Category: Religion

The Gospel of Thomas (GT) is an anthology of 114 obscure sayings of Jesus, which according to its prologue, were collected and transmitted by St. Didymus Jude Thomas (Miller). This text is found in Nag Hammadi, Egypt, in 1945. Nowadays, there is no consensus on the time of the gospels creation  some of the scholars consider it a monument of the first century AD or earlier, while others think it was composed about 140 AD (Miller).

The Catholic church does not include the GT in the list of canonical texts, and some theologians perceive it as insufficiently credible and even heretical. In the given paper, the main structural and semantic differences between the GT and the canonical Biblical texts will be discussed to identify why the gospel was not accepted by the Catholic church and was often regarded as an inferior manuscript.

The content and structure of the GT are crucial to the understanding of the suggested problem. Some researchers consider that the gospel is nothing but the original record of Christs words. At the beginning of the GT, it is mentioned that the included verses are the secret sayings that the living Jesus spoke (The Scholars Translation of the Gospel of Thomas [The GT]). The given statement suggests that there was no need to write down the narratives about the life of Jesus as he was still alive then and, therefore, only his actual words were important.

Based on this, one may presume that only several decades after the Crucifixion and Resurrection of the Savior, when almost none of those who knew him personally remained alive, it became necessary to record the testimonies of his life combining them with the earlier collections of sayings and parables. The given presumption supports the idea that the canonical Evangelical genre developed only after the GT was created.

Nevertheless, the evidence shows there may be some interdependences between the GT and other canonical text including the Gospel of Mark because the former has multiple references to the parables included in the latter (Miller). However, if there are some parallels between the GT and other gospels, why is it not regarded as the canonical manuscript? One of the possible reasons for this is that the gospel contains Gnostic values and views.

Gnosticism is a religious movement that was especially widespread at the beginning of the Christian era between the first and the fourth centuries. Gnostics consider that true Christian teaching and knowledge is a privilege accessible only to some followers (Pagels). In their opinion, the spiritual knowledge they receive is a gift from God and can be transmitted merely from one follower to another. Gnostics usually describe the experience of a religious revelation as illumination and awakening. For them, the religion is a means for realizing the true nature of self. In a way, such an approach corresponds with the mystical Indian tradition of enlightenment.

In the modern literature, Gnosticism has many negative connotations:

• Gnostics were variously characterized as alienated rebels, nihilistically opposed to the world-affirming values of their day, as immoral and impious perverts of divine Scripture, or as individualistic elitists who thought they were spiritually superior to everyone else and hence need not obey priests and bishops (King 8).

Gnostics perception of religion as a privilege is one of the major aspects that differentiate it from the canonical tradition in which faith and spirituality are accessible to and intrinsic with every human being. Nevertheless, Wynne states that the secrecy and limited inheritance of Jesus teaching is a necessity because it opposes the mainstream Judaism (63). Since his sayings disagree with the ideas of Jewish spiritual leaders, to avoid punishment, the followers of Jesus have to establish a covert sect.

It is possible to say that the main difference between the canonical biblical texts including the Gospel of John and the GT is that the former is much more Christocentric. In other words, the figure of Jesus acquires a central significance in those texts. Thomas also holds the figure of Jesus in reverence but, in his gospel, Christ is conceived rather as a teacher. The GT does not speak about Jesus as of a deity but instead of how his teaching allows people to reveal the divine light hidden in them, overcome internal and external conflicts and contradictions, make the Earth a more harmonious place.

The lack of understanding of the context in which the GT was composed, may lead to misinterpretation of the messages conveyed in it. For instance, it may appear that some sayings included in the GT contradict the Christian ideals, e.g., humility, compassion, and so on.

Jesus said, Those who seek should not stop seeking until they find. When they find, they will be disturbed. When they are disturbed, they will marvel, and will reign over all. [And after they have reigned they will rest.] (The GT).

The call for reigning over all does not go along well with such genuinely Christian values as equality and fraternity. Thus, from the point of view of Catholic theologians, the GT can serve to encourage a person to pursue selfish goals.

Overall, in the spirit of Gnosticism, in his gospel, Thomas makes an accent on the search for truth. Conversely, the canonical texts focus on compassion, brotherhood, and love. Moreover, Gnostics see Jesus as an incarnation of God and cannot accept the fact that he could suffer on the cross. Therefore, the Crucifixion is not mentioned in the GT. On the contrary, in canonical texts, Crucifixion is represented as a pivotal moment and an essential Christian symbol of compassion, spiritual perseverance, and faith. For instance, in John 13:34-35, Jesus says: A new command I give you: Love one another.

As I have loved you, so you must love one another (New International Version). This commandment is given by Jesus the evening before the Crucifixion after he predicted the betrayal. In the verse, love to each other implies the divine love  the love of a person who is in close relationships with God, who is humble and able to accept misfortunes, injustice, and grief constantly present on the Earth.

At the same time, in the GT, one cannot find any allusions to compassion and unity.Instead, the sayings seem to emphasize the confrontation and solitude of human beings. For instance, for there will be five in a house: therell be three against two and two against three, father against son and son against father, and they will stand alone (The GT). Nevertheless, the sayings are written in a deceptive style of mixed metaphors and unexplained generalizations (Wynne 63). Thus, there is a chance that the unexpressed in the GT conceals much more than it seems at first glance.

It is possible to say that the GT is regarded as heresy from the traditional perspective mainly because it disagrees with the dominant ideas inherent with the mainstream culture of that time. The fact that the sayings encourage followers to engage in solitary work without relying on priests and the church is one of the decisive factors defining the non-canonical character of the text. However, unlike the majority of non-canonical gospels, the GT provides researchers and theologians with sufficiently credible additional information. Moreover, it provides an alternative perspective on the teaching of Jesus. Thus, the GT has an unarguable value for the study of the early Christianity and Gnosticism.

