Category: Religion

Thesis statement

One of the main aspects of a post-industrial living is the fact that; whereas, the influence of some world’s major religions (such as Christianity) continues to weaken, other religions (such as Islam) appear to become ever more influential (Bruce & Glendinning, 2010).

However, discussing the earlier mentioned phenomenon from strictly a theological perspective can be hardly justified, since it is in the nature of committed believers to deny the very fact that the surrounding socio-cultural reality has any effect on the theological validity of religious doctrines, with which they happened to be affiliated.

In its turn, this implies that it is only when we adopt a sociological stance, within the context of how we assess the discursive significance of every particular religion, that we may be able to gain an in-depth insight into the discussed religion as ‘thing in itself’.

In this respect, the reading of Ronald Johnstone’s 2007 book ‘Religion in society: A sociology of religion’ will come in especially handy, because this book encourages readers to think of religion, as an extrapolation of its affiliates’ collective archetype.

In light of this suggestion, the book’s Chapter 1appears particularly enlightening, because apart from discussing religion in terms of a sociological/psychological phenomenon, it establishes an undeniable link between religion and magic (spirituality) – hence, allowing readers to gain a better understanding of what should be considered the actual roots of people’s sense of religiosity. In my paper, I will aim to explore the validity of this suggestion at length.

Body of the essay

The foremost reason why I think that the book’s Chapter 1 is particularly relevant, within the context of how people go about trying to gain a better understanding of religion, is that it points out to the fact that the qualitative essence of people’s religious beliefs cannot be discussed outside of what account for the particulars of their collective positioning.

As Johnstone noted, “Religion is first of all a group phenomenon… We see places of worship all around us and have clear mental pictures of groups of people (congregations) assembling together in prayer” (p. 8).

In its turn, this presupposes that, in order for one to consider becoming affiliated with a particular religion, he or she must be psychologically comfortable with the way of how the members of the religious congregation in question address life-challenges. This, of course, implies that, contrary to what religious people believe, the characteristics of their faith in god/gods/’divine’ do not reflect the workings of their ‘freewill’, but rather their workings of their unconscious psyche.

The validity of this statement can be well explored in regards to the fact that, despite being theologically related, the monotheistic religions of Christianity and Islam offer distinctively different conceptualizations of heaven/afterlife.

Whereas, Christians believe that, after having been allowed into the ‘kingdom of heaven’, they will be handed out harps and required to play them for eternity, while praising God; Muslims believe that, while in heaven, they will be primarily preoccupied with drinking wine and having sex with as many women, as possible (Facchini, 2010).

This is exactly the reason why, while appealing to people known for the sheer strength of their sexual appetites (Arabs, Blacks), the religion of Islam does not quite appeal to Whites, who due to their inability to reproduce themselves in sufficient numbers, now stand on the threshold of extinction.

Another reason why I think that the book’s Chapter 1 should be referred to as the most important one, is that it prompts readers to assess the theological tenets of just about every religion, in regards to the extent of this religion’s practical functionality.

This functionality is concerned with the religion’s ability to assist its affiliates in coping with their life-challenges, “People desire to know more and to explain… natural phenomena and events like thunder/ lightening, floods, fire, sudden death, and so on, as well as questions of purpose, destiny, life’s meaning, and the like” (Johnstone, p. 8).

For example, there are a number of passages in the Quran that encourage Muslims to consider conceiving as many children, as possible. Yet, there are no similar passages to be found in the Bible. The reason for this is simple – the religion of Islam was developing in particularly arid regions, where people’s physical well-being had always been strongly depended on the whims of weather.

After all, the prolonged absence of rain in these regions even today means nothing short of a starvation for the agriculture-dependent inhabitants. Hence, these people’s traditional preoccupation with ‘baby-making’ – the more there are children in the family, the higher are the parents’ chances to survive physically, because even comparatively young children can be well turned into agricultural helpers (McQuillian, 2004).

