Category: Religion

Introduction

The social role of religion and religious philosophies can hardly be underrated since it introduces the foundational values to the society and allows maintaining order while also being the source of continuous inspiration and spiritual growth. Therefore, religions and religious philosophies that emerged during the Axial Age (5-6 BC) served as essential factors contributing to the further development of the society. Among the crucial ones that defined the further evolution of the humankind, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, and Legalism need to be mentioned (Bowman 7-11). Despite the fact that the identified religions and religious philosophies appeared at different points in time, in different cultures, and based on different ethical and moral systems, each of the philosophies rendered a specific idea of social interactions and suggested similar rigid value systems, therefore, introducing order into the early societies.

Zoroastrianism

The proponents of Zoroastrianism worshiped a single deity (Ahura Mazda) and was based on the teachings of Zoroaster, who was an Iranian prophet. When considering the unique properties of the identified religion, one must mention that it is monotheistic in contrast to the ones such as Buddhism. In fact, the focus on a single identity that is defined as the superior creature, as well as the mentioning of the prophet that made it possible for the religion to become well-known and widely accepted by a significant number of people makes Zoroastrianism similar to the current religions such as Christianity and Islam. Viewing Ahura Mazda as the be-all and end-all of the universe, in turn, also sets Zoroastrianism apart from the rest of the religious beliefs mentioned above since none of the said philosophies tends to focus on a single deity (Voorst 10). That being said, Zoroastrianism serves the purpose of saving peoples souls and introducing a very specific order into the social interactions. Particularly, the fact that Zoroastrianism views the promotion and enhancement of order as the foundational concept of societal interactions deserves to be mentioned.

Buddhism

Unlike the rest of the religions on this list, Buddhism is closer to philosophy as opposed to an actual religion. Therefore, it stands aside from the rest of the religious movements such as Jainism, Zoroastrianism, and Confucianism. In some respect, the lack of emphasis on the role of a particular deity in the context of the religion makes Buddhism close to Legalism. However, unlike the latter, which does not have the supreme person that its proponents follow, Buddhism introduces its proponents to the idea of Enlightenment and the opportunity to join the ranks of spiritual leaders. Furthermore, Buddhists make extensive use of statues, pictures, and other representations of their religious leader. Finally, reincarnation as a crucial concept in Buddhism is what makes it unique among other religious philosophies such as Zoroastrianism, Legalism, Confucianism, and Jainism (Zhao 97).

Jainism

In its attempt to explore the relationships between people and the universe in which they exist, Jainism comes very close to Zoroastrianism, with a rather heavy emphasis on cosmology and the exploration of peoples place in the universe. However, unlike Zoroastrianism, which focuses on the said analysis of peoples place in the universe, Jainism promotes the concept of karma as the foundational principle of social interactions.

In fact, Jainism has a lot in common with Buddhism. For instance, both religious philosophies have rather charismatic leaders (the Buddha and Mahavira) as the role models that promote a set of specific values to the proponents of the religions. It should be noted, though, that, unlike Jainism, which is more lenient toward its opponents, Buddhism rails the very idea of ritualism, as well as asceticism, therefore, emphasizing the significance of focusing on the spiritual aspects of salvation. Jainism, therefore, can be classified as rather orthodox, which makes it close to Zoroastrianism (Athyal 133).

Confucianism

As a rule, Confucianism is often compared to Buddhism as the religious ideology that focuses on its philosophical aspects rather than religious ones. For instance, similar to Legalism, both religions aim at introducing a rigid structure into the society. Furthermore, both have rather charismatic leaders as the role models based on which the believers shape their behavior (i.e., Buddha and Confucius).

However, when considering the goals that each of the religions pursues, one must admit that there is a significant difference between the two. Buddhism views reaching the state of enlightenment as the ultimate goal whereas Confucianism merely promotes the introduction of orderliness into the society. In this respect, Confucianism is quite close to Legalism seeing that both focus on the significance of order as the basis for proper social interactions. Furthermore, much like Zoroastrianism, Confucianism is a monotheistic religion that does not imply worshipping several deities (Rambo and Farhadian 3).

Legalism

One might argue that Legalism as philosophy stands aside from the rest of the ideas mentioned above. Indeed, Legalism does not imply the presence of any superior being, unlike Jainism does, for instance. Similarly, legalism does not require the presence of a spiritual teacher, which is an essential component of Buddhism and Confucianism teachings. Instead, it focuses on order as the glue that keeps the society together and allows maintaining order within it. At this point, one might argue that Legalism rubs shoulders with some of the postulates of Zoroastrianism.

Indeed, according to the latter, the order must be viewed as the crucial concept that defines peoples behavior, their roles in the society, their ethical choices, etc. However, unlike Zoroastrianism, which also implies considering the variety of opinions regarding a particular dilemma, Legalism demands that every choice must follow the letter of the law. Therefore, in some way, Legalism can be viewed as restricting peoples ability to think independently and develop personally, taking new viewpoints and ideas into account (Zhao 118).

Conclusion

Even though Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, and Legalism, when considering the religious philosophies closer, one will find that the said religious philosophies were founded on entirely different ideas and concepts, the steady system of values, a rigid concept of social interactions, and a very detailed description of the role and place of a human being in the grand scheme of events.

Therefore, it will be reasonable to state that Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, and Legalism share a range of similar ideas on a certain level. That being said, there are significant differences between the philosophies and religious listed above, the details regarding the role of people in the universe and the relationships between people and the central deity or deities being the key ones. Placed in the context of specific cultures and developing in unique environments, the identified philosophies and religions served not as a moral compass to their proponents but also as the foundation for the further growth and self-identification.

Works Cited

Athyal, Jesudas M., editor. Religion in Southeast Asia: An Encyclopedia of Faiths and Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Faiths and Cultures. ABC-CLIO, 2015.

Bowman, Jonathan. Cosmopolitan Justice: The Axial Age, Multiple Modernities, and the Postsecular Turn. Springer, 2015.

Rambo, Lewis Ray and Charles E. Farhadian, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion. OUP, 2014.

Voorst, Robert E. Van. Anthology of World Scriptures. Cengage Learning, 2016.

Zhao, Dingxin. The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History. Oxford University Press, 2015.

Survey

This biblical text analysis is based on Saint Pauls first letter to the Corinthians. 1 Corinthians 4:1-2 Let a man so consider us, as servants of Christ and stewards of the mysteries of God. Moreover, it is required in stewards that one be found faithful. (1 Cor. 4:1-2 NKJV). This scripture denotes the pastoral duties of a minister in regard to obedience to Christ. A survey conducted to determine the perceptions of stewardship on the present day of Christ reveals that many people believe in service but have not clearly understood stewardship (Rolston 2016). From Pauls perspective, servants of God are stewards from whom faithfulness is expected.

