Aragon. She was the only child who managed to survive past child hood. Mary was accorded a superior education under which she learnt many languages among them: Latin, French, Spanish, and Italian among others.
She was also talented in arts and had passion in music apart from embroidery. Mary was forced to live separately from her parents who were to be divorced due to domestic wrangles. Her mother had not been able to give birth to a boy, an issue that did not please the king. The life of Mary changed for worse as the differences between her parents spilled over to her.
She became a victim of her father’s harsh treatments. She was for example forbidden from communicating with her mother. The turn of events saw Mary loose her status as a princes and value and respect that was accorded to her reduced. She was later ordered out of her special residence and taken into her step mother’s house where she was highly humiliated. In the new residence, Mary’s jewelry was taken from her and her servants withdrawn.
A series of events, including her mother’s death, occurred before she could be allowed back into the king’s court. At the age of thirty seven, Mary was crowned the queen of England. After being crowned, Mary repealed of her parents’ divorce through parliament.
Her marriage to Philip, a Spaniard, however shadowed her throne as her subjects never trusted strangers and feared being ruled by external forces. Mary also moved to restore papal supremacy in England. However, there existed resentments and rebellion from protestant churches leading to her move to order the burning of protestant church leaders who led the opposing moves. She later died and was replaced by her half-sister (Home, 2011).
Why King Arthur was Instrumental to Change
King Arthur is credited for peace that was realized in England during his reign. At the time of his rule and even prior, the territory was under constant attacks from enemies. Arthur undertook missions of war in his steps to defend the British territory from its enemies.
Arthur subdued his enemies through the battles using his mysterious sword that he had received from a hand that had come from under water in a lake. It is upon the establishment of his power to crush enemies that Britain enjoyed “a long period of peace and security” (Lacy, 2001). King Arthur was therefore instrumental in the transformation of security and peace that was later experienced in the territory after he instilled fear upon his enemies (Lacy, 2001).
Why Queen Mary was Instrumental to Change
Mary is significantly recognized to have brought about religious changes in England during her time as the queen. Being a strong catholic faithful, Mary took it as her responsibility to restore the position of the Catholic Church which had been over time eroded. Among the changes realized at the time was the restoration of pope as the head of the church in England.
The authority of the pope and the Catholic Church had been compromised by Mary’s father and her half brother that was aligned to the protestant churches. Mary reversed the changes that had been done by her father and half brother to favor the protestant churches by reestablishing the catholic mass and banning practices like the holly communion. Those who protested Mary’s changes were burned in an act that killed about three hundred people (History, 2011).
The Black Plague
The black plague, also referred to as bubonic plague was caused by a type of fleas that inhabits rat’s bodies. When bitten by the fleas, a deadly disease would be injected into a person’s body. The disease originated from China through trade interaction, the plague widely spread in Europe and killed many people.
In England alone, and in a span of two years, the plague killed about one and a half million people out of the then four million population of England. Since the plague had no cure, people were grounded with starvation as outsiders were also afraid to interact with the plagued community. After the plague, the demand for laborers to work in farms was high and the local rulers encouraged movement of peasants from their homes into the lord’s fields to provide labor in their farms.
Movements of people were by then restricted by feudal laws which provided that peasants were to move from their homes only on permissions from their lords. The movements were further restricted after the plague to enable the lords control the peasants who were their source of labor. The statute of laborers which were introduced to control the movements of people resulted to a revolution by the peasants. The plague is for this reason perceived to have been instrumental in the revolution (History, 2011).
Battle of Agincourt
The battle of Agincourt was a war fought between the English and the French in the year 1415. The number of the French army was so high compared to the English force. However, the French were not as organized as the English and the abrupt raid by the English gave the French a surprising defeat.
The result of the battle was the mass destruction of the French troops who were either killed or held captives by the English. The war left France a weak territory as most of its royal leaders died in the battle. France then broke into civil war that further weakened it. As a result, a treaty was later signed that recognized Henry, the English king as the heir of the French kinship. There was therefore a change in the French leadership (Gumm, n.d.).
Impacts of the Invention Of the Printing Press and Telescope
The printing press was invented in the fifteenth century as a result of numerous developments that ranged from trade to other printing elements such as block printing and developments in inks. One of the impacts of the press was the improved communications that enhanced the spread of information among people and places.
The effects of the invention of the printing press were the spread of religious views among European religious activists in the fifteenth and sixteenth century. The establishment of the printing press helped to a great extent in facilitating religious revolutions.
Europe was predominantly made up of Roman Catholic religion and a small percentage of Jewish religion by the time of the invention. There was however protestant developments that were fueled by the press and this yielded a number of divisions in the religion arena. By the sixteenth century, more faiths such as the Lutheran, Calvinist among others had spread throughout Europe by the aid of the printing press.
The discovery therefore had impacts in the religious developments. The development of the printing press also facilitated the development in science. It enhanced communications of scientific discoveries for comparisons and as well improved the studies in science just like in other academic fields (Crompton, 2004).
The invention of the telescope also had positive impacts on the study of science in astronomy. Before the invention of the telescope, scientists relied on the naked eye to make observations into the space. This put limitations regarding what could be observed. Upon its discovery, the telescope facilitated a number of discoveries into the space. Telescopes have aided research into the universe revealing properties such as the dark matter. It has therefore had a significant impact in research science (Melville, 2006).
