The poem Dream Boogie by Langston Hughes is a piece reflecting the frustration of African American citizens. The concerns of these people regarding their oppressed position in society could not be expressed openly, and music was one of the means of communicating with the white population. Therefore, the selected work represents the ideals of the Harlem Renaissance and can be used for improving the understanding of the movement.
Dream Boogie by Langston Hughes
The connection between the poem and the period under consideration can be established by paying attention to the rhythm and the mood conveyed by it. Thus, the author speaks to the audience using short phrases, and this technique resembles jazz songs written by musicians during the Harlem Renaissance. In this case, boogie-woogie rumble is not merely the way to refer to the arts but an attempt to highlight that communication was facilitated by music that everyone could hear (Hughes, n.d.). This circumstance contributes to the possibility to link the African American cultural movement with this piece, while the explicit dialogue contributes to the theme of this event. For instance, Hughes (n.d.) writes that a dream deferred corresponds to the beat, which is both happy and sad. This phrase implies discontent of this population group with their lives and the desire to demonstrate their worldviews to other citizens.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the poem Dream Boogie by Langston Hughes represents what the Harlem Renaissance stands for by emphasizing the perceptions of struggles by African Americans. It shows that they could not express their needs because communication with white people was complicated, and music was the only way to do so. The symbolic meaning of this work for the movement is also conditional upon its emphasis on the affected individuals feelings stemming from the existing disparities.
References
Hughes, L. (n.d.). Dream boogie. Poetry Foundation. Web.
The renaissance era refers to the period between the fourteenth century and the seventeenth century when a transformational wave moved across Europe. This paper seeks to discuss the history of the renaissance period. The paper will look at the history of some people and events that took place during the period.
King Arthurs Biography
King Arthur was born in Britain in the region of Tintagel. Information about his time of birth is not clearly defined. It is however agreed that Arthur was the only son to Uther Pendrago and Igraine.
With his birth coming at a time when magic was a much developed practice, Arthurs birth is believed to have been prophesied and a product of magic which was enlisted by his father. Arthur was upon his birth taken away from his parents, subject to the agreement that his father, Uther, made with Merlin the magician, that Arthur would grow as Merlin wanted.
Arthur was therefore taken care of Sir Ector who nourished the boy (Cutler, 2009). Even though Arthur was raised away from his farther, nature also later dictated this as his farther died, in a battle when Arthur was still a child. Arthur received the help of Merlin to reclaim the kinship of his father.
Using his magic, marline had set a sword in a stone and made a contest out of it from the contenders of the kinship (Caerleon, n.d.). The person who withdrew the sword would become the king. It was Arthur who managed to by chance withdraw the sword thus becoming king after his father.
On taking the throne, King Arthur organized his group and fought Saxons who had been advancing to take over the country. King Arthur then built a strong emperor at Camelot where with his knights (Caerleon, n.d.). Arthur also led the search for the Holy Grail, which they believed would help cure all diseases. A civil war, however, broke in the territory and Arthur was critically wounded. He was sneaked away from the battle and treated though his body is then believed to have mysteriously disappeared (Caerleon, n.d.).
Queen Mary (Bloody Mary)s Biography
Queen Mary, also known as Mary Tudor was born in the year 1516 to king Henry the eighth and Catherine Aragon. She was the only child who managed to survive past child hood. Mary was accorded a superior education under which she learnt many languages among them: Latin, French, Spanish, and Italian among others.
She was also talented in arts and had passion in music apart from embroidery. Mary was forced to live separately from her parents who were to be divorced due to domestic wrangles. Her mother had not been able to give birth to a boy, an issue that did not please the king. The life of Mary changed for worse as the differences between her parents spilled over to her.
She became a victim of her fathers harsh treatments. She was for example forbidden from communicating with her mother. The turn of events saw Mary loose her status as a princes and value and respect that was accorded to her reduced. She was later ordered out of her special residence and taken into her step mothers house where she was highly humiliated. In the new residence, Marys jewelry was taken from her and her servants withdrawn.
A series of events, including her mothers death, occurred before she could be allowed back into the kings court. At the age of thirty seven, Mary was crowned the queen of England. After being crowned, Mary repealed of her parents divorce through parliament.
Her marriage to Philip, a Spaniard, however shadowed her throne as her subjects never trusted strangers and feared being ruled by external forces. Mary also moved to restore papal supremacy in England. However, there existed resentments and rebellion from protestant churches leading to her move to order the burning of protestant church leaders who led the opposing moves. She later died and was replaced by her half-sister (Home, 2011).
Why King Arthur was Instrumental to Change
King Arthur is credited for peace that was realized in England during his reign. At the time of his rule and even prior, the territory was under constant attacks from enemies. Arthur undertook missions of war in his steps to defend the British territory from its enemies.
Arthur subdued his enemies through the battles using his mysterious sword that he had received from a hand that had come from under water in a lake. It is upon the establishment of his power to crush enemies that Britain enjoyed a long period of peace and security (Lacy, 2001). King Arthur was therefore instrumental in the transformation of security and peace that was later experienced in the territory after he instilled fear upon his enemies (Lacy, 2001).
Why Queen Mary was Instrumental to Change
Mary is significantly recognized to have brought about religious changes in England during her time as the queen. Being a strong catholic faithful, Mary took it as her responsibility to restore the position of the Catholic Church which had been over time eroded. Among the changes realized at the time was the restoration of pope as the head of the church in England.
The authority of the pope and the Catholic Church had been compromised by Marys father and her half brother that was aligned to the protestant churches. Mary reversed the changes that had been done by her father and half brother to favor the protestant churches by reestablishing the catholic mass and banning practices like the holly communion. Those who protested Marys changes were burned in an act that killed about three hundred people (History, 2011).
The Black Plague
The black plague, also referred to as bubonic plague was caused by a type of fleas that inhabits rats bodies. When bitten by the fleas, a deadly disease would be injected into a persons body. The disease originated from China through trade interaction, the plague widely spread in Europe and killed many people.
In England alone, and in a span of two years, the plague killed about one and a half million people out of the then four million population of England. Since the plague had no cure, people were grounded with starvation as outsiders were also afraid to interact with the plagued community. After the plague, the demand for laborers to work in farms was high and the local rulers encouraged movement of peasants from their homes into the lords fields to provide labor in their farms.
Movements of people were by then restricted by feudal laws which provided that peasants were to move from their homes only on permissions from their lords. The movements were further restricted after the plague to enable the lords control the peasants who were their source of labor. The statute of laborers which were introduced to control the movements of people resulted to a revolution by the peasants. The plague is for this reason perceived to have been instrumental in the revolution (History, 2011).
Battle of Agincourt
The battle of Agincourt was a war fought between the English and the French in the year 1415. The number of the French army was so high compared to the English force. However, the French were not as organized as the English and the abrupt raid by the English gave the French a surprising defeat.
The result of the battle was the mass destruction of the French troops who were either killed or held captives by the English. The war left France a weak territory as most of its royal leaders died in the battle. France then broke into civil war that further weakened it. As a result, a treaty was later signed that recognized Henry, the English king as the heir of the French kinship. There was therefore a change in the French leadership (Gumm, n.d.).
Impacts of the Invention Of the Printing Press and Telescope
The printing press was invented in the fifteenth century as a result of numerous developments that ranged from trade to other printing elements such as block printing and developments in inks. One of the impacts of the press was the improved communications that enhanced the spread of information among people and places.
The effects of the invention of the printing press were the spread of religious views among European religious activists in the fifteenth and sixteenth century. The establishment of the printing press helped to a great extent in facilitating religious revolutions.
Europe was predominantly made up of Roman Catholic religion and a small percentage of Jewish religion by the time of the invention. There was however protestant developments that were fueled by the press and this yielded a number of divisions in the religion arena. By the sixteenth century, more faiths such as the Lutheran, Calvinist among others had spread throughout Europe by the aid of the printing press.