Contextual Analysis

In the historical context, Pauls first epistle to the church in Corinth was written in AD 55. This time aligns with Pauls stay in Ephesus in the first few months of the year. In the cultural aspect, Corinthians comprised the gentile church, and Paul continually felt the need to advise them on church matters. The term stewards in the scripture represented the sociopolitical environment of the time, whereby key individuals were in charge of governing peoples legal properties but had no rights over the items entrusted to them (1 Cor. 4:1-2 NKJV). Paul intended to refer the church to their identities and roles in service to Christ.

In the literary and rhetorical contexts, the book of I Corinthians is divided into sixteen chapters that are roughly divided into seven sections. In the first section, Paul underlines the Corinthian churchs disunity (1 Corinthians 1:104:21). The second section (1 Corinthians 56) deals with the delicate matter of sexual sin in the Christian community as well as lawsuits amongst members. The value of marriage among Christians is discussed in the third part (1 Corinthians 7). The theme of Christian freedom within the church is developed in the fourth section (1 Corinthians 8:111:1) forms the fourth section. This theme has been used by many to define their place within the church.

The fifth section pertains to issues that arise in church worship meetings (1 Corinthians 11:214:40). The hope of the resurrection is the subject of the sixth section (1 Corinthians 15). Pauls final words to the church are found in the seventh section (1 Corinthians 16). He speaks to their financial intentions (1 Corinthians 16:14) as well as his personal plans, with the hope of returning to see them in the future. In the canonical context, the lead scripture links prior believers instructions in the Old Testament to the admonitions given in the later books of the New Testament.

Formal Analysis

1. Form  the scripture is in the form of a narrative text because it describes and illustrates how servants are expected to conduct themselves. Paul first asks the church to consider the leaders as stewards and continues to illustrate the characteristics of a steward.
2. Structure  the scriptural text is structured through repetition that creates emphasis. The two verses contain the word stewards, which carries the central theme of the writing (1 Cor. 4:1-2 NKJV).
3. Movement  the text moves through description, illustration, and repetition

Detailed Analysis

1 Corinthians 4:1 Let a man so consider us, as servants of Christ and stewards of the mysteries of God implies that Paul and Apollos are expected to faithfully manage the treasures granted to them. In this sense, a steward is a servant who has been entrusted with work or a commission. In 4:1, Paul employs a somewhat different term for a servant than in first Corinthians 3:5 (minister), but the idea is the same. In both circumstances, the servant is under the command of a master and serves by carrying out that masters wishes. Verse 2, Moreover, it is required in stewards that one be found faithful denotes the responsibility attached to stewardship. According to Paul, servanthood was accompanied by the heavy duty of being faithful to the treasures and mysteries bestowed upon leaders.

Synthesis

From the working thesis, servanthood and stewardship are inseparable and one must faithfully play both roles. The analyzed lead text has a crucial part in society and the Christian church. Paul emphasizes that people who believe in Christ ought to demonstrate servanthood and faithfulness, particularly in leadership. Pauls argument is that people who are entrusted with the mysteries of the kingdom of God ought not to think only of themselves. Exegetically, this denotes that although many church leaders have focused on giving and financial aid, the stewardship implied by Paul entails every resource, including knowledge. In a commentary by Pomroy (2018), Paul was teaching the church in Corinth and, by extension, todays church the value of faithfulness in service. Connecting this to the larger biblical context, all Gods servants were expected to be faithful stewards, and those who failed suffered from Gods wrath.

Reflection

As a Christian and a servant of God in the church, I have to think of myself as Christs servant as a preacher and someone who is dedicated to him and his church. My identity is significant as it directs me to keep my sight fixed on Christ and to appropriately steward His secrets. Pauls intelligent and eloquent gospel presentation exemplifies the texts modern relevancy. The most important aspect of the verses is the discussion of the preachers role as a servant charged with stewarding Gods word both personally and corporately.

Research

The first article by Pomroy gives a comparative analysis of the current church from the perspective of the early church. Rolstons article is a commentary on Saint Pauls teaching. These two sources facilitate an analysis of the lead scripture and connect it to todays church.

References

1 Cor. 4:1-2 New King James Version.

Pomroy, Grace Duddy. Stewardship: What the church can learn from millennials. Currents in Theology and Mission 45, no. 2 (2018): 5-5.

Rolston, Holmes. Stewardship in the New Testament Church: A Study in the Teachings of Saint Paul Concerning Christian Stewardship. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2016.

Introduction

Throughout its history, humanity has created many methods of paying tribute and to their deceased relatives and friends. The first traces of mourning rituals date back to the earliest human history. Nowadays, every culture and religion has its own ritual style, which can significantly differ from each other (Lear, 2014). However, in general, they all have one purpose, which is to mark the transition from life to death and pay tribute to a deceased person. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to show how morning rituals differ from each other in different cultures.

Christian Mourning Traditions

When a Christian person dies, their body is cleaned, dressed, and put into a coffin, where it lies for several days before the funeral so that all their friends and relatives could visit the church with the coffin and bid their farewells to the deceased. At the funeral, there is always a ceremony performed by a priest, where he preaches, and the closest people to the deceased usually wearing black clothes listen and make speeches. The ceremony takes place at a cemetery, where the deceased inside a coffin is buried underground (Lear, 2014). The atmosphere at the ceremony is always depressing and dismal, and most people usually cry.

After the funeral, the repast usually takes place, where those who knew the deceased share memories of them with each other and feast in their honor. After the funeral day, Christians regularly visit their dead relatives and friends at the cemetery and bring some food, drinks, and flowers to them. Additionally, people usually provide gestures of sympathy for the bereaved family (Rosenblatt, 2013). They can be in a form of a note expressing the condolences of some relatives and friends of the deceased if they cannot attend the funeral, a mass card, flowers and meals, donation to the familys charity, and so on.

Hindu Mourning Traditions

Hindu mourning traditions significantly differ from those of the Christians. In general, Hindus belief is based on the concept of the so-called samsara or reincarnation. The ultimate purpose of Hindus is to break this cycle of rebirths impelled by karma and become free from lust, thereby attaining the so-called moksha or the state of eternal bliss. Thus, since Hindus do not regard death as the end of life but merely as a change in a long journey of the soul, it is not usual to see too much gloom and crying at the funeral (Bhuvaneswar & Stern, 2013). Moreover, Hindus believe that excessive lamenting can cause harm to the soul of a deceased.

Unlike Christians, at the funeral, Hindus wear white clothes. According to Hinduism, bodies of the dead are to be cremated, and the mourning period lasts thirteen days. The cremation must take place at dusk after the sunset or at dawn before the sunrise in a day after the death. On the thirteenth day of mourning, the so-called shaddra takes place. This is a ceremony of a fire sacrifice and offerings to the god. At the end of this day, the family cleans their family shrine and makes more offerings to the god in order to make the afterlife journey of their relative more peaceful (Bhuvaneswar & Stern, 2013). After this day, the family returns to their everyday responsibilities.

Muslim Mourning Traditions

In Islam, like in Christianity, there is a belief in the afterlife. Muslims also have the concept of heaven and hell, which they call Jannah and Jahannam. The funeral usually takes place right before the sunset within a day after death. At the funeral ceremony, the closest friends and relatives are usually present. They offer their condolences to the bereaved family and show their support. According to the Quran, expressing too many emotions at the funeral is forbidden.