Biography of Leonardo Da Vinci
Leonardo Da Vinci was born in April 1452 in the Italian town of Vinci. Da Vinci was a key figure in the revolutionary renaissance in Italy. He was actively involved in a variety of fields such as “architect, music, anatomy, inventions, engineering, sculptor and painting” (Italian, n.d.). Leonardo was born to parents with a humble background. He spent his early live staying with his father. His drawings captivated his father who then showed them to a painter by the name Andrea.
Leonardo was then taken by Andrea into school to study painting. Leonardo was later employed in a workshop where he helped develop weapons for a Milan war. He also served as a “military architect and engineer” (Italian, n.d., p. 1) in Florence under the rule of Borgia (Italian, n.d.). Leonardo made landmarks in many places and fields in his lifetime. He later died in the year 1519 in France (Italian, n.d.).
Techniques used in Mona Lisa Painting
One of the painting techniques used in the Mona Lisa painting is referred to as sfumato which was used to develop “translucent brush strokes” (Davis, 2009). Da Vinci also employed a number of other techniques such as oil layering. The sfumato technique was used to create the smiling expression and brush strokes. The techniques have helped in the preservation of the picture over a long period of time.
Essence of the Mona Lisa Work
The Mona Lisa picture is a reflection of the fashion that was encountered in Florence at the time. The dressing style given to the portrait is a characteristic of the then style in that particular town (Gombrish, n.d).
The Mona Lisa painting has also been described as that of a woman who is “simply and conservatively dressed” (Benson, 2001, p. 1). The woman in the figure appears to be “chaste, reserved, restrained and almost otherworldly” (Benson, 2001, p. 1).
In view of Benson’s (2001) description of the painting, the Mona Lisa picture is a reflection of the ancient woman before the liberalization and empowerment of women. The picture described a woman who is not independent but rather submissive to some forces that she allows to control her life (Benson, 2001).
The painting at the same time communicates a forecast in to the current time in which women are more confident of their stature. With “nothing to hide and a direct gaze” (Benson, 2001, p. 1), Mona Lisa is a representation of a confident woman who is a characteristic of the present woman. It can therefore be concluded that the Mona Lisa painting was an integrated art that represented the society as at that time as well as a projection of the society in later centuries in relation to the affairs of women in the society (Benson, 2001).
References
Benson, J. (2001). The renaissance and Barogue. Web.
Renaissance period is understood to have been a period of rebirth. It was a period of rebirth in virtually every aspect of the society. It was then an initial stage in history that artistic expressions were becoming popular in Europe and artists at this period were not just mere craftspeople but people with unique talents who were in positions to redefine their talents and their views towards nature and humanity.
Consequently, mathematical innovations had an impact on renaissance art since it allowed the artists to redesign and portray objects and other human forms in real perspective and proportions. Renaissance in Italy began in the year 1400 and ended in the year 1600. During this period various ideas regarding to the ways of life were spread through Europe in dissimilar ways but during the similar period. There were several reasons as to why renaissance began in Italy. These reasons are:
City States: The strategic location of Italy and particularly, the Mediterranean Sea factor which boosted Italian trade in the production of textiles and luxury goods. This trade was spurred by crusades, which facilitated the development of large city states in the northern part of Italy. During this period, the northern part of Italy was urban while the rest of Europe was still rural and since cities are home to information and exchange of ideas, the Italian city states became ideal ground for intellectual revolution.
Prior to renaissance, the northern cities had been struck by Bubonic plague, which killed approximately 60 percent of the population. This had an impact on the economy, and since there were few laborers, they demanded higher wages. The plague also led to the reduction of business opportunities and this prompted merchants to pursue other ventures like art (Mantin 10).
Merchants and the Medici: Wealthiest cities of trade at that time only existed in Italy, and they included Naples, Venice and Genoa. These cities had survived the economic crises which had befallen most parts of Europe during the late middle age period. There also existed a wealthy class of merchants who cropped up in the cities.
Cities like Milan and Florence, due to their small geographical area made it easy for citizens to actively involve themselves in politics. Merchants dominated politics in these cities but unlike the nobility class, those merchants did not inherit a social rank, and they used their wits to succeed in business. Wealthy merchants developed the belief that they deserved leadership primarily because of their merit. This belief on personal achievement became instrumental during the period of renaissance.
Trade: Trade brought new ideas, and Italy was at that time a renowned trading machine. Consequently, Italy was special because it was the centre of ancient Roman history; its architectural remnants, statues and amphitheaters were considered to be the Glory of Rome. These factors were a recipe for the renaissance (Mantin 12).
During renaissance, man began thinking more of worldly things contrary to life after death. It was characterized by the ability of man to splendidly dress himself with jewels; man surrounding himself with paintings and statuary, indulging himself with several pleasures and growth of obsession towards objects of art.
During the renaissance period, people concentrated on the activities and matters of life contrary to seeking fame, wealthy, honor or glory in their lives. Italy considered herself as the foundation of renaissance due to her assumption of Rome and Greece, which involved adoption of ancient Greek life and art, politics and literature. Renaissance was characterized by innovations in arts and sciences, and the rejuvenated interest in history, literature and arts revolutionized thinking (Plumb 32).
In Italy, renaissance was considered to be a period of artistic and cultural realizations. The period was characterized by various distinct ideas concerning life and particularly secularism, individualism, humanism and materialism. Renaissance period influenced the European society for several generations making the period a golden age in history of Europe.
Florence was considered as a symbol of renaissance because, just like other ancient states like Athens, it attracted various people of different talents from all the Italian city states. Florence developed well when Medici, which was a strong family in Florence, exercised power and influence over the city. Medici family provided Florence with strong political and artistic leadership (Gundersheimer 4).
