Category: Religion

People have various ways of dealing with emotions and thoughts that are described as sinful and risky by religion. The article Religion, the Forbidden, and Sublimation, discusses sublimation and the various perspectives adopted by different religions. According to the authors, sublimation refers to a process through which forbidden thoughts and emotions are directed toward the achievement of productive and creative objectives by individuals.

The concept of sublimation has been supported by the findings of various research studies, which have also shown the existence of several variations. Catholics, Jews, and Protestants embrace different views with regard to the concept of sublimation. For instance, Protestant participants in the analyzed studies were more likely to channel forbidden thoughts and emotions into creative work when compared to Catholics and Jews.

The important aspect of sublimation was not the emotion itself but its forbidden nature. The authors conclude that the critical evaluation of religious and cultural dimensions of thought is important in the comprehension of responses to prohibited thoughts and emotions.

The problem of how to deal with unwanted thoughts and emotions has been a topic of discussion among philosophers, religious figures, and scholars. The issue is an important component of studies in modern psychology. Defense mechanisms are one of the ways that people use to cope with troubling thoughts and emotions (Cohen, Kim, and Hudson 208). These mechanisms comprise a wide range of cognitive and emotional processes. Denial, inhibition, transformation, and redirection of troubling impulses are examples of defense mechanisms. Sublimation is a defense mechanism that involves the transformation of troubling thoughts and emotions into creative and productive energy. Studies have shown that Protestants are more likely to engage in sublimation than Catholics and Jews.

Protestant teachings are conducive to sublimation for several reasons. First, protestant theology considers taboo thoughts and desires as sinful because thoughts and feelings carry great moral weight (Cohen, Kim, and Hudson 209). During the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus taught that anyone who commits murder will be subjected to judgment. He also taught that any person who is angry with another will also be judged. Secondly, people are saved as a result of their faith and not actions. This belief contradicts Judaisms teachings, which hold that people are judged for their actions and not faith. People who think about murder are sinful according to Protestants.

However, Catholics only consider as sinful people who commit murder and not those who think about it. Third, productive work is a core component of Protestantism (Cohen, Kim, and Hudson 208). Incessant devotion to ones work is considered the best way to avoid temptation. In that regard, doing productive work rather than going for confession is a more efficacious way of dealing with the issue of salvation. Freud and Webber had different opinions regarding sublimation. Freud believed that sexual and aggressive desires can provide energy to be used to do creative work. In contemporary society, information-processing theories and dual-process models are widely used to explain sublimation.

Recent studies have been conducted to support the argument that Protestantism is conducive to sublimation of unwanted thoughts and emotions. In two studies, Jewish, Catholic, and Protestant participants were induced to have erotic thoughts and afterwards, they were asked to outline their career goals and workplace values. In another study, participants were asked to engage in the process of creation by writing a short poem.

The results of the studies showed that Protestants in the erotic-thoughts experiments drifted towards creative careers and wrote better poems than the Catholic and Jewish participants (Cohen, Kim, and Hudson 211). The findings extended to experiments involving other emotions such as anger and aggression. The results of the studies showed that suppression and displacement are common mechanisms involved in the process of sublimation. Many participants channeled their forbidden impulses into the production of creative work.

In order to validate the findings, researchers conducted additional studies through surveys. In one study, the authors analyzed data from the Terman Life-Cycle Study of Children with High Ability in California and the general US population. The findings of the surveys showed that Protestants with anxiety associated with taboo thoughts were attracted toward creative careers (Cohen, Kim, and Hudson 213).

The findings showed that Catholics and Jews gravitated toward less-creative careers. In another study, researchers analyzed data collected from a study involving American participants of different origins and mental capabilities. Protestants who pursued creative careers had taboo desires but tried to control them using their religious beliefs. The conflict that originated from the taboo desires was the main motivating factor for sublimation. Participants who separated their desires from their beliefs were the most creative. This defense mechanism was not observed among Jews and Catholics.

In conclusion, religious and cultural dimensions can be used to determine the probability of a certain group of people practicing sublimation as a defense mechanism against forbidden thoughts and feelings. Religions differ on what they consider sinful and the moral state of mental processes such as feeling sand thoughts. They also differ in the recommendations they give their followers for responding to mental processes. Sublimation is one of the most common defense mechanism that people use to address their unwanted mental processes. The authors of the article recommend further studies in order to fully understand how religious and cultural factors influence the process of sublimation.

Work Cited

Cohen, Dov, Kim Emily, and Nathan Hudson. Religion, the Forbidden, and Sublimation. Current Directories in Psychological Science, vol. 23, no. 3, 2014, 208-214.

Introduction

Literature on the apocalypse theme is an essential attribute of the scriptures in different religions. Based on the analysis of relevant academic sources, parallels can be drawn between the interpretation and evaluation of the apocalypse theme while taking into account the strengths and weaknesses of these studies. As the resources involved, the articles by Collins, Bailey, and Kohler will be considered. The principle of a literature review is a convenient approach to analyzing similarities and differences in the interpretation of religious texts and it can help identify the common points of contact and distinctive opinions in these works.

Literature Review

Of the three studies presented, two clearly emphasize the purpose of studying the concept of the apocalypse in Jewish religious texts. Bailey focuses on identifying the views of the followers of Shammai and Hillel on possible scenarios of peoples life after the judgment day (30). Kohler, on the other hand, analyzes ancient Jewish scriptures for apocalyptic references, particularly the Kabbalah and the Book of Jubilees (147). Of the three articles, Collins work stands out as it does not only deal with only Jewish religious texts. The author analyzes the findings from both Jewish and Christian writings and focuses on the conflict between followers of Jesus and local Jews (Collins 120). This comparative analysis is a strength of this more recent study. Although Baileys and Kohlers works are narrower and more detailed, Collins addresses the issue comprehensively by examining not just one confessional paradigm but the general idea of an apocalypse in religion (117). The researcher explains both the meaning of this term and its manifestations from the perspective of outcomes for humanity depending on the audience (Collins 118). This assessment allows for assessing the addressed issue comprehensively and not from one position.