Like in Hinduism, in Islam, the mourning period is fixed. It is three days for the closest friends and relatives and four months and ten days for the widow. During this period, they must avoid wearing decorative clothes and jewelry, and the widow is not allowed to marry (Kalyango, Myssayeva, & Mohammed, 2015). The wake usually takes place in the bereaved familys home, where they provide drinks and food to the visitors during those three days.

Buddhist Mourning Traditions

According to Buddhist burial traditions, the funeral takes place within seven days after the death. Like Hindus, Buddhists believe in reincarnation, and their final goal is to release from all human desires, thereby attaining enlightenment and reaching the so-called state of nirvana. However, despite the similarities between these two religions in terms of what happens after death, the burial rituals are different. Thus, Buddhists have two options as to how they bury their dead. However, according to the study conducted in 2014, in which 78 Buddhist families participated, nearly 65% chose cremation when their relatives died (Sik & Sik, 2016). They can choose either cremation, after which the remains are placed in an urn and given to the family of the deceased, or underground burial, which is similar to that in Christianity.

When a person dies, their body must not be moved for some time, as Buddhists believe that the soul does not leave the body immediately after death. The wake, at which the family members and friends are present, takes place before the funeral. Monks can also be present at the wake. The study showed that almost 80% of Buddhists prefer the monks to be at the wake. At the funeral, the monks perform chanting service, which is a prayer in the form of a song. The color for the funeral clothing is white. After the funeral, the coffin is sealed and brought to either a cemetery or crematorium (Sik & Sik, 2016). Like in Christianity, the mourning period is not fixed.

Jewish Mourning Traditions

The process of mourning in Jewish traditions is the most extensive. Unlike Hindus and Muslims, it is normal and even good to express emotions at the funeral and during the period of mourning, as, according to Judaism, the main purpose of mourning is to show respect to the dead and comfort the living. In order to enhance the significance of the event, some Jewish families even hire moirologists, professional mourners who lament at the funeral. According to the study conducted in 2013, in which 84 Jewish families participated, every fifth of them hired professional mourners at the funeral of their relatives.

A week after the funeral, which is called shiva, is the period of mourning. At this time, the bereaved family stays at home and receives condolences from their friends and other relatives. They cover all the mirrors in the house and wear old and ragged clothes with a black ribbon attached to them (Rubin, 2015). In addition, it is forbidden for men to shave. After shiva, people return to their everyday duties.

Conclusion

Currently, there are many mourning traditions in the world. They completely depend on religion, culture, and personal beliefs of people. Although all these traditions ultimately have the same goal, which is to mark the transition between life and death and to show respect to the deceased, they express it in different ways. Thus, for example, in some cultures, the funeral color is black, while in others, it is white. Nevertheless, whatever the culture or religion, it is natural to express emotions when someone dies even if they are forbidden, as the one who has died will not come back.

References

Bhuvaneswar, C. G., & Stern, T. A. (2013). Teaching cross-cultural aspects of mourning: A Hindu perspective on death and dying. Palliative & Supportive Care, 11(1), 79.

Kalyango Jr, Y., Myssayeva, K. N., & Mohammed, A. (2015). Visual representation of Shiite Muslim mourning rituals. Visual Communication Quarterly, 22(3), 146-159.

Lear, J. (2014). Mourning and moral psychology. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 31(4), 470-481.

Rosenblatt, P. C. (2013). Family grief in cross-cultural perspective. Family Science, 4(1), 12-19.

Rubin, S. S. (2015). Loss and mourning in the Jewish tradition. OMEGA-Journal of Death and Dying, 70(1), 79-98.

Sik, H. H., & Sik, F. R. (2016). A case study of the decline of the Buddhist funeral ritual, the Guangdong Yuqie Yankou. Contemporary Buddhism, 17(1), 116-137.

Society of any state is not homogenous. Traditionally, its structure depends on the culture and mentality of representatives of all nationalities and ethnic groups residing in the area. The combined influence of all these factors impacts the further development of a community and determines its attitude to new concepts and people adhering to them. Conservative societies could be described as rather hostile to outsiders and tending to suppress any manifestations of the unusual mentality.

However, the given pattern might result in stagnation and collapse of the society, which is not able to alter in accordance with the new conditions. Yet, there is another sort of culture that encourages numerous outsider customs and creates the environment beneficial for their development.

The combination of the unique factors impacting the development of the state and the structure of the population resulted in the creation of the US society, which could be characterized by the high level of tolerance. At the moment, the state shelters the representatives of a number of various nationalities who consider the USA to be their home (Butler, Wacker, & Balmer, 2011). Therefore, a significant percentage of people prefer to adhere to their native culture.

This fact evidences the absence of the serious barriers created to limit the usage and spread of the outsider culture. In this regard, the country is also characterized by religious pluralism and tolerant attitude towards numerous cults, beliefs, etc. It results from the unique peculiarities of the development of the USA and the role immigrants and their culture played in the formation of the state.

The question of outsiders and their culture has always been topical for the USA. The country was founded by immigrants from various European states who had different cultures and belonged to numerous religious communities. Puritans from the Mayflower created the basis for the further development of the culture. However, the presence of the Spanish, French, Dutch, etc. in the region contributed to the multicultural society greatly. Additionally, numerous slaves cults imported mainly from Africa, and pagan rituals of local tribes conditioned the diverse character of numerous communities.

Yet, there still had been cultures and religions considered as dominant as they were economically determined and reflected the value system of the largest property holders (Moore, 1982). The given environment gave rise to the phenomenon of the outsiders who adhered to the culture different from the dominant one. Besides, the values of the US society were not foisted upon the powerless newcomers.

In fact, there is a tendency to assume that American society is comprised of insiders who experienced the outsiderhood and managed to become part of the community (Moore, 1982). This assumption results from the peculiarities of the colonization and further evolution of the state. Broadly speaking, all settlers arrived in America were outsiders as they promoted their culture and religion. With the course of time, the interaction with local people and representatives of other religious communities resulted in the formation of a unique culture incorporating crucial concerns of numerous ethnic groups residing in the area.

The appearance of the dominant culture could be considered as the result of the long-term interaction between numerous local beliefs and the increase of the power of the privileged class that was able to promote the establishment of the most tolerant society.

Therefore, the acceptance of various religions could also be explained by the outstanding immigrants contribution to the formation and evolution of the USA. The first stages of the countrys development were characterized by the significant influx of refugees and people looking for new possibilities. The scale of the migration was so significant that it was hardly possible to resist the overwhelming influence of new cultures and religions.

Moreover, realizing the fact that the high level of satisfaction and motivation could help to increase the efficiency of workers, the government did not introduce any acts to limit the outsider culture or religion. The given approach gave rise to the extension of numerous cults and religions practiced by all members of the multi-ethnic society.