Works Cited

Holy Bible: New International Version. Hendrickson Publishers, 2004.

King, Karen L. What is Gnosticism? The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005.

Miller, Glen. What is the Gospel of Thomas? A Christian Thinktank. 1996. Web.

Pagels, Elaine. Beyond belief: The Secret Gospel of Thomas. Random House, 2005.

The Scholars Translation of the Gospel of Thomas. A Christian Thinktank. Web.

Wynne, A. G. The Gospel of Thomas Revealed: Jesus Rejected Judaism. Why? IUniverse, 2008.

Problem Statement

Considering that we are living in the century of information, modern mass communication media present one of the most significant powers that are capable of shaping peoples opinions. The impact of media presents a significant problem when it comes to the perception of the most popular religions in the world and people who live in accordance with religious values. When speaking about the way that modern media shape and change the views on the most popular traditional religions, it is necessary to pay increased attention to the media representation of Islam and Muslims as the aggressiveness of the latter is often exaggerated. In fact, it is a known fact that there are many people who demonstrate internal conflicts and commit serious crimes even though they consider themselves to be following their religious commandments. In the modern world, there are numerous cases when people, who practice different religions or consider themselves to be atheists, commit indiscretions and do much harm to animals, property, or other people. Nevertheless, the problem of the impact that media has on the global society needs to be studied with regard to Islam and Muslims as a large group.

There is an assumption that modern media that have an impact on the entire world (especially those in North America and Europe) tend to attract a lot of attention to the crimes of those people who consider themselves to be Muslims. At the same time, the religious identity of those people who practice other religions is not usually brought a focus on; therefore, non-Muslims perceptions of Islam and common people related to the Muslim world can be distorted. Taking these concerns into account, the proposed study is going to define whether the tendency to demonize Islam and Muslims exists in modern media. Also, the proposed research paper is aimed at defining whether this tendency impacts the perceptions of Islam that common people in non-Muslim countries have.

Literature Review

The problem of the representation of Islam in media has been studied by numerous researchers who are concerned about the impact of the negative image of Islam on common people who practice this religion. Language can be listed among the key tools helping to manipulate the masses, and this problem is extremely important when it comes to the image of religions that sometimes run counter to the values of Europeans and Americans. In particular, modern researchers from different countries are interested in the tendency to associate Islam and Muslims with terrorism and aggressive behavior based on religious differences (Bazian & Leung, 2014).

According to the most recent studies in the field, numerous tragic events (especially the September 11 attacks) and the way that they are represented in Western media have become the reason to associate Islam and Muslim culture with terrorism and religious discord (Yusof, Hassan, F., Hassan, M., & Osman, 2013). The researchers state that strong associations between physical aggression and Islam have become more common recently due to the impact of the international media. According to the results of their research, there are numerous negative stereotypes about Islam that became more widespread after the September 11 attacks. Among them, there are the perceptions of Islam as a sexist religion in which women are regarded as the property of their male relatives or husbands. Also, modern researchers note that Islam is often represented as a religion that is based on violence and oppression. Importantly, the results of the analysis indicate that Western media tend to represent Muslims as irrational people who are guided by religious fanaticism and incapable of contributing to scientific progress (Ogan, Willnat, Pennington, & Bashir, 2014). It is pivotal to study the impact of such statements on common people in non-Muslim countries.

Methodology

The proposed study is aimed at fulfilling two goals. It is expected to define whether the tendency to demonize Islam and Muslims still exists in the most recent articles in American and European magazines. In addition, the study is to define if negative references to Islam and people who live in accordance with Islamic values have a significant impact on the opinions of non-Muslims. The proposed research is going to focus on the analysis of quantitative data. As for the first part of the research, it will be aimed at studying the current magazine articles (not more than five years old) that mention Islam and Islamic culture. Having collected enough magazine articles that relate to Islam and Muslims as a group (at least 30 articles), it will be necessary to conduct a content analysis to identify the things that modern authors associate with Islam. The perceptions of Islam in modern media will be thoroughly analyzed in order to define the key tendencies (either positive or negative).

Within the frame of the second part of the research, an anonymous survey will be conducted to define the degree to which modern media shapes the opinions of non-Muslims about Islam. The participants will be proposed to share their opinions about Islam, choose the key things that they associate Islam with, and identify sources that have shaped their opinion. Having indicated their ethnicity, age, and religious background, the respondents will have to evaluate the excerpts from the analyzed magazine articles that illustrate the key associations with Islam in Western media. The respondents will have to evaluate these statements, agree or disagree with them, and explain their choice. Based on the survey results, it will be possible to define the impact that Western media has on the perceptions of Islam in the world.

References

Bazian, H., & Leung, M. (2014). Editorial statement: Islamophobia: An electoral wedge issue! Islamophobia Studies Journal, 2(2), 7-12.

Ogan, C., Willnat, L., Pennington, R., & Bashir, M. (2014). The rise of anti-Muslim prejudice: Media and Islamophobia in Europe and the United States. International Communication Gazette, 76(1), 27-46.

Yusof, S. H., Hassan, F., Hassan, M., & Osman, M. N. (2013). The framing of international media on Islam and terrorism. European Scientific Journal, 9(8), 104-121.

Introduction

The article in question discusses the contribution to Sinology made by Catherine Bell. The author chooses to focus on her work devoted to the relationship between religions in China and the development of printing technology. The author singles out Bells main thesis on the subject: the fact that printing technology contributed to the spread of religion in China and that it also led to slower development of the religious tradition.