At the same time, all the three articles agree that the idea of the apocalypse is transmitted through divine revelation as the only possible way. Various prophets interpret the respective messages, usually an angel or a deified or glorified human being (Collins 117). Kohler mentions the Sinai revelation and draws attention to the role of Moses as the chosen one among the people (159). Bailey, in turn, gives the idea that revelation is comparable to vision and gives examples of Daniel, Enoch, Baruch, and some others (35). As a result, the principle of how to convey messages about the apocalypse is similar in all three authors, which indicates the well-established way of transmitting divine words to people through individual messengers. Despite the time difference between the studies considered, in all of them, the prophets are viewed as the key persons who act as speakers and tell people about the specific rules and prohibitions of God. Therefore, the idea of transmitting messages about the apocalypse is the same in all three studies, which shows the only possible and generally accepted context for obtaining specific information and turning it into mass knowledge.

Regarding the time differences between the works presented, one can note that the studies by Bailey and Kohler include more subjective assessments than that by Collins. A possible reason for this is a more demanding attitude toward the validity of data and evidence bases in more recent academic works. For instance, Bailey takes a personal view of the traditional idea of messianism in religion and expresses his individual stance on its conservatism (31). Kohler questions the novelty of the revelation and notes his personal take on the idea of transmitting divine messages about the apocalypse by mentioning ancient times (153). In the work by Collins, the author uses personal pronouns only in scriptural passages and does not express individual views while relying solely on textual evidence (125). This fact makes Collins work valid and more credible than the other two, which, however, include numerous references to Jewish scriptures. As a result, the authors impartiality is a feature that should be taken into account when analyzing the positions of the researchers in question on the issue of the apocalypse in religion.

The context of evaluating apocalyptic literature in the studies in question differs in the criteria that the authors apply. By highlighting specific achievements, Collins assessment may be considered more pragmatic and down to earth. The author examines the imagery, language, and general mood of the texts about the apocalypse in religion and interprets the relevant findings, for instance, by speaking of an increased impact through scary scenarios (128). In two other works, the nature of the apocalypse is based on the assessment of supernatural forces. However, it cannot be overlooked that Bailey refers to apocalyptic discourse from the perspective of predictions that people can understand and thus express in plain language (35). The emphasis only on the religious background reduces the practical significance of the assessment. The reason is that to interpret the claimed texts, this is crucial to not only take into account their context but also compare conservative ideas with contemporary concepts. The study by Collins achieves this most effectively, which makes this work analytically valid and relevant to a wide range of readers, unlike the other two deeper research papers.

The research objectives stated by the authors are disclosed in all the three studies. The evaluation of apocalyptic texts is based on specific examples, and the work by Kohler is the most quotable, which is its strength. The author cites numerous excerpts from Jewish sacred texts but concludes that the true essence of conversions associated with the end of the world is accessible to few (Kohler 168). One should note a separate section in the study by Collins in which the author discusses the identity of the Antichrist and demonstrates him as an opponent to the human (126). Such a reference directly reflects traditional Christian stories about good and evil and emphasizes the specific scenario of the apocalypse, when the Antichrist comes to power. Bailey speaks more broadly, asking the reader questions and leaving the conclusions open, noting that the apocalypse is a fundamental phenomenon in the Jewish religion (42). Thus, by following distinctive strategies for interpreting materials, the researchers offer sufficient information to analyze.

Conclusion

Based on the performed literature review, one can highlight the commonalities and distinctions between the three reviewed studies related to the evaluation and interpretation of the theme of the apocalypse in sacred texts. The three articles offer sufficient justifications but differ in the degree of subjectivity of judgments. The time difference is also a factor that is essential to consider since the distinctive period of articles publication is felt and manifested through the authors views on the evidence base and boldness of judgment. The focus on individual confessional paradigms is an aspect that distinguishes the studies under consideration from the perspective of research depth.

Works Cited

Bailey, John W. Jewish Apocalyptic Literature. The Biblical World, vol. 25, no. 1, 1905, pp. 30-42.

Collins, Adela Yarbro. Apocalyptic Themes in Biblical Literature. Interpretation, vol. 53, no. 2, 1999, pp. 117-130.

Kohler, Kaufmann. The Essenes and the Apocalyptic Literature. The Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. 11, no. 2, 1920, pp. 145-168.

Religion as a social phenomenon is deeply and complicatedly rooted in the life of humankind. The purpose of its existence can be explained through a multitude of thought schools and approaches.

The raison detre and relevance of religion

The very notion of some purpose that religion must have is to do with the functionalist approach to sociology that assumes every phenomenon can be explained from the point of functionality. The purpose of religion, exactly why it was initially created at the dawn of history, is that supernatural powers were a suitable explanation of things that could not be explained by science, especially when there was no science to speak of.

People feared the disasters of nature, wild beasts, disease, and death, and tried to attribute some meaning to it  possibly, in an attempt to have at least partial control over what was uncontrollable to them at this stage.

Speaking about control, that is another purpose religion acquired later in history. It added the legal grounding to the power structure stating that the earthly authority was favored by the realm of the divine. Institutionalized religion put some groups in control of other groups and helped them acquire resources  as it does now, in terms of land, workforce, currency, artifacts of excellence, and other such valuables.

This control cannot be gotten without some mythic and moral grounding. It means that religion (which is prescriptive) has a set of norms for its adepts to follow in the pursuit of the greater and usually posthumous good. The Ten Commandments are an obvious example of the moral component of religion. Trying to prescribe and explain the place of a person in life, the good and bad conduct, religion creates a set of values, traditions, and moral standards that act as tenets to unite the followers. Aside from these pragmatic purposes, the tenets are said to attribute some reason to live.

There are opposing opinions on whether religion has lost its relevance or not. One can say, although science has taken on the role of the enlightener, religion is still capable of making life make sense for some, in addition to being a powerful means of control. Sociology of religion is the discipline to research the place of beliefs in society, wherein the trueness of this or that belief is successfully bracketed.

Theoretical approaches

There are five theoretical approaches to the study of religion from the sociological perspective.