Therefore, the arrival of immigrants also promoted the development of occultism and its spread over the state. Americans had various feelings towards immigrants and their culture. Sometimes, they took an interest in new movements and customs, conditioning their further spread and growth (Religion for the new Millennium, n.d.). Furthermore, the establishment of various cults was promoted by the reconsideration of the attitude to discriminated minorities and their culture.

Having obtained the same rights, they were able to practice their religion and impact the environment. This fact became essential for the creation of the unique image of US society. Various researches state that nowadays, the USA is one of the most diverse countries that encourages many religions to flourish and become more popular (Butler, Wacker, & Balmer, 2011). The given statement evidences the role various religions play in the formation and extension of society.

It follows from these cogitations that the American culture could be considered as the result of the long-term interaction of immigrants practicing numerous religions and having absolutely different customs. The further existence of the state was possible only in terms of beneficial cooperation and mutual respect. The onward history proves the rightness of the chosen course as the immigrants contribution to the formation of the USA could hardly be overestimated.

Nevertheless, religious pluralism also gives rise to a number of concerns related to ethical questions. For instance, some cults accept sacrifices using animals in their rituals or promoting violent practices to prove peoples devotion to God. The nature of these practices might be unacceptable for other members of society. However, the US Constitution provides the freedom of religion for its citizens. It means that everyone is free to practice any religion he/she wants until it does not pose a threat to the health or well-being of another person. The given law perfectly demonstrates the nature and focus of the US society and the tolerance peculiar to it.

It follows from these cogitations that the nature of American society conditions its tolerant attitude towards numerous religions and cults. The peculiarities of the formation of the state and the influx of immigrants from various countries resulted in the shifts in the mentality of people living in the region and contributed to the evolution of the tolerant society. Founded by immigrants, the USA recognized the great benefit of the cooperation with the representatives of other ethnic groups and accepted it as part of the nationalities policy. At the moment, the USA is characterized by an outstanding religious pluralism that contributes to the further evolution of its society.

References

Butler, J., Wacker, G., & Balmer, R. (2011). Religion in American Life. New York: Oxford University Press.

Moore, L. (1982). Insiders and Outsiders in American Historical Narrative and American History. The American Historical Review, 87(2), 390-412. Web.

Religion for the new Millennium. (n.d.).

For many centuries, people have been wondering about the genesis of everything alive. There are uncountable theories about this event: someone assumes that it is all about aliens, someone talks about matrix, and someone finds God in everything alive. God  is the hugest creator, who combined four elements to create such a beautiful world: perfection, diversity, profusion, and inventiveness.

Firstly, everyone has indeed wondered how perfect the world and nature are. God is everywhere; he perfectly created this world, just how it has to be; he is utterly transcending all human thought (Barrs, 2013, 1:1-31). Everything from giant planets to cells is flawless and incredible. Comparing human creations to Gods ones, people can observe an enormous difference: firstly, every human invention looks poor and unnatural contrasted to what Lord made; secondly, humans cannot create anything from scratch, and finally, Gods creations are appealing to be observed in contrast to theirs, especially under a microscope. Saint Remigius claimed: Therefore you are to be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Matthew 5:48). To sum up, Gods creation is perfect, unlike humans, for instance, every cell, nature, universe, and person.

Secondly, the diversity of everything alive is impressive: from microbes, animals, birds, plants to human beings. People are allowed to watch the snow falling, the sun setting, the river flowing, the birds singing, the plants growing, and numerous others. This is an amazing and the best gift anyone could ever receive. Sometimes, it feels like in the world everything is possible: it is incredible and diversified to that extent that a person can discover something new forever. For in him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. He is before all things, and in him all things hold together (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Colossians 1:16-17). The universe is diversified, and every small and colossal detail is multifaceted and unique.

Thirdly, looking in the night sky, observing stars, nobody can count them, because it seems like there is an endless amount of them there. Profusion is one of the critical key elements of Gods creation of the world. It is said, that there are about sixty billion galaxies in the multi-universe, and each of them contains billions of stars. That is hard to imagine and comprehend for human brains. The abundance is everywhere: from meadows of flowers and forests of trees to amount of stars and planets in the universe. A great phrase describes a lot: God is my abundance (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, John 10:10). It explains well that the Lord created everything alive in his own image and he is the abundance, which means everything he made is an abundance.

Finally, about Gods inventiveness: God invented everything that exists in the world. Every human invention is mediocre and the reason for it is that they create it from the things that God created. They are not creators, and they cannot do anything from scratch. &and in the cutting of stones for settings and in the carving of wood, to perform in every inventive work (English Standard Version Bible, 2001, Exo 35:33). In summary, God is everywhere: he was such inventive that he created abundance, creating a diversified world.

In conclusion, God  is the biggest creator, who combined four elements to create such a beautiful world: perfection, diversity, profusion, and inventiveness. In his image, he created the world perfect, diversified with countless different creatures and events, and abundant. That is why the world is a unique and lovely place that can be adored every moment.

References

Barrs, J. (2013). Echoes of Eden: reflections on Christianity, literature, and the arts. Crossway, 1:1-31.

English Standard Version Bible. (2001). ESV Online. Web.

Introduction

Religion has been one of the primary subjects of controversy ever since ancient times. Moreover, religion-related arguments can be found in any society or culture at any point in human history. Being quite a sensitive and intimate topic for many individuals, religion often becomes the source of arguments and conflicts. The society is divided into two general groups  the opponents of religion and its proponents. The former state that people were created by God, the latter argue that Gods, as well as religions, were invented by humans for cognitive purposes.

Even though the argument persists till today, the pro-religious side has many strong arguments, however, there is a substantial body of research that supports the idea that religions carry out specific cognitive, political, and social purposes and are the tools necessary for a human mind to comprehend and the mysterious world around and thus were created by people artificially.

Analysis

Religion is viewed as a tool necessary for the survival of the human population throughout centuries (Nickels, 2008). First of all, scholars point out the fact that religious beliefs are well-spread throughout the whole world and can be found in any human society (Pyysiainen & Hauser, 2009). Besides, religious beliefs have been in place for many centuries; older worldviews were replaced by the newer ones, but a certain dominant set of values and religious ideas has always been present in any society regardless of an era.

While theology focuses on the explorations of various norms and values within different religions and their evolution over the course of history, sociology concerns with the role of religion in the development and evolution of the human society (Beyers, 2010).

Namely, religion is perceived as one of the major factors that facilitated the establishment of civil society (Beyers, 2010). At the same time, the nature of religion itself is a meaningful question that many scientists attempt to answer using logical reasoning, critical thinking, and the scientific findings in the spheres of social development, biology, and cognitive evolution of a human brain. The groups of scientists who explore this issue are recognized as secular-based theorists (evolutionary biologists, sociologists, some philosophers)

The first argument used by the supporters of secular-based theories of the origin of religion relies on the peoples natural willingness to comprehend the world around sing cognitive abilities and attempts to arrange the collected information in an ordered fashion (Some theories on the origins of religion, 2014; Beyers, 2010). In other words, the scientists believe that trying to make the world around more comprehensible, human societies were looking for explanations of the happenings that were not easy to understand. Nowadays, when science is highly developed and technically equipped, the researchers have all the necessary tools to conduct experiments, measure outcomes, collect data, and examine it.