Thus, it is utterly inappropriate to discuss religions in terms of a ‘revelation’, which always remains thoroughly legitimate, regardless of what happened to be the associated circumstances. Apparently, it is the extent of the religion’s conceptual attunement with the observable manifestations of the surrounding reality, which should be thought of as the measure of this religion’s theological validity.

The third major reason why I think that the reading of the book’s Chapter 1 should prove particularly enlightening to just about anyone, who strives to attain an in-depth insight into the phenomenon of religion, is that it subtly exposes the religion’s counterproductive essence, as such that prevents people from expanding their intellectual horizons.

This could not be otherwise, because it is in the very nature of just about every monotheistic religion to provide its affiliates with the set of ‘God’s commandments’, from which believers are not supposed to deviate, while pursuing with their lives, “You should do something or refrain from doing it because God says so or it is in tune with cosmic forces, not simply because our group says so or because I, your leader, say so” (Johnstone, p. 12).

However, even though religious individuals never cease suggesting that what they seriously believe that the ‘God’s commandments’ continue remaining up to date; this is far from being the case.

Had this been otherwise, Christian and Muslim conceptualizations of ‘heavenly pleasures’ would not be merely concerned with promising believers the prospect of being placed in the ‘kingdom of heaven’, where there is a plenty of eatable fruits, vine and women, but also 3D TVs, jacuzzis and sport-cars.

In addition, there would not be hundreds if not thousands of sectarian divisions, within each major religion, which reflect the fact that, despite the believers’ assumption that their religion represents an ‘ultimate truth’, this ‘truth’ needs to be continually updated, in order to remain more or less consistent with the realities of a modern living (Bruce, 2006).

Nevertheless, it is not only that the book’s Chapter 1 provides readers with a rationale to adopt a scientific (specifically sociological) stance, once the discussion of the religion’s discursive significance is at stake, but it also encourages them to consider the possibility that religion is nothing but the reflection of people’s deep-seated psychological atavism.

The validity of this statement can be shown in relation to the Johnstone’s insistence that the notions of religion and magic (spirituality) are closely interrelated, “Both are attempts to deal with and solve the basic problems people face… Both are based on faith in the existence and efficacy of powers that cannot be seen… Both involve ritual activity, traditionally prescribed patterns of behavior” (p. 16).

Yet, as of today, it does not represent much of a secret to psychologists and sociologists that the strength of a particular individual’s obsession with spirituality/magic, positively correlates with the extent of his or her evolutionary underdevelopment.

The reason for this is simple – one’s magical/spiritual (holistic) worldview is essentially an animalistic worldview, because it reflects the concerned individual’s mental tendency to objectualize itself within the surrounding natural environment – just as high mammals and primeval savages do.

For example, it has been well observed that wild bears that sustain injuries against sticking out tree-branches, while crawling over the log, usually stand up on their hind legs and begin hitting these branches with both of their paws – as if they wanted to punish them.

The reason for this is simple – in these bears’ mind, the ‘evil’ branches appear nothing short of living entities of their own. In a similar manner, ‘spiritually rich’ individuals naively assume that there is ‘purposefulness’ to the reality’s emanations.

This explains the primitive tribesmen’s willingness to pray to celestial bodies (Sun/Moon). Just as it happened to be the case with the earlier mentioned bears, these people tend to perceive the world around them as an assemblage of mystic actions, rather than the observable consequence of an essentially purposeless interplay between causes and effects.

Because ‘spirituality’ has traditionally served as the conceptual foundation for just about any world’s major religion, it will only be logical to suggest that the more religious a particular individual happened to be, the more he or she is being closer to animals, and vice versa.

The legitimacy of this idea can be illustrated in relation to Johnstone’s another suggestion, found in Chapter 1, that, “One of the most obvious features of any religion… is the performance of ritual and the host of other activities generated by its beliefs” (p.11).

For example, it represents a commonplace assumption among even committed Christians that, in order for them to remain in favor with God; they simply have to attend Church once per week and to try not to fall asleep during the sermon, while there.