Functionalism is the approach most advanced in years and the one that predominates in the theoretical body of the field. It emphasizes applying the scientific method and analogical thinking. The former application implies that the social world can be studied using the means and modes of physical reality exploration. The latter presupposes that society functions in a way that is similar to a living organism.

The abovementioned view about the necessary presence of religion in a society is largely functionalist because it speculates on the role of religion analogizing it to a bodily organ, without which an organism cannot survive (McClelland par. 1-3). Rational choice is a subdivision of the functionalist theory; RCT proponents maintain that a religious person chooses their religious practices and behaves accordingly after having conducted an assessment of the costs and benefits of such practices and behavior.

Conflict theory is based on the school of thought founded by Karl Marx. This theory regards society as a number of competing groups battling to come into control or possession of resources. Religion, as per the conflict theory, is a set of tools that assist in the maintenance of the status quo, which is socioeconomic inequality. Religion propagates a view that justifies oppressive practices and allows a group of divine agents to control the majority. As per this theory, just as any social institution, religious institutions are legalized instruments functioning for the sake of economic gains.

Symbolic interactionism assumes that interaction is based on taking roles; human beings perceive things through the lens of the meaning they attribute to these things. The meanings arise from social interaction and are interpreted individually in each person. In reference to religion, it is the religious experiences that undergo individual interpretation, which is why religion, albeit professing to be the source of objective truth, is in fact subjective. As it were, the experiences and practices are never sacred unless people attribute meaning to them  the one that makes them sacred. Such practices (paired with the sacred meaning ascribed by the adepts) are said to spiritualize life and make it make sense, as described above.

Phenomenology of religion is another approach concerned with the experiences of the adepts. At its baseline, it breaks religions down into components and tries to understand their meaning as experienced by the people who follow this or that religion. A phenomenon has its objective and subjective aspects; one such aspect is understanding, which is individual but not entirely dispensable from the manifest of objectiveness. The way people understand and interpret various phenomena (near-death experiences, visions of ghosts, signs, prophetic dreams, etc.) are the focus of interest here, specifically the meanings that are attributed to them in the context of religion and in the social context.

Another approach is that of social construction which assumes that religion is a product of social agreement. Religious meanings, therefore, are regarded as truths because the given society as a whole deems them to be true. Marx and Durkheim proposed the constructed-ness of God, arguing that God was only there because society expected Him to be there. The Marxist approach is that of functionalism while Durkheim maintained that the role of God was to be the perceived reason some non-understandable phenomena occurred. Additionally, the same principle applied when people felt there was a force superior to themselves, a force they could not explain in rational terms (Christiano, Swatos, and Kivisto 6-7).

Research methods

It was discussed that the trueness of any religious belief as such is quite out of question (Weight 1). The idea is not to confirm or bust a certain belief, and neither is the goal to establish the existence or absence of a deity. Sociology of religion relies on the methods of empirical observation in its research and is perfectly aware that proving whether certain beliefs are true or not is beyond the capacity of these methods. The goal, therefore, to gather data and make sure its meaning is correctly understood.

Data gathering and interpretation can be done using various methods. For one, researchers can use quantitative methods, i.e., collecting data, converting them into numbers, and statistically analyzing. The tools that can be used for such research include questionnaires receiving self-reported experiences and conducting statistical analysis to establish the presence (or absence) of correlation between the groups of data.

The limitations of such a method include the possible researchers bias wherein the interpretation of the numbers (although reliant on some existing formulae) can be and often is based on the researchers precognitions, experiences, etc. Qualitative methods in the sociology of religion mainly include personal observation in the field. Although the observations are conducted by experts, as a rule, such methods can be also limited. For instance, and apart from any personal bias and self-interest, the observer can fail to register some phenomena, see phenomena that are not there, or make a mistake in their findings.

A method to reduce the limitations is basically a combination of qualitative and quantitative research wherein the personal observations are recorded, coded, analyzed, and interpreted. Such a method of inquiry is optimal when phenomenology is concerned, to balance the subjective and objective (Riis 232). Indeed, when the philosophical perspective of peoples perception of a certain phenomenon needs to be understood, the direct conversation with the sources of experience and subsequent data analysis helps upgrade the personal interpretation to the level of discovering a statistically significant result or a pattern. Such methods should be used not only from the epistemological perspective (although they do facilitate generalizability and causality prediction) but also to get a multisided view on what is observed (Storm 716).

Conclusion

Methodological atheism practiced by sociologists studying religion allows a deeper understanding of religious practices and beliefs without undermining the credibility of any of them. Such an approach makes establishing the purpose and function of religion possible and helps explain its relevance in the modern world.

Works Cited

Christiano, Kevin J., William H. Swatos, and Peter Kivisto. Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments. 3rd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. Print.

McClelland, Kent. Functionalism. Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology. Grinnell College. 2000. Web.

Riis, Ole Preben. Methodology in the Sociology of Religion. The Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of Religion. Ed. Peter B. Clarke. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2011. 229-244. Print.

Storm, Ingrid. Halfway to Heaven: Four Types of Fuzzy Fidelity in Europe. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 48 (2009): 702-718. Print.

Weight, Alden. SOC 420 Lesson 2: Epistemology and the Sociology of Religion. Arizona State University. Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ. (Date).

Historical Account

The development of Methodism in the Bahamas, Turks, and Caicos Islands Conference is closely connected with the British Methodist Church and missionary work. These territories were the colonies of Great Britain in the 18th century when religious views started to develop actively. The Methodist mission was part of the African and American initiatives of preachers to spread their faith, and it is critical to discuss its history in the context of the missionary work of the 18th century (Bundy, 2015). According to the documents, Joseph Paul was the first evangelist of the Methodist Church who came to the Bahamas in 1783 after he preached in the Methodist colonies of Great Britain in North America (Bundy, 2015). After his arrival on the islands, Joseph Paul received an order from the Anglican Society that asked him to establish the Methodist Church and to spread the Christian faith among the local population (Bundy, 2015). Therefore, the history of the Methodist Church in the Caribbean started in the 18th century under the supervision of British missionaries and their desire to spread the Christian religion on the islands.