Main Arguments

The first argument Robson makes is that the advent of printing technology should not lead to an assumption that the practice of manuscript copying was abandoned. The author explains it by suggesting that despite the possibility of printing, many books were distributed as manuscripts due to certain historical and cultural factors. Moreover, printing technology was rather costly. The art of calligraphy was one of the factors that contributed to limited book printing.

Overall, Robson emphasizes Bells thesis about manuscripts retaining a special status despite the development of printing technology. Robson supports that statement by pointing out that the most important discoveries in Chinese studies were made due to the unearthing of certain manuscripts. The religious meaning attached to handwritten books was also significant, as the most crucial handwritten documents were placed inside the statues. Robson postulates that the practice of placing the manuscripts inside the statues was so widespread that it is possible to treat these statues as manuscript archives. Bell calls this practice a routine and ubiquitous ritual, which strengthens Robsons argument.

Why manuscripts persisted at the time when printing technology was increasingly widespread? The definitive answer is yet to be determined. Robson outlines positive and negative reasons for keeping manuscripts in certain statues. A cosmic significance of written speech that is superior to oral speech in Chinese tradition is among the positive reasons.

Robson emphasizes that this aspect is one of the driving forces of Bells work. Religious manuscripts served as a medium of communication between the spiritual world and the human world. The distribution of printed religious manuscripts and their influence on the development of Chinese culture should be subject to further study. By providing an example of sectarian texts that combined printed and handwritten content, Bell indicates that the possession of these texts was considered a privilege and a symbol of authority.

Thus, the negative reason for keeping manuscripts in statues is related to the governments efforts to control the religious movements, thereby stifling the development of religious traditions in China. Robson points out that this was the principal reason for continuing the tradition of manuscript handwriting (Robson 339). The author concludes by drawing attention to Bells unfinished work on the manuscripts as not only reflections of Chinese culture and tradition but also as the factors of change that determined the direction of cultural development.

Sources, Methods, and Theories

The article is written in an academic context, aimed at drawing the attention of fellow scholars to Bells work in the field of Sinology. Robson employs exemplar reasoning, providing specific examples to support the central claim. The evidence provided by the author is of a historical and literary character, coming from scientific sources, i.e. the works of several respected Sinologists. Catherine Bells work regarding the manuscript culture constitutes the primary evidence.

Robson uses several concepts to characterize the evidence and prove his claims, such as manuscript culture, manuscript archive, sectarian scriptures, consecration certificates, and talismans, with the last two terms referring to the practice of storing handwritten religious manuscripts in certain statues, as well as to their cultural and religious significance in Chinese culture.

Conclusion

Robson characterizes the manuscript culture and its relationship with the printing technology through the prism of Catherine Bells work. The author provides evidence supporting the claim that printing technology both contributed to the spread of religion and stifled the development of religious movements in China. Robson concludes by emphasizing that Bells insights should be used as a basis for further research of manuscript culture in China.

Work Cited

Robson, James. Brushes with Some Dirty Truths: Handwritten Manuscripts and Religion in China. History of Religions 51.4 (2012): 317-343. Print.

Introduction

Freedom of religion is enjoying the right to choose faith without the governments interference with the rules, practices, and beliefs of that doctrine. In the United States, this liberty is guaranteed by the First Amendment of the Constitution. Over the years, the freedom of religion has been questioned by Native Americans who still feel that their autonomy is always suppressed. Reports of various forms of suppression continue even after the Indian American Religious Freedoms Act was enacted in Congress after decades in late 1978 (Zaretsky and Leone 45). According to these reports, Native Americans have always been marginalized by federal and community groups when it comes to religious practice. This report investigates the development of religious freedom in the United States by focusing on Native Indian American religious practices. The paper will also provide insight into their struggle against religious suppression and forced assimilation into protestant beliefs.

Native Indian Fight for Religious Freedom

In 1978, the United States Congress enacted the Indian American Religious Freedom Act that supported the protection and preservation of the freedom to believe and practice customary religions amongst Indian American s, Eskimos, Aleuts, and Native Hawaiians (Wald and Calhoun-Brown 14). The law meant that Native Indian American s would be allowed to retain religious sites, exercise their right to possession of sacred objects, and have the freedom to worship through traditional rites and other ceremonials (Wiedman 215).

This act was well received by the Indian communities in the United States as it appeared that they would be protected from government and other controllers of the countrys economy intruding on their religious practices. However, as it came to be realized, later on, the law did not mention how the doctrine was going to be enforced (Dussias 347). This situation took the country back to the suppression of religious freedom. According to the Supreme Court, the enactment was only going to act as a requirement which the government would use to negotiate on religious practices of Native Indian Americans and other minority groups (Nord 23; Fraser 78). The act, thus, remained pointless if it was not going to be enforced.

The suppression of religious freedom has also seen Native Indian Americans taken to prison for fighting back the federal government and other investors who interfere with their religious practices and sacred areas (Suhr-Sytsma 62). In most cases, the religion of Native Americans is usually taken as being universal. However, there is diversity among different Native Americans, especially when it comes to religious beliefs. According to Sperry, there are more than 500 tribes living in the United States, all of whom speak more than 200 different languages and are associated with more than 400 treaties that were drafted by missionaries in each sector of the Christian religion (54). However, the issue of religion becomes a problem when looking at their traditional practices.

Over the years, there has been a lot of activism in support of the protection of Indian American sacred sites and calling for the practice of religious freedom. Some actions have been able to produce results like the successful quest for the Taos Pueblo people in New Mexico to take back the sacred Blue Lake watershed, which is located on the mountain to the North of Pueblo (Sperry 56). Most Native Indian Americans attached their religious practices to nature and other forms of life. For example, Blue Lake is believed to be a home where their ancestors came from to find a place on earth. This means that Blue Lake is regarded as a place where they were all born. In addition, Blue Lake is also where all their spirits return when they die.