The discovery therefore had impacts in the religious developments. The development of the printing press also facilitated the development in science. It enhanced communications of scientific discoveries for comparisons and as well improved the studies in science just like in other academic fields (Crompton, 2004).
The invention of the telescope also had positive impacts on the study of science in astronomy. Before the invention of the telescope, scientists relied on the naked eye to make observations into the space. This put limitations regarding what could be observed. Upon its discovery, the telescope facilitated a number of discoveries into the space. Telescopes have aided research into the universe revealing properties such as the dark matter. It has therefore had a significant impact in research science (Melville, 2006).
Biography of Leonardo Da Vinci
Leonardo Da Vinci was born in April 1452 in the Italian town of Vinci. Da Vinci was a key figure in the revolutionary renaissance in Italy. He was actively involved in a variety of fields such as architect, music, anatomy, inventions, engineering, sculptor and painting (Italian, n.d.). Leonardo was born to parents with a humble background. He spent his early live staying with his father. His drawings captivated his father who then showed them to a painter by the name Andrea.
Leonardo was then taken by Andrea into school to study painting. Leonardo was later employed in a workshop where he helped develop weapons for a Milan war. He also served as a military architect and engineer (Italian, n.d., p. 1) in Florence under the rule of Borgia (Italian, n.d.). Leonardo made landmarks in many places and fields in his lifetime. He later died in the year 1519 in France (Italian, n.d.).
Techniques used in Mona Lisa Painting
One of the painting techniques used in the Mona Lisa painting is referred to as sfumato which was used to develop translucent brush strokes (Davis, 2009). Da Vinci also employed a number of other techniques such as oil layering. The sfumato technique was used to create the smiling expression and brush strokes. The techniques have helped in the preservation of the picture over a long period of time.
Essence of the Mona Lisa Work
The Mona Lisa picture is a reflection of the fashion that was encountered in Florence at the time. The dressing style given to the portrait is a characteristic of the then style in that particular town (Gombrish, n.d).
The Mona Lisa painting has also been described as that of a woman who is simply and conservatively dressed (Benson, 2001, p. 1). The woman in the figure appears to be chaste, reserved, restrained and almost otherworldly (Benson, 2001, p. 1).
In view of Bensons (2001) description of the painting, the Mona Lisa picture is a reflection of the ancient woman before the liberalization and empowerment of women. The picture described a woman who is not independent but rather submissive to some forces that she allows to control her life (Benson, 2001).
The painting at the same time communicates a forecast in to the current time in which women are more confident of their stature. With nothing to hide and a direct gaze (Benson, 2001, p. 1), Mona Lisa is a representation of a confident woman who is a characteristic of the present woman. It can therefore be concluded that the Mona Lisa painting was an integrated art that represented the society as at that time as well as a projection of the society in later centuries in relation to the affairs of women in the society (Benson, 2001).
References
Benson, J. (2001). The renaissance and Barogue. Web.
Renaissance period is understood to have been a period of rebirth. It was a period of rebirth in virtually every aspect of the society. It was then an initial stage in history that artistic expressions were becoming popular in Europe and artists at this period were not just mere craftspeople but people with unique talents who were in positions to redefine their talents and their views towards nature and humanity.
Consequently, mathematical innovations had an impact on renaissance art since it allowed the artists to redesign and portray objects and other human forms in real perspective and proportions. Renaissance in Italy began in the year 1400 and ended in the year 1600. During this period various ideas regarding to the ways of life were spread through Europe in dissimilar ways but during the similar period. There were several reasons as to why renaissance began in Italy. These reasons are:
City States: The strategic location of Italy and particularly, the Mediterranean Sea factor which boosted Italian trade in the production of textiles and luxury goods. This trade was spurred by crusades, which facilitated the development of large city states in the northern part of Italy. During this period, the northern part of Italy was urban while the rest of Europe was still rural and since cities are home to information and exchange of ideas, the Italian city states became ideal ground for intellectual revolution.
Prior to renaissance, the northern cities had been struck by Bubonic plague, which killed approximately 60 percent of the population. This had an impact on the economy, and since there were few laborers, they demanded higher wages. The plague also led to the reduction of business opportunities and this prompted merchants to pursue other ventures like art (Mantin 10).
Merchants and the Medici: Wealthiest cities of trade at that time only existed in Italy, and they included Naples, Venice and Genoa. These cities had survived the economic crises which had befallen most parts of Europe during the late middle age period. There also existed a wealthy class of merchants who cropped up in the cities.
Cities like Milan and Florence, due to their small geographical area made it easy for citizens to actively involve themselves in politics. Merchants dominated politics in these cities but unlike the nobility class, those merchants did not inherit a social rank, and they used their wits to succeed in business. Wealthy merchants developed the belief that they deserved leadership primarily because of their merit. This belief on personal achievement became instrumental during the period of renaissance.
Trade: Trade brought new ideas, and Italy was at that time a renowned trading machine. Consequently, Italy was special because it was the centre of ancient Roman history; its architectural remnants, statues and amphitheaters were considered to be the Glory of Rome. These factors were a recipe for the renaissance (Mantin 12).
During renaissance, man began thinking more of worldly things contrary to life after death. It was characterized by the ability of man to splendidly dress himself with jewels; man surrounding himself with paintings and statuary, indulging himself with several pleasures and growth of obsession towards objects of art.
During the renaissance period, people concentrated on the activities and matters of life contrary to seeking fame, wealthy, honor or glory in their lives. Italy considered herself as the foundation of renaissance due to her assumption of Rome and Greece, which involved adoption of ancient Greek life and art, politics and literature. Renaissance was characterized by innovations in arts and sciences, and the rejuvenated interest in history, literature and arts revolutionized thinking (Plumb 32).
In Italy, renaissance was considered to be a period of artistic and cultural realizations. The period was characterized by various distinct ideas concerning life and particularly secularism, individualism, humanism and materialism. Renaissance period influenced the European society for several generations making the period a golden age in history of Europe.
Florence was considered as a symbol of renaissance because, just like other ancient states like Athens, it attracted various people of different talents from all the Italian city states. Florence developed well when Medici, which was a strong family in Florence, exercised power and influence over the city. Medici family provided Florence with strong political and artistic leadership (Gundersheimer 4).
The most conspicuous changes during the period of renaissance were evidenced in paintings and sculpture, though there were some few elements of medieval tradition, which involved the use of religious subjects.
Renaissance combined this and the classical ideals of human form, which enhanced the depiction of nature. During the period, secular objects were prominent, and they were inspired by the Greek and Roman mythology. It was at this period that artists started using oil-based paints while also utilizing the fresco technique (Paoletti and Radke 87).
The period of renaissance began in the city of Florence, Italy, and it was characterized by numerous innovations, particularly in art, which, was the main concern regarding perspective, composition and the subject matter. During this period, emphasis was placed on depiction of nature in landscape design while moving towards the portrayal of religious figures in dissimilar light (Essortment 1).
The renaissance period led to enhanced creativity on art and writing. In Italy, it referred to the rebirth of learning and art. The educated elite of Italy had desired to bring to active life the ancient culture of Greece and Rome but renaissance had new things for them.
It was in Florence that intellectual and artistic flowering took place hence making it to serve as a perfect example in Italy that was worth emulating. During the period, Florence had grown exceedingly rich due to its woolen industry. It was the Medici family that controlled the guild that produced wool. Money is also considered to be the foundation of Florentine greatness. The city was considered to be the greatest banking centre at that time, and it was under the control of the leading families (Osman 12).
Renaissance took place first in Italy since the rejuvenation of commerce and constructions of towns was deeper in Italy. It was also due to the fact that feudalism had taken a toll in Italy; consequently, there was a presence of antiquity, which was stronger in Italy as compared to other parts of Europe. Renaissance was a period of rebirth in various sectors, including economy, society, arts and literature (Hartt and Wilkins 4).