The most conspicuous changes during the period of renaissance were evidenced in paintings and sculpture, though there were some few elements of medieval tradition, which involved the use of religious subjects.
Renaissance combined this and the classical ideals of human form, which enhanced the depiction of nature. During the period, secular objects were prominent, and they were inspired by the Greek and Roman mythology. It was at this period that artists started using oil-based paints while also utilizing the fresco technique (Paoletti and Radke 87).
The period of renaissance began in the city of Florence, Italy, and it was characterized by numerous innovations, particularly in art, which, was the main concern regarding perspective, composition and the subject matter. During this period, emphasis was placed on depiction of nature in landscape design while moving towards the portrayal of religious figures in dissimilar light (Essortment 1).
The renaissance period led to enhanced creativity on art and writing. In Italy, it referred to the rebirth of learning and art. The educated elite of Italy had desired to bring to active life the ancient culture of Greece and Rome but renaissance had new things for them.
It was in Florence that intellectual and artistic flowering took place hence making it to serve as a perfect example in Italy that was worth emulating. During the period, Florence had grown exceedingly rich due to its woolen industry. It was the Medici family that controlled the guild that produced wool. Money is also considered to be the foundation of Florentine greatness. The city was considered to be the greatest banking centre at that time, and it was under the control of the leading families (Osman 12).
Renaissance took place first in Italy since the rejuvenation of commerce and constructions of towns was deeper in Italy. It was also due to the fact that feudalism had taken a toll in Italy; consequently, there was a presence of antiquity, which was stronger in Italy as compared to other parts of Europe. Renaissance was a period of rebirth in various sectors, including economy, society, arts and literature (Hartt and Wilkins 4).
Concerning renaissance economics, church doctrines were being superseded in the primacy by profit making activities. These profit-oriented people used their wealth to activate philanthropy to guise their guilt. The high profit in Italy led to the diversification of the economy. During the period of renaissance economics, arts and art works were used as a medium to advertise their economic success.
On renaissance society, elitists dominated this period. This was due to the nature of Italy where the northern part was urban and commercial while the southern part was not. The period of renaissance was also characterized by a family-oriented society where marriages were in several occasions arranged to strengthen business ties.
In the Italian renaissance, it was the father who had overall authority over his own family but there were rare circumstances where wealthy women played critical roles particularly in the Italian city states, this was evidenced by Isabella d’Este of Mantua. Wealth was more concentrated in few great families, a phenomenon referred as “Populo grosso”.
The renaissance society in Italy was characterized by strong social stratification, which was divided into factions along the lines of wealthiest families.
The cult of the individual and the ability of the poor to improve their status was the order of the day, and this phenomenon was referred as Ciompi Revolt, which was considered as the fight by the poor. The cult of the individual during this period was called Populo minuto.
The societal portraits that were created and painted during the period of Italian renaissance illustrated focus of individual who was a true nobleman. Italian renaissance also witnessed the emergence of humanism and secularism in the context of Christianity, which stressed on the free will of an individual. This kind of life had some efforts of strongly rewarding life in an excellent manner.
Renaissance Politics: The Italian cities followed a pattern similar to that of Greek city states whereby there were infighting and warfare among the city states; this led to the advancement of diplomacy that was aimed at achieving balance of power. 1300 republicanism later developed to be 1400 despotism in the states and cities with an exception Venice.
During this period, Niccolo Machiavelli emerged as the classical philosopher and critical thinker. According to Machiavelli, the prince must be driven by the desire to amass power; he explained the cynical and immoral view of human nature that is often driven by fear and not affection. The politics during the period of Italian renaissance was considered as the art of deception. Henry VIII emerged as the prince of the renaissance period (Italian Renaissance 29).
There were also renaissance art and architecture; these were characterized by the proliferation of portraits, portraiture and its importance. Most of the portraits depicted nudes or were a reflection of nudity. The artists were interested in the imitation of nature.
There were also pagan scenes and pagan myths, which were portrayed in the image of popular subjects without making apologies to the church. The status and portrait of individuals were elevated to the level of cultural heroes. Italian renaissance art placed emphasis on proportion, balance and harmony and ignored other aspects. Matters of perspective that often emerged as artistic problems were solved by stressing on the mathematical aspect of painting.
This was depicted in the Brunelleschi’s principle of linear perspective. Rome developed as the heart of high renaissance while Leonardo Da Vinci is regarded to be the true face of renaissance. The building of renaissance projects was achieved using Romanesque architecture as reflected in the Brunelleschi’s church of San Lorenzo (Italian Renaissance 37).
Regarding renaissance education and philosophy, there were various kinds of humanisms. An overwhelming fervor was evidenced in the finding and the collection of documents. Education was used as moral instruments. The education at this period was a true liberal one that was typified by the love for history.
The introduction of education led to the disappearance of the Greek language. The father of Italian renaissance humanism was Petrarch. Education in the renaissance period influenced the development of secondary education and stressed the relevance and importance of law, and rhetoric characterized renaissance education. It was through education that classical political ideals were created and nurtured because there was a need for a useful knowledge.
During the period of Italian renaissance, papacy lost influence over nation-states, this impacted on the moral prestige and leadership of the popes. This, however, could not stop the pope to be considered as the patron of renaissance art. Nepotism was widely widespread, and it was applied in the promotion of family interest (Italian Renaissance 45).