The number of missionaries serving in the Methodist Church in the Bahamas was not numerous for many years, which shows that popularizing the new faith was a long process. Evangelism in the Caribbean at the end of the 18th century was the first overseas mission of the Methodist Church (Abraham, 2019). It was consistent with the plan that the Church published by Thomas Coke, the right hand of John Wesley, who were the ideologists of the religious movement at that time. The peculiar detail was that Wesley was against the beginning of the overseas mission because he considered the resources of the Methodist Church to be limited, while Coke was an active supporter of this idea (Abraham, 2019). This information shows that the personal enthusiasm of the first missionaries of the Methodist Church was an essential part of spreading the Christian faith in the Caribbean region, where there was no basis for the popularization of this religion.

The Methodist Church in the Caribbean region provided the local population with the opportunity to receive education, which was essential at the beginning of the 19th century when it started to develop actively. Turton, one of the first missionaries of the Methodist Church in the Bahamas, established the school to educate the local young people, attempting to improve their level of life significantly (Bundy, 2015). All students in this school were colored, and foregrounding the need to preach among them was difficult in the 19th-century racist culture (Bundy, 2015). Another peculiar detail was connected with the necessity of asking for money to support the school from London due to the centralization of the Methodist Church of that time (Bundy, 2015). These historical facts reflect the Methodist Churchs significant problems in the overseas mission in the 19th century. These issues were financial and cultural due to the stereotypical perception of the local population on the islands by white people from Europe.

At the same time, the Methodist Church managed to improve the lives of the local population on the islands, give them primary education, teach them the wisdom of God, and give them hope that allowed them to support themselves in critical situations. It allows us to hypothesize that the spread of Christianity and the Methodist Church contributed to the cultural development of the Bahamas, Turks, and Caicos Islands Conference. Even though the results of the missionary work were not evident instantly, it led to positive changes in the long-term perspective. End of slavery, building the supporting community, and preserving the regions autonomy are positive changes that are indirectly connected with the work of the Methodist Church in the Caribbean.

Throughout history, the Methodist Church addressed the topics critical for the local Caribbean population, which has become the reason for its popularization. For instance, hope for liberation from slavery was the main topic of the Methodists in this region (Abraham, 2019). All islands of the Caribbean, including the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands Conference, were inhabited by formerly enslaved people and current enslaved people. When the preachers read these people the Act of Emancipation in 1834, the authority of the Methodists among the locals increased significantly (Abraham, 2019). Until 1967, when the Methodist Church became a self-governing institution, the Methodist Church and freedom from slavery were closely interconnected in public perception (Abraham, 2019). Thus, it is impossible to separate the history of the development of the Methodist Church from the history of the Caribbean region in general and the history of the Bahamas, Turks, and Caicos Islands Conference in particular.

Personal Reflection

The development of Methodism in the Bahamas, Turks, and Caicos Islands Conference significantly influenced my witness because it shows how the Church successfully integrates into society regardless of possible difficulties or challenges. It is challenging for modern believers to find ways of integrating their religious views into the life of the contemporary community, but the Methodist Church gives a positive example of this faith integration. The episodes from its history show that the missionaries understood the needs of the local population and used the Christian faith to help these people. Nowadays, the Methodist Church tries to develop together with the community on the islands, meeting the concerns that the believers might have.

After the Methodist Church in the Caribbean and the Americas (MCCA) gained complete autonomy in 1967, it created an independent religious institution. Even though the essence of faith and religious order remained the same, it acquired control over the finances of the Church, its property, and freedom to regulate its actions (The Methodist Church in the Caribbean and the Americas (MCCA), 2022). It is possible to make parallels between the historical path for freedom that was critical in the spread of the Methodist Church in the region and the existing autonomy of the Church. This example shows that the region has its unique historical background that affects all spheres of life, even when people do not try to follow this way deliberately.

Methodism in the Bahamas, Turks, and Caicos Islands Conference participates in the life of the society, as it was already mentioned. For instance, the Church representatives work with the survivors of natural disasters, providing spiritual support and humanitarian aid from the religious community (Bloom, 2019). The members of the Methodist Church are members of such organizations like the National Emergency Management Agency of the Bahamas, and they assist people both as professionals and as Christians (Bloom, 2019). This example from the Churchs activity is inspiring because it shows how a religious worldview improves human lives and allows people to realize their potential altruistically.

References

Abraham, W. J. (2019). Methodism: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.

Bloom, L. (2019).Methodists in Bahamas cope with Dorians trauma. UM News.

Bundy, D. (2015). The African and Caribbean origins of Methodism in the Bahamas. Methodist History 53(3), 173-183.

The Methodist Church in the Caribbean and the Americas (MCCA). (2022). History. Web.

Introduction

Despite differences in practices and belief systems among various religions, they share certain similarities, which are sometimes more profound than may seem at first. One such similarity that is common across time and cultures is religions influence on human beings and societies. On a personal level, religious faith is associated with better physical and mental health, higher participation in the life of local communities, increased desire to volunteer, and greater levels of happiness (VanderWeele 358). On a societal level, religion regulates peoples behavior by serving as a moral compass and usually acts as a conservative force. Although all of these factors are important, the current essay seeks to analyze the latter two factors in more detail to show how religion impacts people.

How Religion Impacts People

The majority of known organized religions established a set of rules that aim at regulating individuals everyday behavior. These norms have ensured that society reaches stability and harmony as, in general, people rarely have to question what they or others should or should not do. In contrast, such philosophers as Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, and Horkheimer noted that when religion loses its dominant position in society, its members tend to become morally nihilistic (Byrd 2). Indeed, the shocking atrocities that happened during the first and second world wars are believed to be the direct consequence of this process.

Additionally, established religions, although progressive at their creation, represent a conservative force in societies helping to counterbalance reformistic, especially radical, ideas. This, in turn, protects the nations from mistakes that may sometimes bring significant damage. For instance, currently, various Christian groups constitute a firm opposition to abortion rights. By doing so, they invite pro-abortionists to conduct more research and posit better arguments and ensure that the practice implementation occurs gradually and under more control.