The tools that are unavailable can be built due to the high technical capacity of the contemporary world. However, centuries ago, when the technological progress was at its initial stages of development, many of the common phenomena were unclear and mysterious to the human observers. For example, such happenings as sunset and sunrise, thunder and lightning, solar eclipse, diseases, or childbirth were impossible to explain back in the ancient times due to the absence of the tools for research. That is why they were automatically attributed to the divine will and treated at phenomena that were inflicted by gods or other mystical beings.

Besides, exercising the ideas that most of these happenings could be controlled by means of building positive and friendly relationships with the gods provided the proto-humans with an impression of being in charge of their circumstances. This tendency was mentioned by Friedrich Nietzsche (n. d.) in his work titled Gay Science where he likens the peoples striving to detect order and patterns in the world around and create an idea of a safer and non-chaotic world where the situations can be controlled. Nietzsche (n. d.) did not speak about religion directly; however, he discussed morality in this manner, making a comparison with a quiet island surrounded by an ocean of chaos.

Another analogy used by the philosopher was a cage in which a wild animal preferred to live, instead of being exposed to the unknown and mysterious world. This argument is supported by the homogeneity of religious beliefs when it comes to the most general questions. Regardless of the diverse details religions of the world contain, they are rather similar in all the major aspects such as the creation of people by the gods, the power of the gods to control the world around, peoples need to keep the gods happy in order to ensure their own safety and happiness (Boyer, 2001). That way, without communicating with one another, the ancient cultures of the world developed paganist religions with very similar structures that have many general points in common.

Another argument that supports the idea of religions being generated by human societies is the need for order inside of these societies. In other words, religions served as the sources of rules and regulations developed to maintain civilizations, avoid conflicts, and establish balance (Pyysiainen & Hauser, 2009). In reality, the vast majority of the worlds religions that existed during various eras contained similar rules commanding the followers to stay away from behaviors and practices that the society of that time considered harmful and destructive  murder, stealing, adultery, to name a few.

These concepts remain common for most of the modern and old religions. At the same time, practicing religious rituals, worshiping, and sticking to the required customs was recognized as a desired lifestyle because it fell within the framework of safe existence and peaceful society (Pyysiainen & Hauser, 2009). In other words, if older religions existed to establish behavioral norms within communities making them safer for their members, the religions that occurred later (such as the modern ones) were constructed specifically to bring unity to the states and make them stronger to withstand the pressure created by the other cultures. In turn, all the religion-based wars can be viewed as the clashes of interests of different religions focused on the maintenance of the states.

It is likely that the supporters of religious beliefs as the truths that come from above and the proponents of the idea that human societies were created by gods and not vice versa, would attempt to refute these arguments stating that human societies and cultures appeared many centuries ago that thus it is impossible to tell whether or not they developed without a push of a divine origin. Also, the similarities of the social behaviors and voices in the core pillars of different religions may be used as an argument to support the idea that there is a divine force whose laws were similar for people everywhere in the world.

This counterargument could be refuted by the statement of Beyers (2010) who pointed out that religion is a concept specifically created to exist inside of human societies and absolutely inviable when placed outside of them. In fact, Beyers (2010) maintains that this logic is applicable to all the manmade units of culture  material and non-material. Each and every one of them stops making any sense of having any meaning when isolated from human culture. The author also emphasizes that throughout their history, human cultures took an active part in the creation of the world around, and thus, many products of human cultures came to existence. Religion is one such product. In fact, these products changed over time as the societies matured, evolved, and transformed.

Conclusion

That way, religions may be compared to any object of culture such as clothing for example. It used to be crude and harsh back in ancient times and served merely to maintain the survival of people who used it. Over time, it became more complex and detailed, more cleverly made, and beautifully applied, moving from fulfilling basic and practical needs to higher ones such as self-expression and personal development. Finally, today, this product is treated as something a free individual may choose for themselves personally depending on their unique character and goals in life. To sum up, religion is an ancient concept whose origins are unclear, but a substantial body of evidence supports the idea that it is a product of human society and not the other way around.

References

Beyers, J. (2010). Religion, civil society and conflict: What is it that religion does for and to society? Hervormde Teologiese Studies, 67(3), 1-8.

Boyer, P. (2001). Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Nickels, M. K. (2008). Evolving God: A Provocative View on the Origins of Religion. American Anthropologist, 110(1), 117-118.

Nietzsche. F. (2001). The Gay Science. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Pyysiainen, I., & Hauser, M. (2009). The origins of religion : evolved adaptation or by-product? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(3), 104-109.

Some theories on the origins of religion. (2014). Web.

Introduction

The notions of religion and sexuality continue to be some of the most sensitive topics for discussion in modern society. According to the researchers, religion and religiosity play an important role in the sexual behaviors of young people (Somefun, 2019, p. 1). Indeed, the stigma that surrounds the interrelationship between ones religious affiliation and sexuality implies that a strong religious impact on the individual, along with the social environment, tends to interfere with the persons self-awareness and sexual identification. For this reason, it would be of paramount importance to dwell on the scope of the correlation between ones religiosity and sexuality. The research question of the present study is as follows: What is the correlation between ones religious affiliation and sexuality? The research hypothesis states that there is such a correlation. The research is expected to shed light on the implication and the scope of religions influence on ones sexual identity.

Literature Review

Nowadays, many researchers place emphasis on the complicated relationship between religious values persons acceptance of their sexuality. Thus, the study by Somefun et al. (2019) addresses the impact of religion on the sexual abstinence of sub-Saharan Africas young people. The cross-sectional study was conducted among the unmarried male and female Nigerian population aged 15-24 (Somefun et al., 2019, p. 3). The sample of 2,339 young adults was comprised of Christians, Catholics, and Muslims, with more than 88% of the sample identifying them as highly religious (Some fun et el., 2019). The findings revealed that young people who described themselves as highly religious were nearly two times more likely to abstain from sex (Somefun, 2019, p. 6). This study provides significant value to the topic of research, as it explicitly demonstrates that religion as a cultural phenomenon explicitly shapes the sexual behavior of many young adults.

Another study by Hinman and Lacefield (2020) dwells on the phenomenon of the interrelation between gay men and their conservative Christian upbringing. One of the primary hypotheses of the study is that men who were raised in a conservative, evangelical Protestant church and who also identify as gay, likely will have difficulty reconciling their churchs position toward them and their position toward sexuality (Hinman & Lacefield, 2020, p. 2). The phenomenological study aimed at conducting semi-structured in-depth interviews with seven gay men raised as Seventh Adventists. The findings revealed that every participant in the study suffered from the challenges of self-identity, so in order to embrace their sexuality, they needed to reconsider their relationship with conservative religious dogmas (Hinman & Lacefield, 2020). This qualitative study demonstrates how religious background affects ones sexual identity regarding self-identity, demonstrating a strong correlation between the variables.