During the renaissance period, Italy was subdivided into city states with officials who performed both government and public duties. During the period, constitutions existed with full time elected officials. The city states were under the control of merchants who were rich. The Medici family was the prominent one during the period, and it controlled the state of Florence.
The Medici family consisted of established entrepreneurs, bankers and merchants; they also believed in education and were understood for their art and poetry. It was their money that assisted in driving arts as well as a starting renaissance. During the renaissance, there existed powerful merchants who used their wealth to achieve economic and political leadership. Bankers, for example, achieved fame and prestige by making loans available for expansion of business activities across Europe.
Humanism was the defining moment of renaissance. Humanism was a literary movement which started in Italy at the period of renaissance, but it was distinct since it broke from the tradition of medieval age where the creation of art or literature was only a product of moral religious motivations.
Humanist writers and artists moved away from religious themes to worldly or secular subjects, this was driven by their materialistic perspective about the world. Humanist artists and writers glorified individuals due to their belief that man was a measure of all things. The emergence of humanism marked the end of the influence and dominance of the church. Examples of humanists who lived during the age of Italian renaissance were: Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Francesco Petrarca and Leonardo Bruni (Bloom 118).
There also existed renaissance popes. Popes were stationed in Rome, which was considered the cultural centre of Italy. People of talent traveled from all corners of the world to Italy at the request of the pope. Popes had several ambitions, and they were rich politically with determination to make Rome centre of spiritual, cultural and political activities of the world. Renaissance popes were sensual, self-indulgent but excellent administrators and generous patrons of arts.
Michelangelo was considered as the supreme artist of the renaissance period. He belonged to an aristocratic family, but their wealthy had declined and that is when he started developing ability in imitating classical styles of sculpture. Michelangelo created David, which was Florence’s symbol of strength.
Michelangelo was contracted by pope to design and construct the greatest tomb in the Christian world. Michelangelo also developed the ceiling of the Sistine chapel which took him four years to complete. To date, Michelangelo is considered as an epitome of arts and painting that is still used today (Chase 4).
Works Cited
Bloom, Harold. The Italian Renaissance. New York, NY: Infobase Publishing, 2004. Print.
Essortment. What Is The Italian Renaissance? Essortment, 2011. Web.
Gundersheimer, Werner. The Italian Renaissance. Canada, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993. Print.
Hartt, Frederick and Wilkins, David. History of Italian Renaissance art: painting, sculpture, architecture (7th ed). New York, NY: Prentice Hall, 2010. Print.
Italian Renaissance. Key concepts. Italian Renaissance, 2005. Web. <users.ipfw.edu/gatesb/H113l.PPT>
Mantin, Peter. The Italian renaissance. London, UK: Heinemann, 1992. Print.
Osman, Karen. The Italian Renaissance. New York, NY: Lucent Books, 1996. Print.
Paoletti, John and Radke, Gary. Art in Renaissance Italy (3rd ed). London, UK: Laurence King Publishing, 2005. Print.
Plumb, John. The Italian Renaissance. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin, 1986. Print.
Angelina Grimke is one of the most famous writers who had a huge impact on the Harlem Renaissance. She was born to the family of mixed racial heritage; her father was black and her mother was white. Her literary works are all about the constant racial discrimination and injustice the black people in the US have endured. Her literary heritage constitutes plays, poems and short stories. The main themes highlighted by her works are sexuality, racial discrimination, violence and prejudice.
Grimke’s most memorable work is the play ‘Rachel’ which was finished in 1916 but it was published 4 years later, in the year 1920. The play is about a woman who vows not to give birth to a child after seeing the horrors of racism within the society. Her play has historical significance because it focuses on the segregationist attitudes which many whites in the US had against blacks.
The play is set at the time when slavery was abolished but blacks were still treated as inferior race (Gates and McKay 968). Grimke’s play was one of the first to be written by black authors highlighting the plight of blacks in the US. Many African Americans were victims of violent attacks by racist white mobs without any provocation from their side. Her work was instrumental in bringing to light racial prejudices that were deeply ingrained in the American society.
Her works touched on such themes as racism, love, black pride, life and death. Grimke‘s works influenced the Harlem Renaissance which occurred from the 1920’s to the 1930’s. Her works cleared the way for other African American writers based in Harlem, New York, to publish literature on racism among other social issues. Her work inspired other African American writers to dwell on the ills and their impacts on the society.
The author uses metaphors to illustrate tough experiences African Americans faced, and the oppressive environment they had to survive in (Gates and McKay 968). She also came from the background of mixed racial heritage and as such, she understood what it felt like to be discriminated against.
Grimke’s play Rachel dramatized real truths in the contemporary society. The play was a harsh indictment on American society’s prejudices and attitudes towards people of other races. It involved an all-black cast; and it sought to rally support for a boycott against the film, The Birth of a Nation.
The film proved popular with many audiences but negatively portrayed blacks in the US. Grimke joined other activists to advocate for banning of the film because of its prejudices against blacks (Gates and McKay 969). Her play sought to criticize the oppression against African Americans.
She explores issues of sexual desires in her poems revealing that she is a lesbian. Such relations were not tolerated in American society which is very conservative up to now. Her works reveal her suppressed desire for the same sex lover; an act that was considered abominable at that time.
The issue of suppression is highlighted clearly in her works even when she stresses on the restrictions people of her own race face due to racial prejudices (Gates and McKay 969). The ideas and attitudes that Grimke adheres to takes motivates other authors to use creative approaches to tackle negative impacts of racial segregation on African Americans.