Conclusion

Overall, the current essay argued that religion has a major impact on both societies as a whole and their individuals. As for the former, it was, firstly, to show the role of this social institute as a behavior regulator and moral compass. Secondly, it was recognized that religion usually serves as conservative power in society. As such, the analysis revealed that both of these functions promote social stability, safety, and gradual development with the minimum mistakes made along the way.

Works Cited

Byrd, Dustin J. God Is Dead but Not Forgotten: Horkheimers Critique of Nietzsches Philosophy of Religion. Islamic Perspective, vol. 18, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-9.

VanderWeele, Tyler J. Religion and Health: A Synthesis. Spirituality and Religion Within the Culture of Medicine: From Evidence to Practice, edited by Michael Balboni and John Peteet, Oxford University Press, 2017, pp. 357-401.

Introduction

Catholics acknowledge the Eucharistic presence of Jesus in their lives as the source and the pinnacle of their faith, yet they may take it for granted. They pray through specific rituals, but words and gestures may be meaningless when one simply goes through the movements without much thought. However, when people resort to the glorious rituals of the Mass and the Sacraments to guide their practice, it can lead them to a more profound contact with Christ.

The Mass and The Sacraments

When it comes to the Sunday Mass, Catholics are supposed to attend it every Sunday and on Holy Days of Obligation. Examples of such days are the Ascension, the Assumption, the Immaculate Conception, All Saints Day and Christmas. Montecel (2020) notes that Catholics are supposed to attend Mass but are not obligated to: some people may find God through other places and experiences. Moreover, people can be granted a dispensation from attending the Mass, which has been the case during the tougher times of the coronavirus pandemic. Even though now some churches have begun to open, somewhere, the dispensation is still in effect.

In terms of the structure of the Mass, it can be divided into three major parts. The Mass and the Sacraments (n.d.) states that these parts are Introductory Rites, Liturgy of the Word, and Liturgy of the Eucharist. During the Introductory Rites, people offer their prayers and prepare to celebrate the Eucharist, and these include Greeting, Opening Prayer, Gloria, Kyrie Eleison, and Penitential Rite. Liturgy of the Word is people hearing about Gods salvation plan, and it includes biblical readings of Gods word from the Testaments, gospel, homily, and creed. Finally, there is the Liturgy of the Eucharist, which is the celebration of the presence of Jesus Christ in the Eucharist. It consists of three parts: during the Offertory, people bring gifts to the altar; during the Eucharistic Prayer, people offer their gifts to God; and during the Communion Rite, people receive the gifts from God, his Body and Blood.

Many believe that the Mass can be considered a sacrament, which, in catholic use, is the Eucharists consecrated element. According to The Mass and the Sacraments (n.d.), a sacrament is simply a visible sign of an invisible grace. Grey (2016) notes that the Sacramental Principle holds that God is present to all people who respond to his grace through their way of ordinary life. However, in the Catholic Church, there are seven official Sacraments, which are the sacred symbols mediating Gods grace in Jesus with an intensified effect. The Sacraments themselves are categorized into three groups: Initiation, which includes Baptism, Confirmation, and Eucharist; Healing, which includes Penance and Anointing of the Sick; and Service, which includes Marriage and Holy Orders.

Unfortunately, the Mass and the Sacraments are perceived as exclusive by many due to a number of long-standing traditions and prejudices. For one, the Sacraments cannot be performed by women: they cannot be ordained, and, as per Grey (2016), this is a major unjustness that needs to be addressed. Moreover, there is still racism within the Catholic Church: as per The Mass and the Sacraments (n.d.), only three major Catholic documents are on racism, and the Churchs leadership does not pay enough attention to the problem. In addition to that, Montecel (2020) speaks about how LGBT people still cannot feel loved and accepted within the catholic community. All of these need to be talked about and raised awareness of since such limitations prevent many from communicating with God in a meaningful way.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Mass and the Sacraments are two of the central elements of the catholic experience. The Mass is a rite that gives one an opportunity to connect to God alongside like-minded people, whereas the Sacraments are the channels of Gods grace in peoples ordinary lives. However, not everyone gets to enjoy these blessings, as there is still a lot of prejudice within the Catholic tradition, and it needs to be addressed so that no one feels excluded.

References

Grey, M. (2016). The ordination of women in the Catholic Church? New considerations.International Studies in Catholic Education, 8(2), 216-230. Web.

Montecel, X. M. (2020). Popes words on civil unions mean much, but LGBT Catholics deserve more by Xavier M. Montecel. Todays American Catholic. Web.

The Mass and the Sacraments. (n.d.). Online Class Video Lecture. Web.

The assumptions of the divine command theory are based on the idea that God commands what is morally appropriate, and things and actions can be viewed as moral or ethically obligatory due to Gods directions (Driver 24). As a result, this theory is often discussed as rather controversial because its premises provoke debates regarding the morality of Gods commands; therefore, its main aspects and related criticisms need to be discussed in detail. Even though the divine command theory can be disproved by the Euthyphro dilemma, a weak variant of this theory can be viewed as appropriate to provide the basis for ethics.

The main elements of the theory depend on the version of this code. According to a strong version, ethical norms are directly prescribed concerning Gods commands, and God can command anything. Thus, all things and actions should be viewed as moral or immoral depending on Gods directions. In this case, Gods power is more important than Gods goodness. According to a weak version, God commands not everything that He can command because He is limited by His goodness (Driver 24).

In this case, Gods goodness limits His power because God loves people, and His commands are related to the principles of morality. As a result, the presence of two versions allows for applying the Euthyphro dilemma to understand a strong version of the theory and its potential weaknesses or controversies.

Thus, it is also important to focus on criticisms of the divine command theory. Firstly, since some of Gods commands are inconsistent because they are associated with Gods power, they cannot be viewed as the only source of morality. Secondly, the emphasis on Gods power in a strong version rather than on Gods goodness allows for accentuating the obligatory character of commands and performing acts that can be viewed as morally inappropriate in some cases.