The Tao people have been fighting for the holy shrine since it was annexed to the nearby national forest following an executive order by the then American president Theodore Roosevelt in 1906 (Dussias 347). It was only 65 years later that the US Senate voted highly for the return of the shrine, and in 1970 president Nixon signed a law that ensured the return was enforced (Fraser 79). This success activism for religious practice and freedom continued in the country among the Indian American s where they protest against acts of physical and verbal abuse from the law enforcement and native Christians in the country. Most of this practice of suppression is due to the performance of religious rituals like dancing in the streets and wearing leather and feather regalia during religious occasions. The anger was too much that in 1978 the Congress enacted the Indian American Religious Freedom Act of 1978 (Nord 24).

Ancestral Graves Protection and Repatriation

As part of the religious practices, the Native Indian Americans hold their ancestors with a lot of respect. Thus, lobbying to regain their original ancestral land, worship areas, burial rights, and other spiritual practices continued following the enactment of the 1978 law. In this manner, it is believed that their ancestors are shown respect.

In 1990, this was realized when the United States Congress also passed the Native American Protection and Repatriation Act. This Act meant that all the ancestral remains, including those held by the American national or private museum would be returned to their tribesmen. The skeletal remains hold a deep American history and attachment Indians have with their motherland. Some of the issue raised is that institutions and governments that hold them did not do it with respect or standard of decency required (Suhr-Sytsma 64). For example, most of the institutions holding these remains have come out to deny the Indian culture as part of the American living cultures. For the Indian American however, this is a violation of their religious beliefs were disturbing the dead will derail their spiritual journey. The saddest part is that some of these groupings still possess religious artifacts that have a vast amount of knowledge that is important in the perpetuation of their beliefs to future generations.

The Current Position of Indian American Religion

Looking at the events of the struggle for freedom of religion, the Native Indian Americans still have a long way to go. In reference to the current trends, the dominating Christian religion has grown to overwhelm the Indian cultural practices as Christianity is incorporated into the Indian culture. The Native American church is one of the most widespread indigenous religious movements in the United States north. The church which was enacted during the spread of missionaries in 1885 has continued to grow to have a membership of over 1 million to date. This church combines some traditional Indian and Christian concepts of religion. The big losers here are the native Indian Americans since their traditional practices are incorporated to Christianity (Wiedman 220). Some of the practices that the church incorporated included the suppression of Indian traditional healing practices; however, such styles have been fought by the American government as it is seen as risking the lives of citizens. The action against Indian healing practices can actually be traced back to 1919 in Montanas northern Cheyenne reservation after an Indian agent revealed that their healing ceremonies where very risky.

As the protests and lobbying continues on the practice or religious freedom and regaining of Native Indian American s ancestral land, sacred areas including trees, mountains and rivers, one aspect or native religious freedom in the United States need to be discussed due to the ever-growing need for the enforcement of Native American religious freedom Act of 1978. In this regard, the act needs to be seen to protect Indian traditional practices, customs, religion, and spirituality despite the fact that some critics question it as not being purely American. It should be known that the act was enacted in reference to the protection of the first amendment act of the American constitution (Zaretsky and Leone 46). In the past decades, there has been a lot of disturbing evidence on the suppression of native Indian Americans freedom for religion. This is because all Native Americans are a religious group and they have been disoriented with the constant interruption of their religious practices and places. In the end, they are slowing recruited to Christianity which is widely accepted as the American religion where non-Indians find other religion as nonexistent and there to misdirect citizens.

This calls for a change of attitude meaning that the enacted laws need to be enforced by the federal government in consideration of the native religions to reduce the restrictions this group has on the practice. As much as the laws protecting religious freedom have been enacted as discussed, there is a need to come up with worthy objectives like the preservation of sacred areas, protection of spiritual rivers and mountains and respect for select animals which are believed by the red Indians to hold spiritual powers (Suhr-Sytsma 63).

Conclusion

In conclusion, the practice of religion in the United States is still dominated by the practices of Christianity and suppressed by the federal laws. It is important that law enacted giving Indian American right to religion and traditional religious practices mean that their government will guarantee safety, security and surety of the protection of religious artifacts and spiritual places in the United States. The Indian religion needs to be taught in all schools as an option in the curricular as this one of the ways that will ensure the practice does not end. It is a general belief among Native Indian American s and the congressional supporters and sponsors of the religious resolutions that the freedom to practice any kind of religion should be allowed. This should also include the protection of other aspects of the practices so long as it does not interfere or suppress other religions in the country. It is also important that federal governance ensure they are compatible with the religious beliefs of Native Indians. Lastly, continuous lobby and de-stigmatization of these practices need to work in the country for other communities to embrace them.

Works Cited

Dussias, Allison M. Friend, Foe, Frenemy: The United States and Indian American Religious Freedom. Denver University Law Review, vol. 90, no. 2, 2012, pp. 347.

Fraser, James W. Between Church and State: Religion and Public Education in a Multicultural America. JHU Press, 2016

Nord, Warren A. Religion and American Education: Rethinking a National Dilemma. UNC Press Books, 2014.

Sperry, Willard L. Religion in America. Cambridge University Press, 2014.

Suhr-Sytsma, Mandy. In the Light of Reverence and the Rhetoric of Indian American Religious Freedom: Negotiating Rights and Responsibilities in the Struggle to Protect Sacred Lands. Wicazo Sa Review, vol. 28, no. 2, 2013, pp. 60-86.

Wald, Kenneth, and Allison Calhoun-Brown. Religion and Politics in the United States. Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.

Wiedman, Dennis. Upholding Indigenous Freedoms of Religion and Medicine: Peyotists at the 19061908 Oklahoma Constitutional Convention and First Legislature. The Indian American Quarterly, vol. 36, no. 2, 2012, pp. 215-246.