Grimke’s poem ‘Eye of Regret’ utilizes strong metaphors to describe the personal struggles that the main character in the poem has to face in his daily life. The poem illustrates how difficult it is for the disadvantaged to make it in a land where they are denied access to social and economic opportunities.
The poem reflects how African Americans who moved to northern cities in search of work had to toil in order to earn a living (Gates and McKay 969). Grimke’s works link the past and the present by means of metaphors. Her other poem ‘Trees’ shows her objection towards the mistreatment of others because of their dark skin color. She uses unreal experiences and settings to illustrate the pain that Blacks go through for being considered inferior.
Grimke’s poems are sentimental and speak of the pain the author felt at that time. Her poem, ‘As We Have Sowed’ reveals her emotions on the basis of the master- servant relationship between whites and blacks.
This poem discusses the prevailing attitudes in the American society at the time when blacks were only thought of as slaves or servants. She speaks out against this injustice that many in the society are accustomed to (Gates and McKay 970). Her other works such as ‘The Closing Door’, and ‘Blackness’ reveal her displeasure in regards to the way black women are disrespected.
Grimke’s works had a significant contribution to the African American Literature in the United States of America. Her works raise themes that had a lot of significance during that period. She inspired the generation of other intelligent African American authors; she offered powerful insights into the issues of racial relations, sexuality and gender in the US.
Works Cited
Gates, Henry Louis, and Nellie Y. McKay. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 2004. Print.
Europe, like many other continents, has undergone a lot of transformations in different fronts. In regard to the buildup of history of the continent, it was characterized by many uprisings from countries including France and Germany.
Italy and others followed suit in pursuit of economic change and governance. 1848 is particularly known as ‘the year of barricades’ as it was characterized by revolutionary activities across the continent. This paper seeks to explain the intrigues that led to the historical uprisings in Europe and the outcome thereof.
By 1848, Europe experienced a major shift from agriculture to industrialization. With the advancement in industrialization, merchant ships started docking at the French coast with food imports such as potatoes. France experienced a boom in its economic power as its output increased by 77%.
This effect was felt across the continent as countries such as Belgium doubled their output and others like Great Britain had more than double. However, this came with its own share of problems. For example, the potatoes imported were infested with moulds that caused crop diseases like potato blight and potato typhus. This affected the French agriculture and greatly reduced their population from 8.5 million to 6.5 million. This foresaw a great dynamism in the European history and the world at large (Merriman, 437).
There were pre-1848 tensions across the continent such as economic challenges amongst leaders, urbanization, challenges amongst artisans, food insecurity and conflicting ideologies amongst different countries. France had these problems during this period. It then increased its taxes to 45% and this was a heavy burden for peasants.
It also experienced a downturn in its stock exchange market with a 55% decline. The French populace had an interest in a liberal charter and to impede the authoritarian leadership of Ferdinand II. The liberals and working citizens were utterly discontented with the actions of King Louis Philippe. They were disgusted by the King’s minister Francois Guizot who opposed electoral reforms.
General Louis Cavaignac’s dictatorship crushed the revolution of the time and left more than 10,000 dead. When Louis Napoleon Bonaparte ousted Cavaignac from power, he instilled law and order. Politics in France then shifted to the right. He replaced all radical government representatives with ultra-conservatives and monarchists. He went ahead and dissolved the national assembly and a new election was held. The revolution had finally paid off (Merriman, 576).
The German unity materialized as a result of political maneuvering by Prussia. The National assembly drafted a charter to unite Germany under a ruler. The charter was then offered to Fredrick William IV although he rejected it. With a united north, Prussia opted for the southern region. France then declared war on Prussia which was later able to convince the southern states to join in repulsing the French. In the end, Germany became unified. Italy on the other hand was made up of small autonomous kingdoms.
They had a high potential for change in the Italian peninsula that was under the Austrians. The French assisted the Italians to defeat the Austrians and later France made an unsuspected peace deal with Austrians. By 1871, virtually the entire isthmus had been engrossed by Sardinia with the exception of Rome and Venice. The Italian kingdom was born and the unity continued up to 1871 when Rome and Venice were finally absorbed (Merriman, 254).
Works Cited
Merriman, John. A History of Modern Europe; From the Renaissance to the Present (3rd edition), New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010. Print.
In contemporary studies, some scholars have postulated that the medieval and Renaissance periods can theoretically be described as allegorical and metaphorical respectively. The medieval era, also known as the middle ages, represents the medieval thinking and is termed as allegorical thinking.
The Renaissance age, which brought about scientific and artistic revolution, is termed as metaphorical thinking. This paper discusses how, in relation to medieval and Renaissance ages being termed as allegorical and metaphorical respectively, enlightenment can be described as metonymy.
The Medieval Period
The medieval age lasted between the fifth and the fifteenth century in Europe and it started with the collapse of the Roman Empire. Allegory, from a literary perspective, means drawing ideas from the past to shape the present. During this age, the church was ruling the world, and allegory was an imperative tool in the production of biblical and classical traditions into what would become identifiable as medieval culture.
The people of the middle Ages deliberately referred from traditional legacies of the past to shape their present, implying an allegorical characteristic. The allegory used in this period ensured transformational continuity between the ancient world and the new era of the church.
Modern scholars clearly distinguish the classical era from the medieval time, but people in the era had different views. Using allegory, they were able to associate themselves with the past and, therefore, did not view classical people as different from them, but a connection between them and the ancient world.