A study by Lefevor et al. (2020) focuses on the relationship between the well-being of Black minority communities and potential psychological stressors. The study reveals two major findings of the Black minority community and religious affiliation. First, more than 80% of the community is religiously affiliated, and many representatives of the minority find support from the religious community (Lefevor et al., 2020). Simultaneously, however, the church itself frequently promotes rather homophobic narratives and implicitly encourages its members to conceal their sexual identity. The researchers conclude that religiousness may operate in a supportive way for Black sexual minorities, contrary to how religiousness is portrayed for sexual minorities generally (Levefor et al., 2020, p. 12). The study provides a valuable perspective on how the correlation between religious affiliation and sexuality is not inherently negative.

Finally, the evidence presented in the book by Shah (2018) revolves around the experiences of the gay community in Malaysia and Britain as contrastive religious and social environments for the LGBTQ+ community. The text presents both the historical backgrounds of the Islamic countries relationship with religion and the unique experiences of gay Muslim men. One of the valuable outputs from the book emphasizes that Islam as a religion does not condemn homosexuality, whereas the social interpretations of religion put pressure on embracing ones sexual identity (Shah, 2018). Hence, this piece provides value by incorporating the social perception of religion as an important mediator between sexuality and spiritual teachings.

Dataset

For this research, the General Social Survey (GSS) data were collected in two primary ways. The raw research data was collected through face-to-face interaction and interviews with the participants. The participants were chosen randomly across the state regardless of age, gender, or ethnic background, but all the background data was collected during the interview. The inclusion criterion was the respondents proficiency in English and Spanish languages. The National Science Foundation funds the present study. The two variables, including religious affiliation and sexuality, were examined in 2020. The data were collected with the help of interpersonal interaction via phone and video-conferencing platforms such as Zoom and Skype.

Variables

Since the central research question addresses the correlation between religious affiliation and sexuality, it was necessary to establish the extent to which ones religious affiliation affects sexuality. Hence, the independent variable (IV) of the study is religious affiliation. The question for the respondent is as follows: Would you call yourself a strong (preference named in religion) or not very strong (preference named in religion)? The answer categories vary on a 4-level scale: strong, not very strong, somewhat strong, no religion. The level of measurement is nominal. The dependent variable (DV) of the study is sexuality. The question for the respondent is as follows: Which of the following best describes you? The answer categories are gay, lesbian, or homosexual, bisexual, and heterosexual or straight.

Findings

Out of the population sample, most IV categories were strong and not very strong, constituting 802 and 849 respondents, respectively. Since the response rate was high, it can be concluded that the majority of respondents felt rather strongly about their religious affiliation, with 23% of the respondents demonstrating no religiosity. Regarding the DV, the response rate of 58.5% distorts the reliability of the data. Simultaneously, a higher percentage of missing responses indicates that people feel more comfortable talking about religion rather than their sexual identity. Out of the valid responses, 94% of the sample identified themselves as straight, 3.7% claimed to be bisexual, and the rest chose a gay or lesbian category.

The crosstabs and measures of association for the response rate demonstrate that whereas there is a high level of correlation between IV and DV, knowing ones the sexual identity or religious affiliation cannot help identify the categories of other variables. The test of significance for the study leads to the following conclusion:

• Since 0.005 < 0.05, then the null hypothesis shall be rejected. After conducting this analysis, one can assume a strong correlation between ones sexual orientation and religiosity.

Thus, the findings of the study demonstrate that despite the lack of an explicit causal relationship between racial affiliation and sexuality, the correlation of the variables demonstrates their interdependence. Based on the literature review, one can assume that such a correlation is driven by religions impact on attitude toward sexuality and the issue of self-awareness. Presumably, people with strong religious affiliations shape their view of sexuality based on spiritual teachings and their upbringing.

Conclusion

The findings of the present statistical analysis provide empirical evidence to the issue of relation and sexuality interrelation. For many years, the religion-sexuality paradigm has been questioned by scholars, as it is generally known that spiritual dogmas do not condone homosexuality as a socio-biological phenomenon. The justification of the correlation hypothesis contributes significantly to the idea that the representatives of sexual minorities have a weaker attribution to religion. Indeed, out of the respondents who identify themselves as homosexual or bisexual, most relate to either no religion or not very strong religious affiliation.

The study has a series of limitations because it does not account for potentially crucial variables mentioned in other scholarly studies. These variables include ethnic affiliation, denomination, and family background. In future studies, the present data can be used to expand the scope of research and include these variables to make sure that more information on the nature of correlation is revealed. Another limitation is a low level of minority representation and incoherent response rates. In future studies, the researchers can use convenience sampling to work closely with minority groups and their relationship with religion. Nevertheless, the present research study creates a solid foundation for further investigation of sexuality and religion among various social groups.

References

Hinman, B. K., & Lacefield, C. (2020). There is an exploration of spirituality and sexuality in men who identified as gay and were raised in a conservative Christian faith. Journal of Research on Christian Education, 29(2), 156-175. Web.

Lefevor, G. T., Smack, A. C., & Giwa, S. (2020). Religiousness, support, distal stressors, and psychological distress among black sexual minority college students. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 16(2), 148-162. Web.

Shah, S. (2018). The making of a gay Muslim: Religion, sexuality and identity in Malaysia and Britain. Palgrave Macmillan.

Somefun, O. D. (2019). Religiosity and sexual abstinence among Nigerian youths: Does parent religion matter? BMC Public Health, 19(1), 1-11. Web.

Religious Reforms

According to Wiesner-Hanks, Luther was not the first person to express his dissatisfaction with the established religious structure (165). Some groups that were active before Luthers teachings became popular were unhappy with the amount of power that the church had at that time. However, the ideas of earlier reform movements were not as recognized as Luthers. Thus, he became the most recognizable person and a symbol of Protestant beliefs. While Protestants usually agreed on some topics, some aspects were debated between different groups.

For example, the issue of the Eucharist became a subject of heated discussions for many Protestants. The notion of Gods presence in wine and bread was understood differently by Luther and Zwingli, which led to their followers splitting into fractions. Reformation in England was strongly influenced by Zwinglis ideas, while many European countries were more open to the concepts introduces by Luther. The impact of the English king, Henry VIII, significantly changed the course of the reformation in England. While reforms in other countries came from various scholars and citizens, Englands separation from the church was affected by the decisions of the royal family.

Luthers Address to the Nobility

In his address to the nobility, Luther describes Church officials as arrogant and greedy people. He writes that the pope wears a triple crown, whereas the mightiest kings only wear one crown, implying that the head of the church has more power than any country leader (Luther). Cardinals are portrayed as unnecessary in his letter. Their only purpose is to gather riches that were taken away from citizens by the church. Luther says that Germans are being deceived by the church, which is spreading from Italy to Germany to collect peoples resources. According to Luther, Italy is sucked dry, and the church wants to gain more power by enforcing this religion on Germans. Luther asks the nobility to follow him and listen to his ideas in order to stop the Romanists from stealing their resources. Moreover, he encourages people to educate themselves and learn more about other nations and their relationship with religion.