Zaretsky, Irving, and Mark Leone. Religious Movements in Contemporary America. Princeton University Press, 2015.

It is important to note that the prophesized age of Tribulation is a period of severe judgment, which will take place for seven years. Within these seven years, the last half will be the Great Tribulation, which will be the harshest form of judgment. The two witnesses play a critical role during the given time of test of faith who, firstly, will be clothed in sackcloth, which is a sign or symbol of sorrow and mourning (Schreve). The sackcloth also represents contrition and repentance by asking the Lord God for His mercy. The second key characteristic of the two witnesses is the fact that they are Spirit-led and Spirit-filled. In other words, the statement that they are two olive trees and two lampstands refers to the olive oil being used in the burning process of the lamps, indicating the crucial role of the Spirit (Schreve). The two witnesses have the capacity and power to stop the rain, cause fire upon their enemies, turn the water into blood, and bring plague. On the basis of the provided information, it becomes evident that the two witnesses are Moses and Elijah.

In the case of Moses, he was able to bring a plague on the Egyptians and turn water into blood. Elijah will be capable of halting the rain, causing the drought, and asking the Lord to cast fire upon his enemies (Schreve). Another alternative is that the witnesses are Enoch and Elijah because they both did not die and leave the world through a grave, but rather God took them away (Schreve). However, the former interpretation is more likely since Moses represents the law, whereas Elijah represents the prophets. It should be noted that the ministry of the two witnesses is to turn humanity into the Savior. In other words, the two witnesses are messengers of God demonstrating His mercy even during the time of His wrath.

The third core characteristic of the two witnesses is that they fulfill their mission. Thus, God protects them until they complete their testimony, after which they achieve the Lords purpose and become vulnerable to harm. The completion of the mission leads to the next major event, which is the emergence of the beast or Antichrist. The latter will defeat the two witnesses and kill them because God will allow it (Schreve). The defeat of the two witnesses or messengers will result in their dead bodies being desecrated by not giving them a proper burial. Many people will finally rejoice and celebrate since these two witnesses spread the harsh truth and tormented them. However, it is God who will have the final laugh by raising the two witnesses and bringing them their lives back, subsequently taking them away to Heaven (Schreve). The great earthquake will take place after, which will kill seven thousand well-known individuals who likely will be famous, powerful, and influential members of the society.

Work Cited

Schreve, Jeff. The Two Witnesses in the Tribulation  Pastor Jeff Schreve. YouTube, uploaded by From His Heart Ministries, Web.

Introduction

Sanctification depicts how the Holy Spirit alters peoples lives from the moment they acknowledge Jesus death and resurrection until they leave earth and enter heaven. The Holy Spirits role in humans makes them appear godly by modeling their actions after Jesus Christs life and teachings. Christians become holy if they devote their lives to Jesus and serve God with all their assets. The essay will analyze how Chris Bounds describes Sanctification and what it is today with respect to John Wesleys understanding.

Modern Protestantism

True Christians emulate Christs unwavering love for God and humanity. Only Gods holy Christians can inspire congregates to achieve spiritual goals. Many Christians are unaware of their inherent capacity to perform miracles despite their responsibilities. Total holiness has two dimensions, faith in God and a burning desire to live a holy life, that are required of Wesleyans (Kazadi, 2018). True Christian purity comes from a life of holiness, not divine favor.

Preventive grace is provided to all people, enabling them to put their faith in God into action. Therefore, twenty-first century Christians cannot get sanctity until Gods grace is upon them. As a result of Gods favor, they grow in their faith and become wholly sanctified. According to Wood, (2018), Sanctification occurs when Christians give up their desire for temporal possessions and instead focus on their spiritual development.

Sanctification Variation Between Wesleyan Armenians and Modern Christianity

Being holy requires total submission to Gods grace and progress in the spiritual life. Accepting Gods grace and self-denial can lead to Christian perfectionists. For Christians in the 21^st century, holiness requires focusing on Gods grace and effort. Sanctification is challenging to prove, but it is inevitable if an individuals devotion to Christ is present (Strobel, 2019). Even if entirely dedicated, they lack the faith to know they are holy. The Holy Spirit uses the conscience to help Christians determine their salvation status (Porter, 2019). Prayerfully, they must constantly ask the Holy Spirit to guide them in determining their actions purity

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Holy Spirit is the primary component that supports persons in realizing their loyalty to Christ. John Wesley gives a clear understanding of holiness by explaining faith, personal consecration, and Gods kindness. The daily challenges experienced in todays world provide directions toward spiritual strength. Holiness is a matter of ones decision to live in a sanctified manner and, therefore, the need to emulate the Wesleyan way of life.

References

Kazadi, A. (2018). Calvin on Romans 6: 1-8: 14: The Function of Law and Grace in Calvins Doctrine of Sanctification through Union with Christ and Its Implication for Wesleyan Theology of Sanctification (Doctoral dissertation).

Porter, S. L. (2019). The evidential force of spiritual maturity and the Christian doctrine of Sanctification. Religious Studies, 55(1), 111-129.

Strobel, K. (2019). The Christian Doctrine of Sanctification: A Review Essay. Journal of Spiritual Formation and Soul Care, 12(2), 260-268.

Wood, L. W. (2018). Pentecost & sanctification in the writings of John Wesley and Charles Wesley: with a proposal for today. Emeth Press.

Introduction

Traditionally, entheogens were used in a range of fields, such as therapeutic or medical purposes, recreational medicine, religious practices, and support for the spiritual growth of a person. These substances should be employed in future societies to transform spiritual rites and practices with the aim of providing a better world. Entheogens are used to imply just the substances that may be used in a liable and constructive approach. It has been literally defined as generating the god within or that which reveals the divine (Harvey 4). This can be all hallucinogens and psychedelics, but it depends on every persons decision whether a certain substance is a part of entheogens or not. This paper discusses how entheogens can transform society in the future.