The Renaissance Period
Renaissance thinking in the Renaissance period is characterized by some modern scholars as being metaphorical. The Renaissance, meaning rebirth, is an era that was marked by scientific and artistic revolutions. A metaphor in literature means using something to stand for another, which is entirely unrelated to it.
During this period, people could use art to communicate ideas and views that could be difficult in the normal situations. The use of art, including pictures, poetry, and songs, to represent different ideas in the society leaves no questions that the thinking of the period is metaphorical.
Conclusion
Western philosophy, logic and intelligence characterize the age of enlightenment. The age is also referred to as the age of thinking and, unlike the previous age, it focused on reason as its core value, without which nothing significant would happen. The period has ten assumptions about education that clearly stress the need of reason to acquire knowledge. When these assumptions are compared with the common hypotheses of education, there is a clear-cut difference.
Some of the ideas include the existence of a stable, coherent, and self-importance of reason in acquiring knowledge. Apart from the two, the thinking in the period assumes that when knowledge is obtained through the use of reason, it would last long and bring changes to society. In short, the enlightenment thinking can be described as a metonymy for the reason it has been used to represent thinking and, hence, enlightenment.
Everything that will lead to enlightenment, including science, has to do with proper reasoning in the age. All these assumptions contradict the conventional assumptions of education, which focus on the authority.
Regarding the common assumptions of education, learning has no social values. Therefore, it is just a supplement to life and is not life itself. In this context, the idea of reason has also been emphasized, making the argument in the age effective. In fact, the supposition of education in the era is that, for any right thing to happen, the reason must be made clear.
The Harlem Renaissance, also known as the ‘New Negro Movement,’ refers to the blossoming of African American intellectual and cultural life in the decade of the 1920s. The Renaissance was sandwiched between two challenging periods in history – World War 1 and the Great Depression (Wintz & Finkelman 3).
During this period, the black community advanced a new black identity, and African Americans were able to transform themselves from the old into something new through group expression and self-determination (Huggins 3; Rowen para. 1). Huggins argues that the Harlem Renaissance was the point of transformation for the Afro-American culture, whereby the Afro American writers became self-assertive, confident, and racially conscious as though it was for the first time.
Unlike in the past where blacks used to be treated with contempt, and as people in need of pity and assistance, the Harlem Renaissance saw African American writers demand to be treated with respect since they were also American citizens in their own right.
The renaissance reminded other Americans that Black Americans had indeed revived and inspired themselves to compete for the same resources, eye for eye since they were also intelligent, articulate, industrious, and self-assured in the same manner as the mainstream white society (Huggins 3). As such, it can be argued that Negro writers became more assertive and more aware of their cultural background during this period.
To the best of the literature that exists to date, the Harlem Renaissance was triggered mostly by the fact that blacks were increasingly becoming modernized. Indeed, according to historians, the migration of the Negros from the south to the north transformed the image and stature of the African-American from rural, undereducated, and subjugated peasants to one of urban, cosmopolitan erudition (Huggins 5; Wintz & Finkelman 69).
Due to the modern lifestyles in urban areas, the ‘new Negro’ writer cut across a figure of someone demanding for his rights by using various channels such as poetry, songs, theater, editorials, novels, among others.
This new identity, arising from the transformation of blacks from sharecroppers and laborers to urbanites, led to a superior consciousness, and Negro writers became players on the world map, intensifying intellectual and socio-cultural contacts internationally (Watson 23). It is, therefore, safe to argue that Negro writers during the Harlem Renaissance were consciously modern.
The ‘New Negro’ writers exercised more assertiveness, self-control, and self-confidence than the ‘Old Negro’ writers. Indeed, writers during the Harlem Renaissance directly questioned the authority and aesthetic standards exercised by the dominant white society over other minority racial groupings viewed as of less value by the whites (Wintz & Finkelman 67). The methods used – poems, novels, songs, among others – were revolutionary, and could traverse the whole world (Huggins 11).
Poets such as Countee Cullen and Claude McKay, and novelists such as Zora Neale Hurston, Jean Toomer, among others, came up with masterpieces that made the rights and aspirations of the Afro American to be recognized within and outside the US in ways that had not been witnessed before.
According to Wintz & Finkelman, “…the fiction writers of the Harlem Renaissance broke away from the earlier tradition in that they gave African American culture a more urban, assertive, and cosmopolitan voice” (69). As such, it is only fair to conclude that this particular genre of writers was more assertive than early writers.
Works Cited
Huggins, N. I. Voice from the Harlem Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press. Web.
Science and technology have advanced human civilization and changed the world in many ways. The rapid development of knowledge has taken several hundred years and led to the world of the modern advancements. One of the most significant periods in history is the Renaissance which took place in 1300-1650 (Waugh 3).
It drastically changed the world, its place in the universe and people’s minds. It is interesting to note that according to Spielvogel, “the earliest humanlike creatures-known as hominids-existed in Africa as long as three to four millions years ago…and were the first hominids to make simple stone tools” (Spielvogel 2).
People have been developing for millions of years to make primitive devices, whereas Renaissance period moved people forward in progress by lasting only hundreds of years. It is also interesting to note that “Homo sapiens sapiens spread from Africa beginning about 70,000 years ago”, which means that even Europeans and their advancements are not their “selfish” invention (Spielvogel 3).