Radical Reformation

Many individuals supported the idea of separation of state and church. These people were deemed as radicals and persecuted for their beliefs by both Catholic and Protestant rulers. However, various activists gained more and more followers, which allowed them to influence the state of religion in many European countries. Moreover, some new rules and regulations, which were enforced by the church, were met with protests from peasants. Many different religious groups were seen as heretical by Catholics and Protestants, including the Anabaptists, Mennonites, Hutterites, and Unitarians. These groups had different opinions on many concepts described in the Bible and other religious documents. The difference in beliefs of these groups led to them having conflicts, which affected more and more territories. Lutherans and Catholics began to fight for territories and religious property. Catholics wanted to return property that was occupied by Protestants. However, Germany was overflowing with various religious conflicts, which did not allow the Catholic leaders to end the war forcefully. Thus, the sides created a peace treaty, called the Peace of Augsburg, in which Lutherans were allowed to keep their property (Wiesner-Hanks 182). Moreover, the treaty gave territories an opportunity to choose their religious beliefs.

Calvinism was another type of religious beliefs that differed from other movements. Calvin talked about ones predestination and the superiority of Gods will. The citizens that followed the teachings of Calvin were not allowed to misbehave in order to adhere to Gods plans. Thus, such activities and behaviors as drinking, gambling, dancing, and profanity were deemed illegal. Moreover, Calvin tried to discipline citizens by enforcing various punishments for misbehaving. People were excommunicated, imprisoned, whipped, or even killed. Citizens submitted to this discipline because many of them believed in the teachings of Calvin. Furthermore, the nature of this religious belief offered people more freedom from the royal authority. For example, many nobles in France decided to become Calvinists because they saw it as a way to reject the government and oppose the papacy.

Calvins Predestination

The idea of predestination implies that God creates a path for every person. Every individual has a certain destination, which he or she cannot refuse. Thus, there is no free will, and every person should follow their predestined path in order to achieve salvation. Calvin wrote about Gods eternal election, saying that some people will achieve salvation, while others will not, regardless of their actions. This idea bears some resemblance to the teachings of Luther and Zwingli, as they also believed in elected salvation. Furthermore, the notion of Gods presence in the Lords Supper is also shared by Zwingli and Calvin. However, Luther did not agree with this concept. According to Calvin, God decides the fate of all humans because of his absolute knowledge. However, Calvin was concerned with some issues connected to preaching predestination. He believed that people might perplex themselves with questions about predestination and strive away from doing Gods bidding. Many people were attracted to the idea of Calvinism because of its dynamism. It is possible that some individuals could consider the notion of predestination as an opportunity of having an explanation for every situation.

Works Cited

Calvin, John. On Predestination. Fordham University, 2017, Web.

Luther, Martin. Address to the Nobility of the German Nation, 1520. Fordham University, 2017, Web.

Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789. 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 2013.

At the beginning of the XIX century, the news of the Revival meeting spread throughout Kentucky and beyond prompting plenty of people to organize and participate in religious meetings. The biggest and the most well-known meeting of the United States occurred in Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in August 1801 under the leadership of Barton Stone (1772-1844) and many other preachers. It attended from 10,000 to 30,000 people (Conlin, 2014).

The meeting was a symbol of the Great Awakening, a religious movement that began in New England in the 30s of the 18th century and speeded in all the North American colonies (Butler, 2008). This paper is aimed at revealing the notion of the emotionalism of a Cane Ridge experience and its place in the religion of nowadays America.

Emotionalism is the belief that all religious relates to the senses identified with emotions and subjective manifestations of mental life (Galli, n.d.). The principal feature of the Cane Ridge meeting is the fact that it was initiated in field conditions. Inspired by preaching, the phenomenon when people barked like a dog and fell into fits in convulsions became commonly occurring. This religious meeting was characterized by the fact that it was accompanied by public expression of feelings.

The power of the divine truth of Holy Spirit and its impact was determined by stormy manifestations of emotions and deep impression made on people. Preachers have tried to arouse passions deeply penetrating into peoples souls. They were trying to convey to the people calm, solemn, and poignant faith by means of passionate and noisy speech.

The emotionalism was expressed in the key method utilized during the Great Awakening, in particular, the revival of worship. It consisted primarily of acute and severe sermons that vividly portrayed dire consequences of sin and comforting miracle of Gods redeeming love in Christ along with a sincere appeal to accept this love while there is still such a possibility. These services were held in church buildings or on the bluff as in the case of the Cane Ridge.

Often such crowds were flocked and could not accommodate in any building, and then the service was performed in the open air. At times, the preacher was a local minister. Preaching was usually emotional and, what is more, sincere and rousing causing a strong emotional response. Affected by the preaching, the audience wept with fear, or joy, and some people fainted. Such reaction was considered to be the evidence of the presence and power of God. It should be stressed that a benchmark of the meeting was a highly emotional style of preaching that make listeners weep and repent of their sins (Butler, 2008).

For plenty of people, it became a turning point of the spiritual revival and led not only to a strong inner experience but also to active spiritual life, behaviour change, and the desire to involve others in the process. In addition to the religious aspect, the revival has been dramatic and surprising social phenomenon. Occasionally, some communities were entirely covered by this phenomenon. Precisely speaking, the emotionalism of the Cane Ridge meeting made people involved in church life more and encouraged to share the gospel with others.

As a matter of fact, the emotionalism of that period played an important part in the social and cultural development of society. The problem of survival distracted the majority of colonists from spiritual concerns. At the same time, those who have succeeded were placing their career and enjoyment of abundance much higher than religion. In the environment of spiritual stagnation among the bustling flow of social change and the terrible social tension, some churches began to show new signs of life. As a result, the vigorous revival came soon. Some scientists consider the Great Awakening as a process of adaptation to the cultural and social changes (Galli, n.d.).

On this point of view, it was both a spiritual and emotional recovery of people who, relying on basic concepts of faith, forged a new religion-ethical foundation that enabled them to survive the collapse of old ideas and institutions and build new ones. Thus, the emotionalism was understood as the belief that every religious person experiences his conversion personally and then reflects it genuinely in spiritual and moral life.

Speaking of the emotionalism in todays American religion, it is difficult to note it in the same form as during the Cane Ridge meeting. Analyzing human behaviour, Illouz (2012) examines the contemporary discourse of relationships arguing that the emotional is an integral part of a human being regardless of the time period. In spite of the fact that people do not barking or falling during prayer now, they remain emotional.

It is significant to concern this issue as emotionalism tends to develop not only senses but also feelings, and the personality in its creative depth. Religious emotionalism does not reduce religion to one of its parts considering religion as complex because there is no religion without a certain creed, in other words, without the aggregate claims, and therefore, no one religion cannot be reduced only to a range of emotions. However, emotionalism in modern American religion exists only in some extent.