Analysis

The predicted conditions and practices that may be experienced in the future need intense voices to request for the rebirth of spiritual practices to manage the issues that will be faced by humanity. However, one solution for these answers can be found in the use of entheogens, where people or societies should not misinterpret or place it under controversies. Entheogens modify consciousness in such an intense manner that, relying on the set and setting, these religious substances can generate the definitive human experience, which is the unification with God and disclosure of various spiritual veracities.

According to Harvey (4), if entheogens are applied with sincerity and correct intentions, they can provide a significant approach to enhancing religious practices and life in the future. Entheogens can unite and make several spiritual currents stronger in future societies. These societies have some similar objectives and intentions, such as an objective of creating, through altering consciousness in most human beings, a position for a better universe and a place free from war and environmental harm. Since these spiritual practices carried out in the past helped most people to have certain behaviors that were acceptable and respected in the society, it can also help in modifying some behaviors that have entrenched and expected to be intense in the future society. These practices should not be ignored by these societies.

The significance of some entheogens should be in its capability to lift unconscious items, prevail over resistance, or make latent neural paths active with the purpose of bringing in consciousness. Therefore, these benefits can also be adopted in the future to change or introduce alternative ways of solving personal issues (Mann). Entheogens can be used also to recover or manage the withdrawn issues or memories of a person. Entheogens are useful in generating provisional conditions of psychological insight, strong relationships among people, and spiritual conversion. The use of entheogen should be employed also to reduce recidivism that is caused by psychological insight and strong relationships among people. According to Barfoot (56), psilocybin (a type of entheogen) is a radically positive, informative, and rehabilitative substance.

Conclusion

In conclusion, entheogens can provide a vital function in changing some practices in society. Specific behaviors in our society have gone into a level that is unacceptable, therefore, making use of entheogens for a spiritual element can provide a significant platform for the future society to change these unconditional actions. It may act as an alternative for some harmful substances, such as alcohol and other addictive drugs. However, some governments have tried to ban particular entheogens, but it is less likely that they will be capable of opposing an expected effort to enable the logical description of entheogens in the cure of psychological and physical disorders and the development of consciousness.

Works Cited

Barfoot, Chas. Aimee Semple McPherson and the Making of Modern Pentecostalism, 1890-1926. New York: Equinox Publishing, 2011. Print.

Harvey, Andrew. The Essential Mystics: Selections from the Worlds Great Wisdom Traditions. New York: Harper San Francisco, 1997. Print.

Mann, Rod, dir. Entheogen  Awakening the Divine Within. Critical Mass Productions, 2007. Film.

Introduction

The Eastern hemisphere has been associated with the risky Eurocentric religions for the longest time. James Sire, the author of the universe next door, exposes his audience to the concepts of religions and the history of such Eurocentric faiths. According to Sire, all religions originating from Southeast, East, and South Asia are categorized as eastern religions. Buddhism, Sikhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism include some historical Eurocentric faith classified under eastern religions. Analyzing the eastern view of the history of religion exposes learners to the position of understanding Sires arguments in his book. Synthesizing the previews of students regarding the connections between pantheistic monism and its teaching about the world exposes the population to evaluate its worldviews.

Pantheistic Monism

The phenomenon of pantheistic monism is an exciting piece of narration that highlights Sires assumptions about the world. Pantheistic monism views the world based on personality traits; Daniel (2021) supports the philosophy by stressing that God is the only creature beyond personality comparison. The teachings of pantheistic monism revolve around the non-dual unity of God and humans; just like God, human beings are viewed beyond their personalities. Monists believe in the presence of one Being; Sire (2009) argued that everything seen in the world today is attributed to Gods oneness. Moreover, the phenomenon of pantheistic monism sees all other forms of realities either as appearances or modes. In such cases, Sire demonstrates his understanding of the world and its happenings as nature. Primarily, the pantheists focus on the prime realities, nature, and judgment as either good or evil.

Human Nature and Spirituality

Numerous questions have been raised regarding the connections between human nature and its spiritual components. In chapter 7, Sire asks his audience to note learners abilities in explaining their semblance of the spiritual elements of human nature. Sire (2009) guided innovative psychology researchers on the connections between human nature and its resemblance to spirituality. According to the study, human spirit longs for some semblance of the spiritual element that guides and makes people understand themselves. If there were no associations between human nature and the sense of spiritual components of the body, then human beings could not be in the position to know what is right and wrong (Kavalski, 2018). Similarly, the accuracy of what makes people right using the human behavior map convinces Sires readers of the presence of a spiritual element in their surroundings.

Closed system and monism worldviews fit together. On the one hand, monism holds that a single variable dictates and determines what happens in a given domain. On the other hand, a closed system restrains individuals from identifying the associations between a target group and other systems surrounding their environments (Clarke, 2019). Monism corresponds to the closed system worldview theory because it prevents individuals from seeing the significance of networked bonding and connected relationships.

Conclusion

The belief that the universe was conceived from the combination of laws, substances, and forces enables pantheists to trust the doctrine of eastern religions. The oneness of God also impacts the faith of pantheists on the overview of the world. Pantheistic monism supports the presence of a spiritual component of the body. Human nature and the actions that rule the instincts of evil and good lean on the theorys ideologies. Reasoning beyond the oneness of God showcases the relationships between a closed system worldview and monism.

References

Clarke, T. (2019). Parmenides argument for monism.Aristotle and the Eleatic One, 76-102. Oxford University Press. Web.