Robert Lembright acknowledges that the modern Western culture has become mixed up in history and how it is absorbed by the present and future generations. As such, a close analysis will allow for proper research and understanding (Lembright 20). Most what is known about Renaissance it that sciences were on the rise—geography, physics, mathematics, chemistry and astronomy became a part of society (Hansen 11).
At the same time, such fast development has seen some opposition from the government and society, as people tended to lean towards humanities and politics and considered exact sciences as unneeded and useless. Nonetheless, the intellectual growth continued through people becoming better engineers and the evidence of that can be seen in the buildings that are still standing today (Adams 32).
Chemistry was somewhat non-existent, as alchemy was the predominant form of science. People have been trying to make gold out of other substances but have seen no success. This is thought to be one of the earliest forms of chemistry that evolved into modern day science (Spielvogel 42).
Astronomy was also starting to emerge as an important part of the world. Previously, the Earth was thought to be the center of the solar system but this fact was changed by Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei. Medicine and the study of human body were another aspect in the development of humanity and there were many tests run in relation to drugs and medicines that were not used prior to the period.
The technology and use of clocks and watches was another dominant aspect of the time. People have begun to use time in a much different way, as now it could be better controlled and monitored. The weapons industry was also on the rise, as artillery and gunpowder have become major advancements in the war fare (Spielvogel 45).
Anything that had to deal with magnification, such as a microscope, spectacles, eye glasses and telescopes was largely perfected (Duiker 17). This opened up a whole new world to people, as they were able to see life beyond own existence and discover new ways of how living things functioned in the world. Robert Lembright stresses that history is not finished, it is a process that must be manipulated in the search for truth (Lembright 20).
The time periods in the development of the human society have set apart stages of advancements. The world has seen many changes, technologically and ethically. People’s minds were moving forward, along with the technology that has helped comprehend and gather more information.
Works Cited
Adams, Paul. Experiencing World History. New York: NYU Press, 2000. Print.
Duiker, William. World History, Volume 2, 7th ed.: Since 1500. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.
Hansen, Valerie. Voyages in World History. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2008. Print.
Lembright, Robert. Annual Editions: Western Civilization, Volume 1: The Earliest Civilizations through the Reformation. New York: McGraw-Hill. Print.
Spielvogel, Jackson. Western Civilization: A Brief History Volume 1.: A Brief History to 1715. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print.
Waugh, Steven. Essential Modern World History. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes, 2001. Print.
The Harlem Renaissance was a term used collectively by social thinkers to represent the efforts by African-Americans to transcend the white-favored government systems in the new states, especially New York, from the southern states where they fled the oppressive system of Jim Crow.
The movement raised significant issues influencing the lives of blacks through literal works, such as music, drama, painting, sculpture, and movies. At the `center of this movement, there were certain poets whose works silently advocated for the rights and equity of African-Americans. This paper will discuss how the works of Claude McKay, “If We Must Die”, Langston Hughes’ “I, Too, Sing America”, and Maya Angelou’s “Willie” designate the Harlem Renaissance.
Poems
“I, Too, Sing America”. This poem is written by Langston Laughes and relates to Whitman’s poem “I Hear America Singing”. The term singing designates getting Americans from all lifestyles together to portray a harmonized American distinctiveness to the world.
According to Hughes, the African-Americans have forcefully been ejected from the song of America despite being its integral part. Thus, this poem symbolized Harlem Renaissances, in that, Langston appealed to the African-American reader to perceive him/herself as equal to his/her white counterparts.
Hughes highlights the racism entrenched in American culture during the period. In the line “whenever company comes”, he refers to the African-American population and at this time is forced to eat in the kitchen (Hughes 4). Thus, this population can be overlooked and not incorporated into the characters that symbolize America. Yet, the author argues that this isolation, though mostly pessimistic, have a salutary element, as he can “grow strong” (Hughes 7).
Hughes depicts a theme of struggle for equal rights and justice characteristic of the Harlem Renaissance. With symbolism and imagery, he tries to render that a day will come when the African-Americans receive equal treatment in the social and economic spheres as their white counterparts.
It could be observed when he says “Tomorrow I’ll be at the table” (Hughes 8-9). The metaphor of a table means the idea of equality and survival. This implies that one day the opinion of the African-American will be significant in directing the whole American nation.
Tough imagery terms including “darker”, “strong”, and “beautiful” typify the Harlem Renaissance. They help create the impression that black is beauty unlike the way the whites perceived it. Thus, this poem propagates a theme of struggle for recognition in the social, political and economic arena of the Harlem Renaissance.
“If We Must Die”. “If We Must Die”, by Claude McKay, is another poem that is emblematic of the Harlem Renaissance. It incites McKay’s coworkers to riot for their rights, to be heard and treated as equal laborers like the white laborers.
Many African-American journals republished this poem through the 1920s. In fact, this poem became a tool for mobilizing African-Americans to take their fights for justice to the streets. The Crusader upheld “If We Must Die” very fast. The imperative historical incentive for The Crusader embrace was the Red Summer, which color was derived from the outbreak of small wars between capital and labor, and spreading out in vulnerable places between blacks and whites.
The imagery and symbolism used in the poem do not identify the race of the “kinsmen”, and the “foe” of the speaker remaines concealed throughout the poem. This poem is written during the climax of violent riots of the African-Americans against the white community. It paints the weapons of the interracial fights as double-edged swords. Here, the author refers to the readers as “we” to promote the intuitive solidarity and willingness to die for imagined “kinsmen.”