Thirdly, a strong version of the theory represents it as the framework for obligation rather than morality. Also, being viewed as the remedy for peoples arrogance, the theory makes them focus on such controversial Gods commands as it is in the case of Abrahams offering of Isaac (Genesis 22). As a result, the analysis of this situation creates problems for those Christians who refer to a weak version of the theory.

The discussed criticisms are associated with the attempts of applying the divine command theory to a range of issues and situations. The problem is that each of Gods commands can be discussed as entirely moral only in a specific context. For instance, in situations when religious fanatics commit crimes against humanity, they support their actions concerning Gods will and message. Furthermore, the reference to Gods message can be observed in a variety of cases that cannot be viewed as morally right or wrong, but there are still questions about the reasonability of Gods command (Walsh). Thus, the application of the divine command theory is problematic in cases when people justify their ethically questionable actions while referring to Gods will.

Although the divine command theory is actively discussed in society, there is no single view regarding its appropriateness and effectiveness. If a weak version of the theory is applied to different situations, a strong version cannot be successfully applied to all possible cases. As a consequence, the divine command theory provokes debates on the nature of morality and the role of Gods commands.

Works Cited

Driver, Julia. Ethics: The Fundamentals. John Wiley & Sons, 2013.

Genesis 22: The Offering of Isaac. Bible Gateway. Web.

Walsh, Stephen. What Happens When Candidates Called by God Drop Out? Religion Blogs CNN. 2012. Web.

Introduction

The development of America as a nation started with the Founding Fathers imperative that all (persons) have been created equal (Wuthnow n.pag.). Focusing on the words created and equal, it is a formulation that more or less predicted the way religion progressed and outspread in the United States. Religion is an indispensable part of the American society, and, as the Wars and the post-was historical situation molded the culture of consumerism, religion is taking the form of a product that can be marketed and purchased. Consumerism is quite far from losing momentum, and religion  with its own marketing strategies  is revving into gear accordingly, which makes it the most influential factor in shaping the future of religion in the U.S.

Americas religious future: The media and megachurches

In the previous paper, an interrelation of social constructs was discussed, with religion acting as the mediator between race, class, gender, etc. The media is a tool of social construction in that they operate with frameworks that are collectively agreed upon, which explains why religion  perhaps, one of the most powerful and ever persistent social constructs  is so deeply intertwined with the media. The roles of printed and visual mass media are rapidly fading before the Internet, the omnipresent platform of opinion sharing and  more importantly  marketing.

Just as businesses increase their visibility and receive instant feedback from the consumers (and thus gain in revenues), the Church is stepping onto the way of increased Internet usage. The Pope, or rather, his copywriters tweet on a regular basis. Facebook is flooded with pray-for hashtags, especially in the wake of a disaster that the whole nation grieves at.

Another face of religious marketing is the Megachurch phenomenon  such churches typically have large audiences and, consequently, considerable community outreach. Such churches compete for the membership scores, for instance, by using the media extensively and integrating commercialist practices into the sermons (Product Placement in the Pews? n.pag.). The growth maintenance is challenging at times, which is why newer techniques are adopted by megachurches: they provide downloadable events lists on their websites, feature music stream channels, and the like.

Given that the megachurches are largely successful in their attempts to gain more disciples and become more visible, the secularization theory concerns (that of the godlessness of the contemporary and subsequent generations) are quite unjustified. Indeed, the power of religion realized through Megachurches adopting marketing techniques and making use of the mass media  particularly, the Web  does not leave the space for spiritual decadence in its primary meaning.

Individualization, non-affiliation, and ambiguities that follow

The Megachurches might dispel the secularization theorists illusion of the emergence of an antitheist society  but so does the individualization of religion combined with the nones or the non-affiliated. These factors should be also considered when discussing the shaping of American religious future because the rates of the non-affiliated and religiously ambiguous are on the rise, as the longitudinal polls analysis by the Pew Research Center demonstrates (Nones on the Rise n.pag.).

The non-affiliation and the resulting non-compliance of a large part of the population with whatever religious tradition is agreed upon in their community does not necessarily mean the nation is growing atheistic. Rather, the non-compliance comes from each individual persons search for the Truth and not finding it in conventional religious confessions, for various reasons. As a result, the practices and modes of worship do not fall under any of the categories.

Christiano, Swatos, and Kivisto provide some evidence on the secularization of the intellectuals (218). However, the non-enlistment as Roman Catholic can hardly be counted as being 100%-secularist: the sparsity of Catholics among the academia indicates their dispositions are rather non-affiliatory rather than atheistic.

Overall, the situation appears to present a threefold ambiguity. As the churches gain powers and expand their discipleship with the help of the mass media and marketing practices, more and more believers simultaneously deviate from organized churches while at the same time preserving spiritual values. This ambiguity can be illustrated by some examples.

Hispanic Catholics and a megachurch

One of the groups that can be characterized as non-affiliated but at the same highly spiritual time are Hispanic Catholics. The rejection of institutionalized worship might be caused by their markedness as an ethnic minority group or some other factors. At any rate, this group is known for extensive usage of Catholic symbols and practices within their community, but outside of the confession that was the source of religion-specific knowledge (Christiano, Swatos, and Kivisto 230). At the same time, megachurches such as the Lakewood Church in Houston, Texas, are actively targeting the Hispanic and Latino believers  not least by providing the website information in Spanish (Lakewood Church n.pag.).

Conclusion

The future of religion in the U.S. is marked by power acquisition and commercialization of the churches through the media, individualization of religion, and the resulting ambiguity. The future relationships of these factors is quite hard to predict; at least the secularization theory inconsistency with what the objective reality dictates is obvious.

Works Cited

Christiano, Kevin J., William H. Swatos, and Peter Kivisto. Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments. 3rd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. Print.

Lakewood Church. Lakewood Church, 2016. Web.

Nones on the Rise. Pew Research Center. Pew Research Center. 2012. Web.

Product Placement in the Pews? Wharton University of Pennsylvania. Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. 2006. Web.

Wuthnow, Robert. Divided We Fall: Americas Two Civil Religions. n.d. Web.