Daniel, S. H. (2021). Berkeleys pantheistic discourse.George Berkeley and Early Modern Philosophy. Oxford University Press. Web.

Kavalski, E. (2018). Normative power beyond the eurocentric frame.Oxford Bibliographies Online Datasets. Oxford University Press. Web.

Sire, J. W. (2009). The Universe Next Door: A basic worldview catalog (5th ed.). InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-7742-3

The state of religion in the modern world can be explained through several concepts, most of which have to do with religion being a product of social life.

Religion as a group phenomenon

When studying sociology of religion, one must not forget that church is an institution run by humans and attended by humans. Such institutions can be structured differently, teach varying doctrines, and practice diverse rituals (or rites) but their functioning mode is similar to any other social establishment, be it a business, an educational institution, or a governing body (Weight 2). Historically, churches are known to possess the land and financial resources that came from its adherents, either voluntarily or involuntarily, as when the Inquisition confiscated the convicted heretics lands and property. The latter is no longer the case today. Still, the power of a church seems to be gauged by the number of its adherents, who take part in the churchs activities, donate and otherwise assist.

Because human beings are social animals, they are likely to identify themselves with some groups, such as churches.

Religious socialization

Research shows that those who were brought up in a religious family are more likely to belong to some religious community later in life (Wuthnow 79). Apart from a religious upbringing, over which there is much controversy, adults are more or less free to choose their religion. The choice is backed up by the costs and benefits of this or that particular religion (and church), which is the rational choice approach.

Sprouting from the freedom of choice, there are some underlying reasons for which people choose to be religious at some point in their life. One of them, as previously stated, is that people are willing to identify with a group that they choose to their taste. Another reason is that most religions have a set of moral values that adherent regards as the way to get to paradise and generally become a better person while alive. Finally, they can simply enjoy being with their group, sharing experiences, networking, and having fun.

Speaking about the experiences, shared rituals are a powerful means of social bonding, as well as common sets of beliefs and the values emanating from them. A disagreement over the interpretation of texts and the conduct of rituals is likely to result in an in-group and inter-group conflict.

The church-sect typology

The schism of doctrines and the subsequent separation of religious groups are when sects are formed. As in Webers classification, sects offshoot from denominations (which are weakened churches) out of protest (Swatos n.pag.; Christiano, Swatos, and Kivisto, 128). The tense relationships of sects with societies and churches, therefore, are predictable because the sects dogmas and practices can be regarded as extreme.

Interestingly enough, exactly how a person becomes religious also seems to apply to sects, as discussed by Stark and Bainbridge in their Networks of Faith (1376-1377). They state that the rational choice can take place when the benefits of sects are believed to outweigh the costs. Similarly, if a persons family are adepts of a sect, this person can be coerced into conformity volens nolens. Such conformity, in turn, can be unhealthy because sects, as well as denominations and even churches, can go into extremes.

Fundamentalism and extremism

The notions of fundamentalism and extremism are not necessarily interchangeable. The former refers to describe those interpreting the Bible literally and stating it was unarguable. The latter denotes the way of perceiving and dealing with crimes against God. Some Christian groups and Islam are fundamentalists while Islamism, for instance, is extremist. Fundamentalist and extremist dispositions vary from group to group, which can be wither fundamentalist or extremist or both. An example of such crossover would be religious pro-life movement adherents who go as far as murder abortionists.

As in the case of sects (that can also be fundamentalist or extremist), tense relationships exist between the groups reactive to the environment. Attitudes attributable to extremists in particular are quite likely to generate conflicts on religious grounds.

Conflicts associated with religion

As it was mentioned, human beings are by nature social, and thus instinctively need to identify themselves with a grouping of sorts. When the self-identification goes into extremity, conflicts arise, whether it be armed hostilities based on nationalistic drive, slavery on the basis of racial discrimination, or gender-determined verbal abuse and harassment. Religion is a set of tenets bonding its adherents into social groups through teaching, preaching, rituals, and other shared activities. Socialization and other positive aspects aside, religion  or clash of religions  can be a motive for conflict.

Indeed, humans are more likely to confront each other than reconcile and rejoice because we intrinsically place our own group above the others and automatically consider those others to be in the wrong (Weight 13). Religious conflicts are serious because of that, and no less because most religions justify the genocide of the infidels. The main causes of prejudice can be prejudice and the conflict of the groups interests in their struggle for resources.

The state of religion in the modern world

Today, religion has shed its enlightening function; still, it can be explained through one of its functions, which is socialization. An institutionalized religious unit serves as a place to attend, participate in activities, and generally socialize. Unless people have been harassed into it, they are likely to find such activities gratifying. The choice of a religious unit to belong to can be based on posthumous perks or, alternately, on what religion gives while an adherent is alive: they become a better person and rise above the mundane. When such a purpose is shared by fellow adherents, the bonds become even closer.

The concept of extremism can be also used as a lens to study religion because hate crime and terrorism are challenges that all humankind has to face. It is, by contrast, a violent method of coercing people into religion and performing practices potentially dangerous to others. While some people might also find extremist actions enjoyable (although it takes a particular kind of personality), the victims, the forcefully converted, and their relatives are bound to suffer. Interestingly, extremism seems to have a social function as well, which is self-identification and having a place in a group of likeminded persons. But, albeit a similar social drive, the consequences for the society and the extremists themselves are disastrous.

Although Christians can go into extremities sometimes, the social function of the Church and just how a person decides to adhere is visible. Rational choice links baptism, attendance, and the promise of heaven, and the pleasantness of meetings, common rites, and beliefs create the feeling of belonging.

Works Cited

Christiano, Kevin J., William H. Swatos, and Peter Kivisto. Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments. 3rd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. Print.