It links suicidal vengeance with martyrdom for a blood brotherhood, as depicted in the rhetorical performance of a change from prospective animal terror, captured by “If we must die, let it not be like hogs” (McKay 1), to some masculine resilience, in the line “Like men we’ll face the murderous, cowardly pack” (McKay 13).
“Willie”. This poem is written by Maya Angelou to capture the potential and resilience of her uncle, and to depict him as a hero in his capacity. Especially, it is emblematic of the Harlem Renaissance because it captures the plight of a disabled African-American who cannot get the work and meet his social obligations due to his physical impairments (Angelou 11).
Uncle Willie represents a strong character of the African-Americans in the fight for equal rights and justice symbolic of the Harlem Renaissance. Despite his handicap, Uncle Willie’s attitude just keeps him going. The writer says, “Crippled and limping, always walking lame, He said, “I keep on movin’ / Movin’ just the same” (Angelou 4-5).
This poem summons all the African-Americans to rise above their challenges and fight for their rights in any capacity they can rather than brood over their perceived inferiority. Uncle Willie puts behind his social and economical inadequacies to follow and sustain the leaders of the African-American struggle against injustices: “I keep on followin’ / Where the leaders led” (Angelou 9-10).
Conclusion
The literary works of certain poets indeed capture the spirit and the purpose of the Harlem Renaissance. These authors cover different positions from where the African-Americans could fight for equality and justice. Langston Hughes uses the imagery of a house-help; McKay applies that of a wage-worker; while Angelou describes the imagery of a disabled person. The poems mentioned above appeal to the African-American population to transcend their individual challenges and keep fighting for their beliefs.
Works Cited
Angelou, Maya, n.d. Willie. Web.
Hughes, Langston, n.d. I, Too, Sing America. n.d. Web.
The renaissance period is known to have had various effects on the Catholic Church, both positive and negative. This was the period when the Catholic Church gained a lot of popularity from people. However, it was also during this period when the church almost collapsed. This paper seeks to establish the various ways that the rise and the near collapse of the church were due to the renaissance period.
Despite the very many contrasts that were existent during this period, there was a declining influence of the Catholic Church. Most humanists thought that the church still had traditional rules, values and policies which they felt that they were getting outdated and should therefore change.
In the earlier periods, the Catholic Church was an imperative part of the structure that was based on the faithfulness between vassals of the feudal system and the lords. In the renaissance period however, there was a shift on focus from religious matters to money matters. The church had a hard time adjusting to this fresh philosophy. As a result the church had been accused on the grounds of corruption on several occasions, an act which gave the church a bad reputation.
The high regard of the church was also wounded as some church heads desecrated the biblical regulations they were delegated to uphold and existed no differently that the worldly merchants and political numbers.
This was additionally compounded by the comprehension by the new sovereigns that, in order to maintain supremacy, the church had to operate according to its traditional rules and regulations, practices that were fading in the church. This was because some church leaders were acting in a manner which was in accordance to the principles of the Catholic Church.
Although there was decline in the popularity of the Catholic Church during this era, there was some growth in religious matters. This mostly happened in the 14th to the 15th century in a period which later came to be known as The Reformation. It was more critical in the 16th century.
Decline of the Church
The papal patio was mortified when, in the in the early years of the 14th century, the French emperor enforced them to Avignon. This strained move led the churches uppermost leaders to emerge as the subjects of France.
The church, in its place of providing religious leadership to the rapidly shifting society, became pre-occupied with its management of staff and procedures. The dilemma became even worse during the Great Schism, when opponent popes vied for power of the church. This was evidence of greed in the church. The ultimate outcome further lessened the political weight of the church.
There were commendable leaders of the Catholic Church for the duration of these times. Nicholas V and Pius II, who followed after the latter, were educated, devout and dignified heads of the church.
There were in addition other popes, like Alexander VI, who was pope in the year 1492, Julius II and also Leo X, who were primarily concerned with the political grounds, the endorsement of their families and the benefaction of the art. These popes additionally weakened the capability of the Catholic Church to have authority on the society and also in politics.
With its destabilized authority, the church established that its papal power was getting increasingly challenged, both in the vicinity and countrywide. These tests to the papal influence, known as “heresy”, burgeoned, and critics turned out to be more candid and copious
The Growth of Religion
The worry of the churches situation was a consequence of the power of the church, not the flaw. The pressure of the Catholic Church was failing but there was yet increasing recognition of religion all the way through all regions of Europe (Barry, 11). Religion started to revolutionize. Preachers called on the sinners to ask forgiveness (repent). This association believed in straight revelations from God devoid of the church as an agent.
People who protested the Catholic Church, along with their contradictory beliefs, posed a menace to customary religion. Popular unorthodox movements sustained their growth and continued to dare papal authority. Some fractions of these movements happened to be so willing to have the whole Catholic Church done away with. For the duration of the 14 century, a British theorist, John Wycliffe started airing his grievances against the Catholic Church in his trainings and scripts.
These heretics grow to be popular due to their attacks, but they hang about as a small underground. The preponderance of the reformers expected to modify the Catholic Church, not get rid of it. There was a very significant theologian in the early times of the 16th century at the University of Paris who supported conciliar theory. This hypothesis aimed at making a reformation to the Catholic Church by eliminating the supreme influence of the pope and putting it in a common council.
The renaissance period can hence be seen as a period that meant a lot of trials and consequent tribulations to the Catholic Church as a whole. It kept the church in constant upheavals (Starn, 22).
Works Cited
Barry, William. The Renaissance. The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. Vol. 12.