Concerning renaissance economics, church doctrines were being superseded in the primacy by profit making activities. These profit-oriented people used their wealth to activate philanthropy to guise their guilt. The high profit in Italy led to the diversification of the economy. During the period of renaissance economics, arts and art works were used as a medium to advertise their economic success.
On renaissance society, elitists dominated this period. This was due to the nature of Italy where the northern part was urban and commercial while the southern part was not. The period of renaissance was also characterized by a family-oriented society where marriages were in several occasions arranged to strengthen business ties.
In the Italian renaissance, it was the father who had overall authority over his own family but there were rare circumstances where wealthy women played critical roles particularly in the Italian city states, this was evidenced by Isabella dEste of Mantua. Wealth was more concentrated in few great families, a phenomenon referred as Populo grosso .
The renaissance society in Italy was characterized by strong social stratification, which was divided into factions along the lines of wealthiest families.
The cult of the individual and the ability of the poor to improve their status was the order of the day, and this phenomenon was referred as Ciompi Revolt, which was considered as the fight by the poor. The cult of the individual during this period was called Populo minuto.
The societal portraits that were created and painted during the period of Italian renaissance illustrated focus of individual who was a true nobleman. Italian renaissance also witnessed the emergence of humanism and secularism in the context of Christianity, which stressed on the free will of an individual. This kind of life had some efforts of strongly rewarding life in an excellent manner.
Renaissance Politics: The Italian cities followed a pattern similar to that of Greek city states whereby there were infighting and warfare among the city states; this led to the advancement of diplomacy that was aimed at achieving balance of power. 1300 republicanism later developed to be 1400 despotism in the states and cities with an exception Venice.
During this period, Niccolo Machiavelli emerged as the classical philosopher and critical thinker. According to Machiavelli, the prince must be driven by the desire to amass power; he explained the cynical and immoral view of human nature that is often driven by fear and not affection. The politics during the period of Italian renaissance was considered as the art of deception. Henry VIII emerged as the prince of the renaissance period (Italian Renaissance 29).
There were also renaissance art and architecture; these were characterized by the proliferation of portraits, portraiture and its importance. Most of the portraits depicted nudes or were a reflection of nudity. The artists were interested in the imitation of nature.
There were also pagan scenes and pagan myths, which were portrayed in the image of popular subjects without making apologies to the church. The status and portrait of individuals were elevated to the level of cultural heroes. Italian renaissance art placed emphasis on proportion, balance and harmony and ignored other aspects. Matters of perspective that often emerged as artistic problems were solved by stressing on the mathematical aspect of painting.
This was depicted in the Brunelleschis principle of linear perspective. Rome developed as the heart of high renaissance while Leonardo Da Vinci is regarded to be the true face of renaissance. The building of renaissance projects was achieved using Romanesque architecture as reflected in the Brunelleschis church of San Lorenzo (Italian Renaissance 37).
Regarding renaissance education and philosophy, there were various kinds of humanisms. An overwhelming fervor was evidenced in the finding and the collection of documents. Education was used as moral instruments. The education at this period was a true liberal one that was typified by the love for history.
The introduction of education led to the disappearance of the Greek language. The father of Italian renaissance humanism was Petrarch. Education in the renaissance period influenced the development of secondary education and stressed the relevance and importance of law, and rhetoric characterized renaissance education. It was through education that classical political ideals were created and nurtured because there was a need for a useful knowledge.
During the period of Italian renaissance, papacy lost influence over nation-states, this impacted on the moral prestige and leadership of the popes. This, however, could not stop the pope to be considered as the patron of renaissance art. Nepotism was widely widespread, and it was applied in the promotion of family interest (Italian Renaissance 45).
During the renaissance period, Italy was subdivided into city states with officials who performed both government and public duties. During the period, constitutions existed with full time elected officials. The city states were under the control of merchants who were rich. The Medici family was the prominent one during the period, and it controlled the state of Florence.
The Medici family consisted of established entrepreneurs, bankers and merchants; they also believed in education and were understood for their art and poetry. It was their money that assisted in driving arts as well as a starting renaissance. During the renaissance, there existed powerful merchants who used their wealth to achieve economic and political leadership. Bankers, for example, achieved fame and prestige by making loans available for expansion of business activities across Europe.
Humanism was the defining moment of renaissance. Humanism was a literary movement which started in Italy at the period of renaissance, but it was distinct since it broke from the tradition of medieval age where the creation of art or literature was only a product of moral religious motivations.
Humanist writers and artists moved away from religious themes to worldly or secular subjects, this was driven by their materialistic perspective about the world. Humanist artists and writers glorified individuals due to their belief that man was a measure of all things. The emergence of humanism marked the end of the influence and dominance of the church. Examples of humanists who lived during the age of Italian renaissance were: Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Francesco Petrarca and Leonardo Bruni (Bloom 118).
There also existed renaissance popes. Popes were stationed in Rome, which was considered the cultural centre of Italy. People of talent traveled from all corners of the world to Italy at the request of the pope. Popes had several ambitions, and they were rich politically with determination to make Rome centre of spiritual, cultural and political activities of the world. Renaissance popes were sensual, self-indulgent but excellent administrators and generous patrons of arts.
Michelangelo was considered as the supreme artist of the renaissance period. He belonged to an aristocratic family, but their wealthy had declined and that is when he started developing ability in imitating classical styles of sculpture. Michelangelo created David, which was Florences symbol of strength.
Michelangelo was contracted by pope to design and construct the greatest tomb in the Christian world. Michelangelo also developed the ceiling of the Sistine chapel which took him four years to complete. To date, Michelangelo is considered as an epitome of arts and painting that is still used today (Chase 4).
Works Cited
Bloom, Harold. The Italian Renaissance. New York, NY: Infobase Publishing, 2004. Print.
Essortment. What Is The Italian Renaissance? Essortment, 2011. Web.
Gundersheimer, Werner. The Italian Renaissance. Canada, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993. Print.
Hartt, Frederick and Wilkins, David. History of Italian Renaissance art: painting, sculpture, architecture (7th ed). New York, NY: Prentice Hall, 2010. Print.
Italian Renaissance. Key concepts. Italian Renaissance, 2005. Web. <users.ipfw.edu/gatesb/H113l.PPT>
Mantin, Peter. The Italian renaissance. London, UK: Heinemann, 1992. Print.
Osman, Karen. The Italian Renaissance. New York, NY: Lucent Books, 1996. Print.
Paoletti, John and Radke, Gary. Art in Renaissance Italy (3rd ed). London, UK: Laurence King Publishing, 2005. Print.
Plumb, John. The Italian Renaissance. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin, 1986. Print.
Many areas of Western Europe, particularly Italy, Germany and England had greatly advanced in various areas by the beginning of 12th century AD. For instance, there were advances in social organization, technology, education and economic systems (Haskins 73). The need to acquire new knowledge and develop institutions of leaning was rapidly increasing, especially in religion, theology and nature.
Most people were eager to learn religion, natural science and law in a different way. In general, people were tired of traditions and wanted a change in social and cultural aspects. In addition, people were easily accepting and embracing new ideologies. For instance, Italian cities and city-states such as Florence and Rome were changing due to the presence of scholars in philosophy, law and religion (Haskins 88).
Any person who was willing to instil some change in the social system was in a position to influence large numbers of people. In fact, great leaders during the 12 century were supported by a public opinion. The desire for change motivated leaders to inspire their societies in a significant way (Benson, Constable and Lanham 53).
All these aspects and changes in leadership contributed to the 12th Century Renaissance. The emergence of great religious leaders at the time is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the renaissance (Moorman 28). However, the emergence of St Francis of Assisi was one of the main forces that opposed change in various regions.
Francis and his followers (Franciscan Brothers) created a religious movement that greatly supported the way in which the church handled social, religious and cultural issues. They were advocating for spiritual life. In addition, they advocated for the role and duty of poverty.
In turn, this stand appeared to support the doctrines of the Church. Arguably, Franciscans reacted negatively to the peoples quest for change in Catholic leadership. However, they later benefitted from the 12th century changes as they sought to free their movement from the churchs political and social influence.