Stark, Rodney, and William Sims Bainbridge. Networks of Faith: Interpersonal Bonds and Recruitment to Cults and Sects. American Journal of Sociology 85.6 (1980): 1376-1395. Print.

Swatos, William H. Church-Sect Theory. Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Hartford Institute for Religion Research, n.d. Web.

Weight, Alden. SOC 420 Lesson 3: Religion as a Group Experience. Arizona State University. Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ.

Wuthnow, Robert. Religious Upbringing: Does It Matter And, If So, What Matters? Princeton Theological Seminary. Princeton Theological Seminary Library, n.d. Web.

Krakauers work follows the parallel histories of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the double murder committed by Mormon fundamentalists. The text examines particular religious and historical themes while additionally relating them to the mentioned crimes of Ron and Dan Lafferty. Through this exploration, the author notes the destructive and violent nature of the faith, linking back to its complex origin. Moreover, the concepts of polygamy and extreme belief systems in the context of the story aid in emphasizing the corruptive nature of the Mormon religion. At the same time, the author reiterates the negative aspects of extremism expressed in any religion, independent of its basic values. In that way, Krakauers thesis demonstrates a positive correlation between ones state of dependence on pure religious rationalization and a lack of moral principles.

First of all, the principle of any faith being corruptive is based on the idea of the Mormon religion is demoralizing. To demonstrate this point, Krakauer describes the murder of Brenda Lafferty and her daughter Erica, committed by the older brothers of the womans husband. While eventually being charged for the committed criminal act, the brothers expressed minimal remorse or regret for the killings. Moreover, one of the murderers had a handwritten revelation which told him to commit this crime (Krakauer, 2004, p.6). The formal explanation presented by the men is evidently linked to their faith, as they received a message from God. Hence, Mormonism was used as a justification to act both immorally and illegally, which negatively affected the perception of the religion as a whole. Additionally, the faith leads to a universally nonaccepted ethical decision-making as well as social isolation, as the brothers demonstrated by their lack of emotional attachment to the consequences of the murder.

Furthermore, the malicious nature of the faith is exemplified through the discussion of its origin. Joseph Smith, the Latter Day Saint movement founder, was believed to have played a vital role in Gods plan for mankind (Krakauer, 2004, p.29). Essentially, the history of the first groups led by the founder and prophet was mostly linked to acts of violence and various forms of protests. Indeed, followers of other religions disregarded Mormonism and the principal values of the faith, including polygamy and revelations with God. The critical role of the prophet is to obey church authorities, receive the testimony of Jesus, and in that way, Smith eventually would achieve top leadership positions while still causing outrage nationally (Mueller, 2015, para.11). As isolated groups of Mormons experienced national persecution, this led to only more violence from their side. Essentially, Krakauer explains the brutality and abuse as a consequence of Mormon oppression rather than a rooted principle in their belief system. Still, the possible cause of the religions negative aspects does not justify its followers immoral acts and consequences.

Extreme Mormonism is the next point that explains how faith can corrupt a person if treated inappropriately. For example, the author emphasizes a dark side to religious devotion that is too often ignored or denied, in reference to the general perception of Mormonism as a passive and stereotypically less violent religion. In turn, critical analysis of the history of this particular faith illustrates the opposite, as demonstrated by the case of the Lafferty brothers. Besides justifying criminal acts from the perspective of Mormon killers, extreme Mormonism can also affect other normal processes of daily social life, as well as ones perception of polygamy. Hence, religious corruption spreads to both the mind and the social stance of the zealot.

Ultimately, the discussion of the detrimental effects of Mormonism and its extreme methods of both expression and support leads to the consideration of religion in general. As the author notes, &there may be no more potent force than religion in the context of motivating people to do evil or commit unlawful crimes (Krakauer, 2004, p.22). While the work is centrally dedicated to Mormonism, the explored ideas can be related to any religion that abuses ones freedom of choice and causes immoral actions. Although some religious communities propagate unlimited happiness in the case of full commitment to its system of regulations, cults and other similar organizations severely limit ones rights. Furthermore, the history of Mormonism accentuated the complex relationship between the fundamental principles of faith and the social attitude towards its main methods.

Although the demonstrated ideas highlight the corruptive nature of extreme absolute faith, it is essential to suggest bias and question the credibility of the author. While the case of the Lafferty brothers may seem relevant to the discussion of Mormonism approaches, it significantly generalizes several particular cases to a whole growing religion. Moreover, Krakauers perspective is minimally dedicated to the review of various perspectives and is instead mostly focused on the illustration of one negative aspect of the faith. In terms of a fair discussion, it is unjust to refer to only one point of view on such complex issues as religion. Therefore, the credibility of the text would be significantly improved if more explanations were offered to explain the unproblematic aspects of Mormonism. Additionally, this review would offer a more specified reason as to why religion is as fast-growing as it is nowadays.

In conclusion, Krakauers thesis on the corruptive nature of faith and its absolute expressions is clearly explored in the text. The author provides multiple examples of Mormon values and the violence of Fundamental Mormons. While the Lafferty case highlights the consequences of complete commitment to absolute faith, the history of Mormonism accentuates the role of external social factors in accepting a system of beliefs. Moreover, the violence of Mormon Fundamentalists can be traced to the cases of polygamy, in which the faith supporters would punish their victims for not accepting the principles of the religion. Ultimately, this review leads to the revaluation of extreme religion in general, not necessarily related to the particular faith described in the text. At the same time, more perspectives must be included in the analysis to provide a fair discussion of such a complex question. In that way, future emphasis should be placed on exploring the specific ways religious organizations become corruptive and violent.

References

Krakauer, J. (2004). Under the banner of heaven: A story of violent faith. Anchor.

Mueller, M. P. (2015). Mormonism and the problem of Jon Krakauer. Religion & Politics. Web.