Analysis of the Order of Worship

The concept of telos was introduced into the context of philosophy by Aristotle to assert that actions of virtue come from people of virtue. In other words, wise people choose the good as the obvious object. In the context of the material world, Aristotle believed that human beings and other living things tend to move from imperfect to perfect condition through teleological development (Cooling and Green 97).

For instance, when a seed is planted, it grows into a plant in the same way an embryo grows into a baby who is born to grow into an adult. In this context, the main aspect of the argument is that the essence of living things and other things is determined by what they grow or develop to be at in the end (Kaplama 144). Therefore, telos is a rhetoric element that positing that every action or occurrence has an ultimate goal.

Telos encourages the organization of events or occurrence as they develop from the beginning to the end. Looking at the order of worship, the events at the church are organized in a sequential manner from the beginning to the end. Everything develops in the order of importance until the last action is done (Mahoney 142). The congregation gets to the church and remains silent for the next to take place.

There can never be a service without a congregation in the church and this is the first and the most important action. As suggested in the context of telos, something has to happen to lead to the next event and everything occurs in a consequential way until the ultimate goal is achieved (Cooling and Green 100).

In this context, the order of worship starts with the congregations entry. Other actions that follow are Prelude, Introit, The Processional, Call to Worship, Prayer, Silence and Assurance of Pardon. Other actions that follow are Scripture reading, Worship in Song, Benevolent Offering, and Announcements/Recognition of Visitors, Worship in Song, The Word, Invitation, Invitation Hymn and Tithes/gifts/Offerings as well as Offertory. After the above activity, the main event is the Holy Communion, which binds and strengthens the Christian Faith. To conclude the prayers, events that occur when undertaking the Holy Communion are The Great Thanksgiving, Sending, Carrying Lights Away, and Benediction. The main goal is to worship and praise the Lord during the Sunday church services (Mahoney 145).

On the other hand, the concept of telos supports the idea of the historical cycle, which is common among Christians. God uses telos to exhibit historical cycle about His Son. He wants the Christian to use the historical cycle when praying until they are transformed into behaving in the same way as Jesus Christ (Kaplama 149). In the Worship, the congregation cites the death, fructification, burial and resurrection of Jesus to maintain the historical cycle and remind them of the judgment day. In this context, telos is used to remind the Christians of transforming before the judgment day comes (Cooling and Green 101).

On the other hand, the order of worship can be seen in the context of ethos, which tends to exhibit credibility and trustworthiness. It refers to an aspect of speech that determined a specific character of an individual as they speak or take action. In the worship order, individuals are given different responsibilities based on their positions and skills. For instance, the Reverent leads the church service from the beginning up to the end where he presides over the Holy Communion. To do this, the Reverent must have the credibility of leading the congregation during the church service. On the other hand, the congregation must also trust him as the leader.

The organization of the worship order also portrays an aspect of ethos. To ascertain the credibility of the services, everything needs to be arranged in a sequential order that all people understand. In that sense, even the congregation will believe in the church services. The Bible is the holy book that all Christians believe contains the word of God and the truth (Kaplama 154). Reading the Bible during the services shows that leader and the entire congregation trust in the word of God.

Through the Biblical doctrines, they have engaged in various activities, such as giving tithes, gifts and offers. The congregation and the worship leader have repeated called the name of God and His son, Jesus Christ to ascertain their strong belief in God and the teaching of Jesus (Cooling and Green 102).

Conclusion

The worship order guides the congregation into conducting church services. It guides the activities of church members from the beginning the services to the end. In the worship order, two things are essential and they include the sequence of activities and credibility of individuals based on their activities. In this context, the two elements can be understood well in the light of telos and ethos. Through the telos concept, activities of the church are organized in a sequential order. In terms of historical cycles, the congregation reads the Bible, cite the name of God and Jesus Christ to remind them repeatedly about the need to transform themselves. On the other hand, ethos addresses the credibility of individuals in the congregation based on their activities.

Works Cited

Cooling, Trevor, and Elizabeth Hamilton Green. Competing Imaginations for Teaching and Learning: The Findings of Research into a Christian Approach to Teaching and Learning Called What If Learning. International Journal of Christianity & Education, vol. 19, no. 2, 2015, pp. 96-107. Web.

Kaplama, Erman. Heraclitean Critique of Kantian and Enlightenment Ethics Through the Fijian ethos. The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy, vol. 12, no. 1, 2016, pp. 143-166. Web.

Mahoney, Daniel. The Humanitarian Subversion of Christianity. A Journal of Catholic Though and Culture, vol. 19, no. 4, 2016, pp. 140-150. Web.

Back in the day, the Sacraments were thought of as the gifts of grace that a person received from the Churchs ministers. However, this perspective is not as prevalent anymore: nowadays, there is a different set of attitudes regarding the Sacraments. It is more solidly grounded in the Scriptures and better reflects the sacramental experiences of both the early Christians and people of the present. At the core of this set of attitudes is the broadening of the concept itself. There is no more a perception of Seven Sacraments as defined by the Catechism of the Christian Doctrine. Today, Jesus is thought of as the Sacrament of God, and the Church is deemed the Sacrament of the Risen Christ (LifeLight, 2018). This viewpoint allows the possibility of a multidimensional framework of the sacramental experience permeating the lives of all people. After having provided a new outlook on the concept of a Sacrament, LifeLight (2018) offers a look at how this concept is reflected in practice. Until recently, there was an issue of administering the sacraments; however, this approach has been extended: they are no longer administered, they are celebrated.

Nowadays, celebration as a word is frequently used when it comes to the Sacraments. For instance, in the past, the priest was saying Mass, whereas today he is often described to be celebrating the Eucharist instead. He does not marry Mister and Miss today, but officiates at the celebration of Mister and Misss wedding. LifeLight (2018) notes that such a change is not simply a result of some trends or language developments. It is indicative of a profound and significant alteration in the Churchs perception of the sacramental life and the sacramental experience.

It is perfectly natural for people to celebrate the happening of something exciting. People tend to go out, throw parties, or rejoice in any other way when, for example, they manage to get a new job, or a promotion at an old one, or a raise. This is the way for those around the person celebrating to share in their triumph and spread joy. Moreover, it might serve as a form of an encouragement for other people to make more effort in their lives to succeed and be able to glorify their achievements as well.