Economic and Social Features of the Twelfth-Century Renaissance
Changes in various aspects of Christianity had the greatest impact in the contribution towards social, cultural political forms. Barbara Tuchman, a historian argues that Christianity was a key pivot in medieval life &because it governed all aspects of life such as birth, marriage, sex and death& (Moorman 31).
The historian says that Christianity controlled the law, medicine, science, and politics (Benson, Constable and Lanham 64). In addition, Tuchman argues that being a member of the church was a compulsory for every person (Moorman 51).
Although the church was the dominant force that supported political and religious leaders, there were several efforts to change this system in the 12th century. For instance, the people were eager to see a church that was meant to care for them.
Thus, church leaders such as St. Bernard of Clairvaux became important figures of change during the 12th century because they were entirely dependent on public desire to change (Moorman 114). One of the areas that people wanted change was personal devotion to a common person, which had been a common aspect of the Catholic Church.
Apart from forced membership, the church also required the followers to regard the popes, monks and clerics as religious and righteous figures (Benson, Constable and Lanham 171). In fact, it appeared that these church leaders were gods in some way, which gave them political, social and cultural powers to control the society.
Similarly, political aspects of life were under the control of the church. Any person with ideas on how to liberate the society from the churchs monopolistic control received an overwhelming support from the public. For instance, King Henry II of England obtained massive support and political strength because he was willing to do what the people wanted (Haskins 133).
Apart from the religion, the concept of justice was in dire need for change. According Haskins (143), the Church controlled the concept of justice system because every aspect of the law was based on divine law. The world politics revolved around the church, which in turn controlled justice system.
The public was willing to change these aspects. It was during the 12th century Renaissance that the people of Western Europe, especially Italy, made great efforts in an attempt to free the judicial system from the divine law. For instance, Roman law was increasingly studied and revived. Gratian, a monk, became an important figure of change after he gave a summary of the laws of the church in his Decretium Graiani .
Finally, the desire for knowledge was on the increase during the 12th century. Thousands of people from across the social classes sought to know more in science, religion and law. They wanted to learn these aspects free from the influence and control of the church. For instance, 12th century scholars joined Latin classes, attempted to analyze the Roman law and the Catholic doctrine.
In addition, scholars attempted to learn and analyze Muslim faith and laws, Greek laws and other texts in order to compare them with Catholic laws. For example, Peter Abelard made significant influence in education and law because he developed ideologies that attracted people.
How did the Franciscans react and benefit from the changes in the 12th century?
Although the Franciscan brothers and their movement did not support the changes in the 12th century, they later benefitted from it in a manner that allowed them to spread their new ideologies, interact with the people and obtain support from both the public and the clerics (Senocak 192).
At first, Francis of Assisi himself reacted negatively to the changes the people wanted to see in the church, its leadership and control of social and political aspects (Sharp 126). For instance, with his group of about 11 followers, Francis travelled widely in Western Europe, where he preached the need to maintain the church traditions against the peoples desire for change.
For example, Francis preached in support of poverty among the Christians because he believed that Christians should devote their life (Senocak 136). He had a collection of scriptural passages from the bible and the church emphasizing on the duty of poverty. However, the Franciscan brothers did not provide a solution to problem created by superiority of clerics at the expense of the poor (Sharp 102).
Due to the ideologies that supported the church, the clerics, the pope and the monks to an extent that they were given food, housing facilities and other things (Sharp 96) supported the Franciscan brothers. For instance, Pope Innocent III considered the Three Orders developed by the Franciscans as a good tool for spreading his influence in order to deal with the 12th century religious renaissance (Senocak 224).
The pope thought that by supporting the Franciscans, he would persuade the people to maintain a status quo rather than calling for changes. In fact, the church considered the 12th century changes as a form of heresy.
Despite their support of the church and the status quo, the Franciscans later benefitted from the changes brought by the 12th century renaissance. For instance, the control of the Order became a problem to the Franciscans. At first, the Franciscans had received support from the church, which gave them certain political and religious powers in certain areas such as France and Germany (Senocak 216).
However, several followers disagreed on the role and duty of poverty. There were disagreements on how Franciscans should live and lead the church. In addition, Elias, one of the most powerful Franciscan leaders, assumed the powers to govern a centralised government in Assisi. He sought to re-interpret the role of poverty (Sharp 56). He built several houses for the members.
He was in constant disagreement with the Pope and Italian President Gregory IX. Eias was deposed and replaced by Alberta of Pisa (Sharp 29). Due to the influence of the Pope and the government in Franciscan leadership, it was clear that the Franciscans needed to advocate for change in church leadership in order to maintain their influence (Sharp 34).
Members increasingly saw the need to change the church and reduce its control on the politics and their movement. Since the 12th century Renaissance had succeeded in reducing the influence of the church on social, political and economic aspects of the society, the Franciscans benefitted from these changes in their efforts to reduce the influence of the Pope and the church in their movement.
Works Cited
Benson, Robert, Giles Constable, and Carol Lanham. Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. Print
Haskins, Charles. The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007. Print.
Moorman, Humpidge. A History of the Franciscan Order: From Its Origins to the Year 1517. London: Franciscan Institute Publications, 2008. Print
Senocak, Neslihan. The Poor and the Perfect: The Rise of Learning in the Franciscan Order, 12091310. Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2012. Print
Sharp, David. Franciscan Philosophy at Oxford in the Thirteenth Century. London: Oxford University Press, 2003. Print
Many areas of Western Europe, particularly Italy, Germany and England had greatly advanced in various areas by the beginning of 12th century AD. For instance, there were advances in social organization, technology, education and economic systems (Haskins 73). The need to acquire new knowledge and develop institutions of leaning was rapidly increasing, especially in religion, theology and nature.
Most people were eager to learn religion, natural science and law in a different way. In general, people were tired of traditions and wanted a change in social and cultural aspects. In addition, people were easily accepting and embracing new ideologies. For instance, Italian cities and city-states such as Florence and Rome were changing due to the presence of scholars in philosophy, law and religion (Haskins 88).
Any person who was willing to instil some change in the social system was in a position to influence large numbers of people. In fact, great leaders during the 12 century were supported by a public opinion. The desire for change motivated leaders to inspire their societies in a significant way (Benson, Constable and Lanham 53).
All these aspects and changes in leadership contributed to the 12th Century Renaissance. The emergence of great religious leaders at the time is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the renaissance (Moorman 28). However, the emergence of St Francis of Assisi was one of the main forces that opposed change in various regions.
Francis and his followers (Franciscan Brothers) created a religious movement that greatly supported the way in which the church handled social, religious and cultural issues. They were advocating for spiritual life. In addition, they advocated for the role and duty of poverty.
In turn, this stand appeared to support the doctrines of the Church. Arguably, Franciscans reacted negatively to the peoples quest for change in Catholic leadership. However, they later benefitted from the 12th century changes as they sought to free their movement from the churchs political and social influence.
Economic and Social Features of the Twelfth-Century Renaissance
Changes in various aspects of Christianity had the greatest impact in the contribution towards social, cultural political forms. Barbara Tuchman, a historian argues that Christianity was a key pivot in medieval life &because it governed all aspects of life such as birth, marriage, sex and death& (Moorman 31).
The historian says that Christianity controlled the law, medicine, science, and politics (Benson, Constable and Lanham 64). In addition, Tuchman argues that being a member of the church was a compulsory for every person (Moorman 51).
Although the church was the dominant force that supported political and religious leaders, there were several efforts to change this system in the 12th century. For instance, the people were eager to see a church that was meant to care for them.
Thus, church leaders such as St. Bernard of Clairvaux became important figures of change during the 12th century because they were entirely dependent on public desire to change (Moorman 114). One of the areas that people wanted change was personal devotion to a common person, which had been a common aspect of the Catholic Church.