Therefore, there is nothing particularly odd about the fact that the religion of Christianity can no longer be considered ‘alive’ – its affiliates became little too civilized, which prevents them from being de facto religious believers. The same, however, cannot be said about the religion of Islam.

It is not only that Muslims get down on their knees and pray Allah five times per day, regardless of where the ‘prayer time’ catches them – the sheer bestiality of some of their religious practices leaves very few doubts, as to the fact that they are indeed religious people, in the full sense of this word.

For example, the Islamic celebration of Eid al-Adha involves the ritual of slashing the throat of a sheep in public and watching the poor animal convulsing in the pool of blood (Akhtar & Varma, 2012). Many Westerners refer to this practice as utterly barbaric and therefore, socially unacceptable. Yet, the same Westerners promote the concept of a ‘religious tolerance’ in their own countries.

What it means is that they simply do not understand what is religion per se (their sense of religiosity is essentially superficial) and what are the objective (biological and cultural) preconditions for people to remain strongly religious.

This once again highlights the educational value of Johnstone’s book, in general, and of this book’s Chapter 1, in particular. After all, in this specific chapter the author proved himself intellectually honest enough to suggest that, contrary to what the advocates of political correctness want us to believe, religion is a legitimate subject of a scientific inquiry, “The sociology of religion is conducted according to the scientific method” (p. 6).

Apparently, the time has come for us to recognize religion as to what it really is – the indication of people’s existential primitiveness. Once researchers deploy the scientific method, while probing religion, they will inevitably come to the earlier articulated conclusion.

Conclusion

I believe that what has been said earlier fully correlates with the paper’s initial thesis. Thus, it will only be appropriate, on my part, to reinstate once again that it is specifically the Chapter 1 in the Johnstone’s book, which can be deemed the most important. This is because, after having read it, people would be more likely to adopt a scientific attitude towards dealing with religious issues – whatever ‘sensitive’ these issues may appear.

References

Akhtar, S. & Varma, A. (2012). Sacrifice: Psychodynamic, cultural and clinical aspects. American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 72 (2), 95-117

Bruce, S. & Glendinning, T. (2010). When was secularization? Dating the decline of the British churches and locating its cause. British Journal of Sociology, 61 (1), 107-126.

Bruce, S. (2006). Secularization and the impotence of individualized religion. Hedgehog Review, 8 (1/2), 35-45.

Facchini, F. (2010). Religion, law and development: Islam and Christianity – Why is it in Occident and not in the Orient that man invented the institutions of freedom? European Journal of Law and Economics, 29 (1), 103-129.

Glassman, R. (2004). Good behavioral science has room for theology: Any room for God? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 27 (6), 737-738.

Johnstone, R. (2007). Religion in society: A sociology of religion (8th Edition). Pearson: Prentice Hall.

McQuillian, J. (2004). When does religion influence fertility? Population & Development Review, 30 (1), 25-56.

Introduction

Religion plays an important role in the society. More so, the role of religion in shaping the political, economic, and social principles of a religious society is profound (Putnam and Campbell 2). Through the influence of religion in shaping societal principles, the church has had a crucial role to play in the development of different American communities.

This paper focuses on the African-American community and examines the importance of the church to its sustenance. Later, this paper explores the future of religion in America as an indication of what to expect from the growing importance of religion in the American society.

Importance of the church to African-Americans

The church as an institution has played a pivotal role in shaping the lives of African-Americans. Its importance spans through its political and social significance. For example, historically, African–Americans have depended on the church to support them on social and political issues when most institutions could not. One such example is the fight to abolish slavery. Few institutions spoke about the practice but the church firmly stood for the emancipation of the African-American community from slavery.

The church’s stand marked the start of political activism for the “black” church because African–American ministers often warned against divine punishment for people who supported slavery. African-American Christians were therefore encouraged to question the justification of slavery in the society because it opposed the fundamental principles of Christianity (such as, “equality” in the eyes of God).

Besides the role of the church in advocating for the abolishment of slavery, the church equally played a pivotal role in the reconstruction of the African-American community.