Evidently, this is the case with family events, too: relatives gather to celebrate births of babies, weddings, anniversaries, and special birthdays. These events are marked by people sharing family history stories, reviving shared memories, affirming each other as family members, strengthening family ties and, as a result, their identities. A celebration can be very personal, such as a private dinner on the occasion of an engagement, or extremely public, such as a grand wedding with a thousand guests. According to LifeLight (2018), celebration consolidates the occurrence to which it is connected: the occurrence is marked, put into context, granted a wholeness, and made more special, meaningful, and significant. If people do not celebrate, they miss on one of the greatest joys of living and the quality of their lives is much worse.

Similarly, when a new member of the Catholic Church is initiated, whether a newborn or an adult, it is celebrated in a succession of sacramental events: Baptism, First Holy Communion, and Confirmation. Ordination as ones commissioning to the priesthood is celebrated, as is the marriage of two people declaring their love for one another in public. When a member reconciliates with God, it is celebrated, as is the power of Gods healing in the Last Rites Sacraments. The closeness of God to His children is celebrated in the Eucharist, and the priest who officiates at it is referred to as the Celebrant. With all these celebrations, one brings meaning, significance, and integrity to these prominent events in their life.

When it comes to the connection between a particular occurrence and the celebration that marks it, there is an interesting point to make. LifeLight (2018) notes that the love in a relationship between two people had emerged long before their marriage was celebrated. Likewise, a candidate for initiation as an adult had turned to Jesus and taken the path of faith before his baptizing. A person who had fallen from grace but then repented had found his way back to God before asking for the sacrament of reconciliation. In the past, there might have been an impression that the sacred bond of marriage was established during the ceremony itself. In the same way, the conversion seemed to occur during the baptizing, and the reconciliation gained its power with the absolution words. LifeLight (2018) cites a quote that says: To believe that the grace of the sacrament begins only with the action of the priest& is too simplistic a way of considering these matters (p.11). Now is the time when people are starting to have a more rational approach to viewing the relationship between the lifes events and their sacramental celebrations.

Perhaps, today one is able to better appreciate some sacramental celebrations being lengthened out over several occasions. LifeLight (2018) points to the fact that, usually, adult baptism could fit into half of an hour on a Sunday. The Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults (RCIA) program might now take up to a number of months. However, this is deemed necessary in order to make the path of faith that each candidate navigates, and the stages of that path, more meaningful. In fact, this approach is new only in the context of what people had been used to in the last hundreds of years. According to LifeLight (2018), the Sacraments of Initiation had been taking long periods of time for many centuries, and Reconciliation even took years sometimes. More recently, there was a handful of stages on ones way to ordination, including porter, lector, exorcist, acolyte, sub-deacon, deacon, and priest. Moreover, there is a suggestion that marriage preparation, too, could sometimes be sacramentally marked by gradual steps towards the ceremony.

Furthermore, when there is a conversation about celebration, there is a conversation about the rituals that accompany a particular celebration. When families come together to celebrate something or someone, they tend to use certain rituals. People shake hands, hug, kiss each others lips, cheeks, hands, or heads, all depending on how well they know one another. In some families, the gathered are expected to make a speech, a short or a long one. Someones birthday party can rarely do without Happy birthday to you, and a Christmas party  without Christmas carols. There is a turkey and potato dishes on nearly every table on Thanksgiving, and at midnight on New Years Eve, people usually yell things.

Some might be reluctant to share in all that, and they will be persuaded to by the fact that these are family rituals. It means that the family always does this one thing or several things, with no exceptions, year after year. No matter how inefficient such rituals might be, how silly-looking or irrational, there is no disagreeing the fact that it is all for the best. Rituals strengthen families, keep people together and promote good communications between those who come together.

In terms of the sacramental setting, many of the features of such celebrations are the same as the ones mentioned above: there are greetings, handshaking, feasting, singing, speeches, and so on. However, according to LifeLight (2018), there is much more effort to include symbolic rituals, ones that have a special meaning in a particular context, such as water, oil, paschal candles, incense, and others. The effects that sacramental rituals have are very much like those of the regular rituals, too, except with an even more obvious effect of communing with God.

Evidently, when used in religion, the term rite means something slightly different than what it does in the regular world. It is a group action which through its use of symbol, the senses and the irrational, is designed to effect communion with the unseen (LifeLight, 2018, p.12). On the meaning of symbols, LifeLight (2018) presents the following story. When two ancient Greek cities made a pact with one other, the cities leaders broke one plate in two and entrusted each half to be safely kept by the other city. Whenever it was necessary to send a messenger to this other city, he took one half with him. Upon the messengers arrival, the plates two halves were to be brought together and serve as proof of ones identity. Bring together in Greek translates as sum-balein, which is what gave name to the procedure that became known as symbol.

Consequently, a symbol is practically that connects two things together. In the religious context, symbols might take various forms: images, material things (such as water or oil), gestures (such as the raising of hands in a prayer), and so on, but have a common goal to bring a believer closer to the unseen God. When it comes to the sacraments, they belong to the group of so-called sacred signs. According to LifeLight (2018), there are three types of signs: natural, conventional and symbolic. Natural signs appear in the nature when things take its normal course: fire creates smoke, therefore, smoke is perceived as fires natural sign. With the signifier being A and the signified being B, A comes from B in natural signs.

Conventional signs are the products of agreements, arrangements, and consensuses. The examples of conventional signs are all letters, road signs, and any point symbols. Initially, A and B have nothing to do with one another, and are combined only on the basis of a convention. Finally, there are symbolic signs, which follow symbols nature: they bring the signifier and the signified together not by convention, but by suggestion and implication. For instance, incense, by going up, becomes a symbolic sign of a prayer, and water, by washing clean and facilitating growth  of baptism. A suggests B, and, therefore, sacramental signs are believed to belong to this particular category.

Reference

LifeLight. (2018). Module 5. The Sacraments. LifeLight Home Study Courses.