Apart from forced membership, the church also required the followers to regard the popes, monks and clerics as religious and righteous figures (Benson, Constable and Lanham 171). In fact, it appeared that these church leaders were gods in some way, which gave them political, social and cultural powers to control the society.
Similarly, political aspects of life were under the control of the church. Any person with ideas on how to liberate the society from the churchs monopolistic control received an overwhelming support from the public. For instance, King Henry II of England obtained massive support and political strength because he was willing to do what the people wanted (Haskins 133).
Apart from the religion, the concept of justice was in dire need for change. According Haskins (143), the Church controlled the concept of justice system because every aspect of the law was based on divine law. The world politics revolved around the church, which in turn controlled justice system.
The public was willing to change these aspects. It was during the 12th century Renaissance that the people of Western Europe, especially Italy, made great efforts in an attempt to free the judicial system from the divine law. For instance, Roman law was increasingly studied and revived. Gratian, a monk, became an important figure of change after he gave a summary of the laws of the church in his Decretium Graiani .
Finally, the desire for knowledge was on the increase during the 12th century. Thousands of people from across the social classes sought to know more in science, religion and law. They wanted to learn these aspects free from the influence and control of the church. For instance, 12th century scholars joined Latin classes, attempted to analyze the Roman law and the Catholic doctrine.
In addition, scholars attempted to learn and analyze Muslim faith and laws, Greek laws and other texts in order to compare them with Catholic laws. For example, Peter Abelard made significant influence in education and law because he developed ideologies that attracted people.
How did the Franciscans react and benefit from the changes in the 12th century?
Although the Franciscan brothers and their movement did not support the changes in the 12th century, they later benefitted from it in a manner that allowed them to spread their new ideologies, interact with the people and obtain support from both the public and the clerics (Senocak 192).
At first, Francis of Assisi himself reacted negatively to the changes the people wanted to see in the church, its leadership and control of social and political aspects (Sharp 126). For instance, with his group of about 11 followers, Francis travelled widely in Western Europe, where he preached the need to maintain the church traditions against the peoples desire for change.
For example, Francis preached in support of poverty among the Christians because he believed that Christians should devote their life (Senocak 136). He had a collection of scriptural passages from the bible and the church emphasizing on the duty of poverty. However, the Franciscan brothers did not provide a solution to problem created by superiority of clerics at the expense of the poor (Sharp 102).
Due to the ideologies that supported the church, the clerics, the pope and the monks to an extent that they were given food, housing facilities and other things (Sharp 96) supported the Franciscan brothers. For instance, Pope Innocent III considered the Three Orders developed by the Franciscans as a good tool for spreading his influence in order to deal with the 12th century religious renaissance (Senocak 224).
The pope thought that by supporting the Franciscans, he would persuade the people to maintain a status quo rather than calling for changes. In fact, the church considered the 12th century changes as a form of heresy.
Despite their support of the church and the status quo, the Franciscans later benefitted from the changes brought by the 12th century renaissance. For instance, the control of the Order became a problem to the Franciscans. At first, the Franciscans had received support from the church, which gave them certain political and religious powers in certain areas such as France and Germany (Senocak 216).
However, several followers disagreed on the role and duty of poverty. There were disagreements on how Franciscans should live and lead the church. In addition, Elias, one of the most powerful Franciscan leaders, assumed the powers to govern a centralised government in Assisi. He sought to re-interpret the role of poverty (Sharp 56). He built several houses for the members.
He was in constant disagreement with the Pope and Italian President Gregory IX. Eias was deposed and replaced by Alberta of Pisa (Sharp 29). Due to the influence of the Pope and the government in Franciscan leadership, it was clear that the Franciscans needed to advocate for change in church leadership in order to maintain their influence (Sharp 34).
Members increasingly saw the need to change the church and reduce its control on the politics and their movement. Since the 12th century Renaissance had succeeded in reducing the influence of the church on social, political and economic aspects of the society, the Franciscans benefitted from these changes in their efforts to reduce the influence of the Pope and the church in their movement.
Works Cited
Benson, Robert, Giles Constable, and Carol Lanham. Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. Print
Haskins, Charles. The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007. Print.
Moorman, Humpidge. A History of the Franciscan Order: From Its Origins to the Year 1517. London: Franciscan Institute Publications, 2008. Print
Senocak, Neslihan. The Poor and the Perfect: The Rise of Learning in the Franciscan Order, 12091310. Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2012. Print
Sharp, David. Franciscan Philosophy at Oxford in the Thirteenth Century. London: Oxford University Press, 2003. Print
Harlem Renaissance is, undoubtedly, a phenomenon unmatched in the strength of its impact both on the contemporary culture of the 1920s and 1930s, but also on the very identity of all African-Americans to this day. It is hard to underestimate the energy that Harlem radiated at the turn of the century given the fact that its influence echoed across numerous black communities throughout the country. With its significance reaching its peak in the 20s, existing as a cultural phenomenon for just around three decades, Harlem managed to achieve a status that made it much more than another New York borough. It was the embodiment of the so-called New Negro, a symbol of promise of a new and bright future for all African-Americans. Later, Harlem came to surpass this idea as well remaining a symbol of Black power in a myriad of aspects whether political, cultural, economic, and even spiritual, the notion that is of particular interest to this research.
Purpose, Specificity of Literature Selected, and Structure
The borough of Harlem is a known symbol for strong black self-consciousness, radical political movements, garish night life and endless creative expression. The history of Harlem is very multifaceted, and Harlem Renaissance is the most complex phenomenon of it all. Cultural subjects as poeticised as Harlem Renaissance tend to be obscured in the literature written by those aiming to inspire rather than illuminate. The following literature review attempted to synthetize a realistic image of Harlem Renaissance, which was the purpose of this study. It was crucial to select the titles that
both glorified Harlem and criticized it;
covered the greatest variety of aspects of the lives of Harlemites;
analyzed it against the historical background of the time and in a retrospective.
The structure of the present literature review partly mirrors chronological flow of events because it attempts to unfold the moving forces behind its inception, prominence, and subsequent international impact. This is best accomplished when studying a phenomenon in accordance with chronological order; moreover, most studies follow this structure as well.
Harlems Historical Roots and Sociopolitical Climate
The point of departure of the discussion is set in the times of Emancipation Proclamation and proceeds by carefully examining the tendencies that shaped the nature of black people of the era. Measuring Harlem by Michael Soto serves as a comprehensive guide into the jazz age, with the author elucidating societal changes along with the historical events that stimulated them. The method that is employed in this work is highly analytical; with step-by-step evaluations of a wide array of aspects that led or directly pertained to the cultural phenomenon that is known as the Harlem Renaissance. The term itself is analyzed in retrospective of a several authors works, such as Brent Hayes Edwards or John L. Jackson Jr and deemed overburdened (Soto 15). The author touches upon economical reasons for the inception of Harlem, which are explained in detail along with the present-day concepts of black self-identification and its origins in the Jazz Age.
The work is fantastic in a sense that it gives a unique perspective into the Harlem Renaissance by tying it to U.S. census and the black experience. In a strict chronological order, the author reviews core examples of literature of Harlem Renaissance, identifying quintessential concepts expressed in these works and viewing them from the perspective of contemporaries. Via structured analysis that covers the subject from multiple points of perspective, Soto manages to get unbiased view on not only the cultural, but also sociological aspects of the era.
A compelling work of another author, the Harlem Renaissance by Nathan Irvin Huggins, is qualified for both an accurate historical account of the core events and a well-written piece of literature. Perhaps, in this work, the reader sees the historical figures of Harlem Renaissance from a more one-sided, strongly opinionated perspective rather than in the previous title. W. E. B. DuBois is compared with James Weldon Johnson, who were a part of the first wave of black intellectuals that came to Harlem to be heard. In contrast to DuBois, Marcus Garvey was known for his simplistic rendering of ideas that nevertheless captured the publics attention, making him a spirit moving the mens souls to a dream (Huggins 45). This analytical strategy employed by Huggins in which he observes the phenomenon of black leaders from different points of view, including opposed contemporary opinions, is eternally beneficial for achieving an objective perception of a historical case.