It is also very important to point out the fact that nowadays one could also find emotionalism in American religion, for instance, in African-American religion. The powerful emotionalism, ecstatic behaviour, and congregational responses of the revival were amendable to the African religious heritage, and forms of African dance and song remained in the shout and the spirituals of Afro-American converts to evangelical Protestantism (Fulop & Raboteau, 2011, p. 301). They perceive the Bible as a book of ritual prescriptions for envisioning and attitude. Likewise, in the Afro-American worship experience, there is one more point of view.

According to White III (2014), religious emotionalism comes from an outside source and depended on musical entertainment and theatrical preaching (p. 67). It demonstrates that religious emotionalism is achieved by persons extortion while genuine worship is motivated by God. The author argues that there is almost no need for religious emotionalism. In spite of the fact that it makes people feel good, it would not benefit their souls. Therefore, people should control their thoughts and behaviour.

In conclusion, it should be stressed that the religious emotionalism played an integral part in the Cane Ridge meeting making people express their emotions and feelings in public resulting in the change of their attitude towards cultural and social aspects of life of that period. Nowadays, one might observe emotionalism in African-American religion. It goes without saying that this issue is relevant and worth considering as it takes into account some points of the modern American religion.

References

Butler, J. (2008). Religion in American life: A short history. New York: Oxford University Press.

Conlin, J. R. (2014). The American past: A survey of American history (10th ed.). New York: Cengage Learning.

Fulop, T. E., & Raboteau, A. J. (2011). African-American religion: Interpretive essays in history and culture. New York: Routledge.

Galli, M. (n.d.). Revival at Cane Ridge. Christianity Today. Web.

Illouz, E. (2012). Saving the Modern Soul: Therapy, Emotions, and the Culture of Self-Help. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

White III, S. (2014). My Brothers Keeper: Church Ministry for Young African American Males. Bloomington, IN: WestBowPress.

Introduction

Religion is one of the most important factors that define the social life of Americans in the modern society. According to Christiano, Kivisto, and Swatos (2002), the economic and political environment has numerous challenges that are associated with the increasing level of stress among the American population. People are now turning to religion as a way of finding solace and peace after spending hours on their stressful jobs. A number of factors influence the future of religion in this country.

One of the most important factors that are shaping the future of religion in the United States is media. The technological advancement in the field of communication has transformed the manner in which religious messages are passed from the religious leaders to their congregations. In the past, Christians had to go to church or attend forums organized by churches to get the word of God. However, this has changed over the past years with the emergence of televangelists.

Analysis

Mass media, especially television and radio, has made it possible for people to get the message they desire right in their homes without necessarily going to church. It does not mean that televangelism has made church attendance less popular. The new approach of delivering messages to the audience has made it possible for those interested in getting the word of God regularly in the course of the week to get it without having to visit the churches.

Muslims and other religious groups are following the same trend. Social media is another aspect of media that is currently having a massive impact on religion today. In the past, it was not easy for a Christian to convert to Islam and vice versa.

This was so because it would require a Christian to go to the mosque and listen to preaching. That is no longer necessary in modern society where all messages that one may need about the other religion are easily accessible on the internet. It is also easy for people to discuss issues about religion in the social media platforms, making it possible to address myths and misconceptions associated with a given religious group.

Globalization is another major influential factor that is shaping the future of religion in America. Technological advancement in the field of transport and communication is transforming the world into a small global village (Berger, 2006). Geographical barriers to movement that existed before have been eliminated. The result is increased interaction among people of different religious beliefs. In the recent past, the United States has experienced an increased number of Muslims from the Arab world immigrating into the country. They get to interact with Christians and people of other faiths and some of them get converted. Sometimes it is these immigrants who get converted into Christianity after interacting with Christians in the country.

The emergence of mega-churches in America has a major impact on the future of religion in this country. A new trend that started about three centuries ago where large churches are constructed to accommodate a large congregation is increasingly getting popular. In 1990, it was estimated that there were only 350 mega-churches in the United States. This number has grown to over 1600 today, and the trend shows that more is yet to come up.

A section of the society now prefers attending megachurches because they believe they have better forums where they can get support, especially when they are facing personal challenges in life. They get to meet different people that may help them in different ways to overcome issues they are struggling with within their social, economic, and political lives. Some people are drawn to Christianity because of the beauty of these mega-churches. They go to these churches, not only to get spiritual nourishment but also to get entertained.

Additional Factors That Influence the Future of Religion in America

A number of factors, other than the ones discussed in the section above, also have significant impacts on the future of religion in the United States. One good example is the emergence of sectarian violence. Most of the terror groups such as ISIS and Al Qaeda draw their inspiration from Islamic teachings (Hout, Fischer, & Chaves, 2013). They justify their attacks using the message in the Quran. A section of the society in America today associated Islam with terrorism.

Islam is seen as a religion for rebellious movements and people who are not satisfied with the current regimes. This did not start in modern society. In fact, Islam grew in popularity among the African American youths in the 1960s when they were fighting for equal rights for all Americans.

Malcolm X and Mohammed Ali were once Christians. However, they converted to Islam when they started experiencing challenges with the government authorities. Malcolm became a Muslim while in prison, while Ali converted to Islam when he realized that the government was forcing him to serve in the military against his wish (Christiano, Kivisto, & Swatos, 2002). As such, Islam was seen as a religion of resistance. American society started viewing it as a force that can help the minority fight those in power and believed to be oppressive in their policies.

The increasing level of literacy in the United States may also have an impact on the future of religion in America. People are becoming more knowledgeable and are now questioning more. For instance, debates have emerged questioning how Rome, a kingdom that was keen to persecute pioneers of Christianity, became the center of modern-day Christianity (Hout, Fischer, & Chaves, 2013). Such fundamental questions sometimes make people rethink and reevaluate their religious stand.

How the Insights Relate to Muslims and Christians

The insights discussed above have significant impacts on Islam and Christianity. The above factors have made it possible for Christians and Muslims to have a better understanding of their religion. For instance, social media has created an environment where people can have debates about some of the controversies concerning their religion. Christians and Muslims can objectively discuss if indeed Islamic teachings promote sectarian violence and why most of the terror groups use teachings from the Quran to support their actions.

Sometimes such forums may help people from different religious groups to live in harmony. Christians, Muslims, and other religious groups get to learn that they can be of different beliefs but still share the same American dream. They get to learn how to stay together even if they do not share religious beliefs. It is important to note that the same media that can help people of different faiths to integrate easily is often used to divide the nation along religious lines. Such cases are common when a section of the society believe that they are unfairly treated by instruments of the government or by society in general.

References

Berger, P. (2006). Religion in a Globalizing World. Pew Research Center: Religion and Public Life. Web.

Christiano, K. J., Kivisto, P., & Swatos, W. H. (2002). Sociology of religion: Contemporary developments. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira.

Hout, M., Fischer, C., & Chaves, M. (2013). More Americans Have No Religious Preference: Key Finding from the 2012 General Social Survey. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.