The leaders, despite being majorly successful, were deemed to be useless by Huggins which is characteristic of him, as his work is highly critical of Harlem Renaissance in its entirety. According to Huggins, the leaders were unable to commit a relevant social change, as they remained mostly theoretical and uninvolved in the district work that might have given them political leverage (63). This level of detachment of the movements proponents from their people was one of the greatest weaknesses of the New Negro era. In spite of this, Harlem still radiated a spirit of opportunity and new beginnings, and it was because of the older generation of notable people that Harlems intellectual and bohemian community bloomed.
Cultural Significance and Role of Harlem Renaissance
Later on, perhaps, the most prolific aspect of Harlem Renaissance should be expounded upon: its literary heritage. None of the sources discussed previously go into the emotional depth exhibited by the Aphrodites Daughters: Three Modernist Poets of Harlem Renaissance by Maureen Honey, which covers the lives and creative journeys of three prolific women poets. Addressing the matter of notable literature of the age directly in enriches the narrative in a number of ways. Firstly, it demonstrates the fact that Harlem was an inclusive society: women voices were heard and moreover, celebrated. Secondly, the poems themselves serve as the greatest illustrations of the Harlem, and more importantly, the feelings that this place incited in its residents. As spoken in Angelina Grimkes well-known lines, a spirit of daring delight compels me to wander this rollicking night , Harlem in the 1920s actually had an intoxicating quality (Honey 6). Such an emotional account can be an invaluable contribution to the research, especially in the light of deeply analytical sociological studies discussed earlier.
Global Impact
After experiencing a phenomenon overtly via inspecting various aspects of cultural, political, social, and economical lives of Harlem, it would be helpful to gain a perspective of its cultural significance as it reflected through time and space. This task is somehow accomplished in an article by Bailey and Rosenberg, titled Reading twentieth century urban black cultural movements through popular periodicals which draws comparisons between Harlem in the 20s and South Africas Sophiatown in the 50s.
Here one encounters the most well-known figure of Harlem Renaissance its greatest ambassador and proponent, Langston Hughes. For it was him, who played a major part in spreading the influence of Harlem Renaissance abroad. Interestingly enough, his poems traversed the Atlantic not long before Hughes himself did finding their first international audience in Germany (Wipplinger 170). This particular moment can serve as an ignition point for the spread of Harlems cultural heritage and its innovative ideas about the new black identity, in particular. An outstanding demonstration of this would be the case of Johannesburgs Sophiatown, whose periodical Drum, following the blueprint of action pioneered by the Crisis, allowed the oppressed black people to find a voice (Bailey and Rosenberg 67). In a sense, literature and music, both of which Langston Hughes embodied, served as a primary moving force behind the sociopolitical changes that took place in Harlem and in other black communities within the boundaries of its cultural influence.
Conclusion
In essence, a comprehensive portrait of an era can only be compiled from a number of sources, with each one covering a specific dimension characteristic of the life of an era under discussion. A holistic image of Harlem in the times of its cultural uprising was obtained. Several sources, like Sotos and Huggins, exhibited wholesome analysis of social and political tendencies dominant in Harlem at the time; the reciprocal connections that they made with culture, in the form of literature and jazz, were also illuminated. The literary legacy, published in the crucial periodicals like the Crisis, proved to be defining voices of the age that, in their turn, transformed not only Harlem, but spread internationally. Thus, a well-rounded characteristic of the movement was found, however, there exists a gap in knowledge about the phenomenon and that is, the lack of analytical approach in the literature on the topic. An advised subject for further study would be tracing Harlem Renaissances influence into the present day.
Works Cited
Bailey, Julius & Rosenberg, Scott. Reading twentieth century urban black cultural movements through popular periodicals: a case study of the Harlem Renaissance and South Africas Sophiatown . Safundi, vol. 17, no. 1, 2016, pp. 63-86. doi: 10.1080/17533171.2015.1112938
Honey, Maureen. Aphrodites Daughters: Three Modernist Poets of the Harlem Renaissance. Rutgers University Press, 2016.
Huggins, Nathan. Harlem Renaissance. Oxford University Press, 2007.
Soto, Michael. Measuring the Harlem Renaissance: the U.S. census, African American identity, and literary form. University of Massachusetts Press, 2016.
Wipplinger, Jonathan. The Jazz Republic: Music, Race, and American culture in Weimar Germany. University of Michigan Press, 2017.
The period of Renaissance was a unique age marked by liberalism in art and the new vision of the world. The artists depicted human beauty and physical strength. During this period, historical painters might like to think that he represented the supreme achievement of the age, but something still remained to spring up in the shadow of his vast canvases. The movement developed its precise, unrhetorical portrayal of particular fact, and enriched it with the distress and resignation of the poor. Such painters as Donatello, Michelangelo, Albrecht Durer depicted physical beauty of the man as the main ideology of this historical period.
The Renaissance man can be described as a philosopher who tries to understand the world around him through ideals of beauty, philosophical concepts and religion. The Renaissance is considered as the age of the bourgeois, humanist and cultivatedor at any rate paying homage to the ideal of humanism. The greatest moments of his day are those spent in some Renaissance palace, conversing with men like-minded with himself and feasting his eyes on scholars and discoverers, statesmen and condottiere. The church becomes, exteriorly, a magnificent palace; interiorly, a hall where the humanist can meet Christ the Hero in company with the saints. A polite, hierarchical society sets the tone, in which the humanist, enlightened bourgeoisie and nobility can meet and mingle. Its culminating image is that of the absolutist prince, and the background to its spacious living is the Baroque castle, set in its formal landscape. Its great state-room, where the prince receives his people, answers to the interiors of the churches of the period, which often stand with a monastery, built, like the castles, into the landscape (Koestler 294).
For a Renaissance man, a church always succeeds in being religious, i.e. validly itself, when an architect with artistic talent has applied himself to meeting the requirements of the liturgy with the means which his own contemporary style places at his disposal. A truly religious interior has never been the fruit of deliberate historicism; it comes into existence as a genuine statement of reality, as at this present moment, in architectural terms. And it is entirely beside the point for those who stand for a historically conservative style in Christian churches to cite Chinese and Egyptian temples in their support. Readers see Moore as a forward-looking progressive thinker attempting to chart a course into the future that would move beyond the mistakes of the past. Others, on the other hand, see him as a conservative, longing nostalgically for the bygone days of complete Catholic hegemony in Europe and hoping somehow to restore the medieval order. Citizens of Utopia can and do vote in local, state, and national elections outside the community itself, though even there they are expected to vote as a bloc for candidates. In particular, this political activity is part of a plan of gradual expansion that Moore sees as leading in a relatively short time to control the entire communities. The Utopian society goes to great extremes to negate any differences in material circumstances that might lead to rivalries, jealousies, or competition for material gain. For example, the houses of the Utopians are as far as possible all identical. Moreover, to ensure that there can be no question of one familys house being preferable to another (and that the citizens do not become too attached to their houses), the citizens change houses by lot once every ten years. In short, a principal goal of the Utopian society is to negate differences among individuals. Individual freedom is sacrificed in the interest of universal equality, resulting in a tendency toward conformism that has been a major concern of modern fiction (Koestler 142, 421).
In sum, during the Renaissance, human nature was seen as a part of Gods nature and reflected this ideal. A modern man affirms his freedom through resolute choice and thus attains integrity, or he can abdicate his freedom, neglect to choose, lose his existential centeredness, and succumb to unauthenticity. This factor is as crucial for an understanding of analysis and interpretation of a Renaissance man as is his description of the self as a synthesis of possibility and necessity. The Renaissance paid special attention to the soul and divine power on the Earth. Painting, buildings and sculptures reflected and ideals of renaissance philosophy. Today, the crowd divests the individual of his unique responsibilities and confers upon him at best a numerical significance. It reduces him to a fractional man who is identified with his functions and is thereby replaceable. This does not mean that the crowd possesses some kind of a group substance through which it can act. Action is always the action of individuals within a crowd. Incorporate action each humanist could do what he was unable to do alone. Hence, when one is sacrificed to the crowd, one is sacrificed to the actions executed by the individuals who constitute it. The Renaissance architects worked out plans for such parochial units ; and sculptors have long since achieved grave stones of worth and dignity. It has always been the privilege of the patron to give his architect and artists directions concerning the requirements of the cult and of local conditions.
Works Cited
Koestler, A. The Sleepwalkers A History of Mans Changing Vision of the Universe (Arkana). New York: Penguin (Non-Classics), 1990. Print.
Europe, like many other continents, has undergone a lot of transformations in different fronts. In regard to the buildup of history of the continent, it was characterized by many uprisings from countries including France and Germany.
Italy and others followed suit in pursuit of economic change and governance. 1848 is particularly known as the year of barricades as it was characterized by revolutionary activities across the continent. This paper seeks to explain the intrigues that led to the historical uprisings in Europe and the outcome thereof.
By 1848, Europe experienced a major shift from agriculture to industrialization. With the advancement in industrialization, merchant ships started docking at the French coast with food imports such as potatoes. France experienced a boom in its economic power as its output increased by 77%.
This effect was felt across the continent as countries such as Belgium doubled their output and others like Great Britain had more than double. However, this came with its own share of problems. For example, the potatoes imported were infested with moulds that caused crop diseases like potato blight and potato typhus. This affected the French agriculture and greatly reduced their population from 8.5 million to 6.5 million. This foresaw a great dynamism in the European history and the world at large (Merriman, 437).
There were pre-1848 tensions across the continent such as economic challenges amongst leaders, urbanization, challenges amongst artisans, food insecurity and conflicting ideologies amongst different countries. France had these problems during this period. It then increased its taxes to 45% and this was a heavy burden for peasants.
It also experienced a downturn in its stock exchange market with a 55% decline. The French populace had an interest in a liberal charter and to impede the authoritarian leadership of Ferdinand II. The liberals and working citizens were utterly discontented with the actions of King Louis Philippe. They were disgusted by the Kings minister Francois Guizot who opposed electoral reforms.
General Louis Cavaignacs dictatorship crushed the revolution of the time and left more than 10,000 dead. When Louis Napoleon Bonaparte ousted Cavaignac from power, he instilled law and order. Politics in France then shifted to the right. He replaced all radical government representatives with ultra-conservatives and monarchists. He went ahead and dissolved the national assembly and a new election was held. The revolution had finally paid off (Merriman, 576).
The German unity materialized as a result of political maneuvering by Prussia. The National assembly drafted a charter to unite Germany under a ruler. The charter was then offered to Fredrick William IV although he rejected it. With a united north, Prussia opted for the southern region. France then declared war on Prussia which was later able to convince the southern states to join in repulsing the French. In the end, Germany became unified. Italy on the other hand was made up of small autonomous kingdoms.
They had a high potential for change in the Italian peninsula that was under the Austrians. The French assisted the Italians to defeat the Austrians and later France made an unsuspected peace deal with Austrians. By 1871, virtually the entire isthmus had been engrossed by Sardinia with the exception of Rome and Venice. The Italian kingdom was born and the unity continued up to 1871 when Rome and Venice were finally absorbed (Merriman, 254).
Works Cited
Merriman, John. A History of Modern Europe; From the Renaissance to the Present (3rd edition), New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010. Print.
The Harlem Renaissance was also referred to as the New Negro Movement. It spanned for about two decades from the beginning of 1920s. Besides, the movement tagged its practices to cultural matters among the African-Americans. The Alain Locke anthology of 1925 was the main impetus that gave rise to the name of this movement (Bean 76).
It is also imperative to mention that the Harlem Renaissance had far reaching influence. In other words, it did not merely impact the New York neighborhoods where it was founded. There were several black writers who were sojourning in Paris and speaking French that were equally influenced by this renaissance.
There are informal records which indicate that this cultural movement must have begun from as early as 1919 until before the close of 1930s. However, it is evident that most of the ideas curved out of the Harlem Renaissance left permanent influence.
On the other hand, there are conflicting historical records that this renaissance may have started during the mid 1920s and spanned up to the time when the Great Depression started. This was the time when there was a crash in the stock market (1929).
Background to Harlem
There were myriads of African Americans who went through traumatic period of slave trade until when the Civil War ended. Most of them were residing in the south and were mainly being used as slaves to work in plantation farms.
The culmination of the era of slavery ushered in a new generation of African Americans who were eager to attain cultural self-determination, economic empowerment, political fairness, and active participation in civic duties (Ostrom 154). When the Civil War came to a halt, several African Americans found their voice and were able to address and articulate their views.
For instance, the African American Congressmen had fully supported the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 that sought to balance political, economic and social equity among all races. It is understood that there were 16 blacks serving in the Congress by 1875 after being democratically elected. They equally gave resounding speeches in the Congress regarding the plight of African Americans.
Hence, it is worth to underscore the fact that the Harlem Renaissance was remarkably triggered by the desire to liberate African Americans who had undergone series of suffering as slaves. Besides, this was the same generation that had undergone the American Civil War and therefore needed to reconstruct itself (Perry 32).
Culture explosion during Harlem Renaissance
The Harlem Renaissance was first experienced towards the close of second decade of 1900s. For instance, the Three Plays for a Negro Theatre premiered in 1917. Although the plays were authored by Ridgely Torrence, a white writer, they depicted the yearnings and emotions of African Americans in a white dominated continent.
The plays attempted to rebut all kinds of minstrel show traditions and blackface stereotypes that had been leveled against African Americans. As a matter of fact, the three plays marked the most important entry of the African Americans into the theatre.
According to Wintz (61), the Harlem Renaissance managed to grow as a result of the multiple transformations that had taken place during the slave trade era coupled with the northern expansion of the African American communities from the south.
They needed to search for better living conditions in big cities that were already developed. Nevertheless, one of the most vital changes that laced the Harem Renaissance was the culture of music as explored in the remaining section of the paper.
Music
The Harlem Renaissance led to the adoption of the Harlem Stride Style of playing piano. This new style came at a time when there growing disparity between the socially elite and poor Negros. Hence, it assisted in reducing the gap between the two social classes of the same race. The south was mainly associated with instruments made of brass that used to be played in all the traditional jazz bands.
However, the wealthy class was associated with the use of piano because the poor community could not afford it. However, after the existing genre of music was modified to fit all classes of the Negro in society, the jazz music became a common feature even among the wealthy blacks.
The popularity of jazz music grew quite fast among the poor and the rich across the country. It reached a point in time when jazz music was the best and most valued among all classes.
In order to boost the popularity of the jazz music, both liveliness during performance and innovation were considered to be critical. The two aforementioned values were vital especially at the early stages when jazz music was being introduced to the top class Negros.
Some of the talented musicians during this time included Willie The Lion Smith, Jelly Roll Morton, Duke Ellington and Fats Waller. They were extremely competitive among themselves. This led to increased innovative and performance skills.
The music that was played by the African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance continually became more appealing to the white population than before. This explains the reason why composers, dramatists, and novelists drawn from the white population braced their works with a lot of themes borrowed from this cultural movement.
The African American music tendencies and patterns soon became a common feature in both the black and white theatres. The poetic lines compiled by African Americans were frequently used by composers when writing their songs.
Besides, the African American melodies, harmonies and rhythms were heavily implemented in the new songs that were composed during and even after the Harlem Renaissance. For example, concert pieces were graced with jazz tones, spirituals and blues that had roots from the African American setting.
The field of musical composition was then transformed completely whereby both the whites and blacks began to collaborate when composing music. For instance, Roland Hayes gained a lot of popularity in music because he worked with both the black and white composers and singers. He grew into an international artist by defying all the racial odds and stereotypes that had existed since time immemorial.
The musician gained mammoth fame especially after he started producing together with musicians who were not from his race. He also underwent additional training at the Fisk University in Nashville. His singing career began when he was still a student. He could perform several shows in public. In addition, he managed to tour several destinations as an artist. In 1911, he performed alongside the Fisk Jubilee Singers (Hughes 62).
Themes and Characteristics of music during the Harlem Renaissance
The ideology of the New Negro and an overt racial pride were common characteristics of most African American compositions that were produced during this renaissance period. The stereotypes and racism were critically challenged by the music, art and literature that were eminent during the Harlem Renaissance.
In other words, the Negros used their musical and overall theater intellect to denounce all the negative aspects of racism that had been created previously. This broad step led to social and racial integration, and balanced socialist politics that were considered to be progressive among all races. Hence, the race was uplifted due to the development of art and literature (Hutchinson 106).
The general form of art and literature that took shape during the Harlem Renaissance could not be attributed to a single distinct factor. In any case, there were myriads of cultural styles and elements that adorned the African American music at this time.
Some of the dominant elements include the low culture or low life music, the high culture and as well as the African perspective. The blues and jazz later sprang out of the traditional forms of music that were valued among the African Americans (Patton and Honey 133).
The jazz poetry also took a new form during the Harlem Renaissance because there was innate desire to modernize the traditional jazz-like music in order to accommodate the white race.
While the latter was not an open attempt, it is definite that the white culture was capable of consuming the new form of jazz due to the modification that was injected in it. As a result, the conservatives conflicted with most of the African American artists who were quickly transforming in terms of culture in order to be compatible with the rest of the region.
Although the above mentioned themes were evident in the art and music produced during the Harlem Renaissance, it is prudent to mention that the emergence of the African American traditions coupled with the era of slave trade were the two major foundations of thematic art. The impacts of institutional racism were also instrumental in shaping the themes of musical art that were composed during this period.
The elite white audience had special taste for jazz music. Although they were not the main target, it is vital to note that they affected some of the thematic foundation and content of the black music. Needless to say, the modern African Americans who were residing in the white dominated north were also another experience to reckon with while composing the blues and jazz music.
The African American engagement was visualized in the Harlem renaissance since the period was marked with mutual support from publications, black-owned businesses, and black patrons. Nonetheless, the white Americans were also instrumental since they offered different types of assistance by creating an enabling environment where black writers could showcase and publish their art and literature (Lewis 142).
The Harlem Renaissance was also characterized with the desire among some whites to witness the so-called primitive culture among the African Americans. Hence, they embraced and displayed these works in order to demonstrate the southern culture that was largely perceived to be under-civilized. As a matter of fact, they showcased this black culture in their contents in order to gain wider publicity of their works.
Music and general art was used by African Americans to lobby for socio-economic and political equity and also in quest their humanity.
In any case, a lot of opportunities for the African Americans were created by the Harlem Renaissance bearing in mind that the era was instrumental in the development of the black theatre (Huggins 80). Moreover, the volume of newspapers, magazines and novels were published during this period courtesy of the renaissance impacts.
The entire country became ecstatic due to the large amount of fiction literature and art that were released by the African Americans. It is without doubt that the past slavery period that was characterized with social injustices was a key impediment towards the progress of the black race.
The Civil Rights Movement that emerged shortly after the Second World War was also attributed to the long lasting impacts of the Harlem Renaissance. The latter created a suitable environment where the black population could fight for their rights as equal citizens of the country.
This literary movement was the key source of inspiration among the African Americans who were already in the theaters performing soul and jazz music (Andrews, Foster and Harris 54).
To recap it all, the Harlem Renaissance marked an extremely significant period in the socio-cultural development of the African Americans. Although it was largely regarded as an artistic movement, this cultural movement affected all spheres of life especially among the blacks who had gone through trying times.
The slave trade era, the American Civil War and typical racial practices left the black community a more devastated segment of the population than any other race. Nevertheless, cultural integration that was brought about by the Harlem Renaissance worked against limiting the intrigues of racism and slave trade.
On the same note, the traditional jazz music that was mainly a preserve of the south was gradually accommodated by the white population since it was more appealing, entertaining and refreshing than the conventional and dormant culture of the white.
Works Cited
Andrews William, Frances Foster and Trudier Harris (eds). The Concise Oxford Companion To African American Literature. New York: Oxford Press, 2001. Print.
Bean, Annemarie. A Sourcebook on African-American Performance: Plays, People, Movements. London: Routledge, 1999. Print.
Huggins, Nathan. Harlem Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Print. Hughes, Langston. The Big Sea. New York: Knopf, 1940. Print.
Hutchinson, George. The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White. New York: Belknap Press, 1997. Print.
Lewis, David Levering (ed). The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader. New York: Viking Penguin, 1995. Print.
Ostrom, Hans. A Langston Hughes Encyclopedia. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002. Print.
Patton, Venetria and Maureen Honey (eds). Double-Take: A Revisionist Harlem Renaissance Anthology. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2006. Print.
Perry, Jeffrey. Hubert Harrison: The Voice of Harlem Radicalism, 18831918. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Print.
Wintz, Cary. Harlem Speaks: A Living History of the Harlem Renaissance. Naperville, Illinois: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2007. Print.
The renaissance is a very interesting era in the history of humanity. It is an era which has been associated with many discoveries and changes in the life of mankind. To have a clear picture of the significance of the renaissance it is better to slightly examine the way of life just before 1400.
Before 1400 and actually the early part of 1400, the Roman Catholic Church had a great influence on the society. The church was supreme in every way and commanded unrivalled authority on both religious issues and politics. The pope wielded immense influence on political leaders and kings likewise. What was communicated from the pope was final regardless of who the subject was.
The Catholic Church was the only church in the world and its branches were in many countries. It is also worth noting that the church was the wealthiest organization and this wealth was acquired by means which were later found to be unacceptable.
Payment for services rendered by the church was very frequent actually there was not a single activity that the priest would preside over without any payment being done weather it was a funeral, baptism or any other. Selling of indulgence and some pieces of artwork representing saints was a common practice.
This sounds ridiculous and this is where the Renaissance man comes in. The church had used some weird philosophy to tame the thinking of the society to view the pope and the church in general as divinely superior to them and that the pope had the power to determine whether a person could access heaven or not. With this nature of thinking people were subjected to a rigid way of life where everything started from and ended with the church.
The wakeup call
The Renaissance period can be said to have stirred people to wake from some kind of sleep they were in. The renaissance period was a time when humanism for the first time was experienced. It must be pointed out that renaissance was very secular but not necessarily evil as such. It has also been pointed out that the renaissance weakened the influence of the church but helped to spread it further; the roman church was weakened as reformations broke up all the over Europe.
The renaissance was an invitation to reason and question issues about life the church was questioned about some of its practices and it was found wanting. According to Kreis (2008), the return to favor of the pagan classics stimulated the philosophy of secularism, the appreciation of worldly pleasures, and above all intensified the assertion of personal independence and individual expression.
It is recorded that man started to appreciate the pleasures of this world and less depended on supernatural teaching from the church. This period has often been described as the germinal period of modernism with the Renaissance man being said to have stood at a point midway between medieval supernaturalism and the modern scientific and critical attitude.
The renaissance brought in great surprises to humanity as reasoning and thinking was put to test producing great works in the fields of art, literature, exploration, mathematics, science and religion.
People were able to think independently testing new ways and ideas which originated from their minds and not from the church. Some of the achievements of this period are still a great inspiration today for instance the great Mona Lisa was an art work of this period. The renaissance brought in secular thought to people helping to reduce the influence that the church had on their lives.
Bibliography
Kreis, Steven. Lectures on Modern Europe Intellectual History. The History Guide, 2008. Web.
The Renaissance and the Church. All About Renaissance Faires. Web.