The role of the Church in this regard is especially profound because historically, poverty, chaos, and uncertainties have characterized the African-American community. The church helped the African-American community to overcome these challenges by developing skills and talents for the overall improvement of the community. Initiatives started by African-American missionaries supported this work.

Consequently, African-American missionaries built schools and other educational institutions to help the African-American community get the required skills needed for personal growth (Johnstone 332). These initiatives led to the emergence of independent African-American institutions of higher learning.

Challenges of slavery and poor social and economic growth among the African-American community did not capture (fully) the extent of the social, economic, and political issues facing the African-American community. Indeed, as Johnstone (333) says, the African-American community struggled with other pressing social, political, and economic issues, such as, racial violence, racial inequality, and social injustice.

The church played a pivotal role in opposing such vices. Mainly, the church played a crucial role in fighting for the rights and freedoms of the African-American community through the civil rights movement. The role of the church in the African community has therefore been monumental and this is why the church has a significant influence in the lives of many African-Americans today.

Future of Religion in America

Religion still plays a crucial role in the composition of America’s social, economic, and political welfare. However, evolving trends and issues in the American society show that America’s religious life may change significantly (Brown 1).

Based on the trends and the history of religion in America, it is safe to foresee a growing religious diversity in America. Brown (1) projects that this religious diversity may manifest (fully) in the next five decades, to symbolize a period where religious diversity affects corporations, communities, and culture.

This religious diversity continues the trend of a growing acceptance for diverse religious views witnessed in the American society since 1965 when Lyndon Johnson enacted the immigration act. In other words, from the diversity of the American society, different religious groups are bound to sprout and become part of mainstream American society.

In fact, some religious groups, which most Americans considered part of “world religions” (like Buddhism, Islam, and Sikhs) now form part of America’s religious fabric. Therefore, in the future, religion in America will be more diverse, to reflect the growing diversity of the American society.

Conclusion

After weighing the findings of this paper, I am convinced that the church has played a critical role in the development of the African-American community. Its role in uplifting the welfare of African-Americans trace to the slavery period where the church found a political footing in advocating for the rights of African-Americans. Now, the church plays a crucial role in uplifting the social and economic standards of the African-American community.

Furthermore, the church continues to tackle several issues facing the African-American community, such as, racial discrimination and social injustice. These insights inform my opinion of the strong importance of the church in improving the social, political, and economic welfare of the African-American community.

This paper also demonstrates that the future of religion in America mirrors the growing diversity of the American society. In this regard, this paper foresees an expanded religious dynamism in the American society (to reflect the growing tolerance of religious views in America). This diversity will influence corporations, governments, and communities in the future.

Works Cited

Brown, David. 2001, Future Trends in American Religion. Web.

Johnstone, Ronald. Religion in Society, A Sociology of Religion (eighth edition), London: Pearson, Prentice-Hall, 2007. Print.

Putnam, Robert, and D. Campbell. American Grace, How Religion Divides and Unites Us, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010. Print.

The first constitution amendment stipulated that the congress could not exercise any form of authority in establishing any form of religion or prohibit the exercise of religion. However, is religion considered as an independent entity? Has religion been segregated from the civic and public spheres? This essay seeks to examine these issues.

Moreover, this essay seeks to highlight the current perception of the church’s separation from the state and the odds at which this perception is perceived especially in a democratic nation such as the United States. Religion played an important role in the founding of America. It is worth noting that religious principles that are constituted in the founding of America originated from Christianity and Judaism creeds.

Historic scholars claim that the solid political prosperity exercised in America can be attributed to the indispensable supports of religion, reason, faith and morality. In reference to President Jefferson’s sentiments, no nation can exist or be governed without the influence of religion (Washington, 1796).

The American leadership can be termed as the kind that highly regards religion. For instance, the American congress of September 1774 introduced an Act that ensured that a prayer and a religious reading from the book of Psalms were pronounced prior to the normal proceedings.

Moreover, December 11, 1776 was declared a day of prayer and fasting in order to solicit God’s providence and forgiveness. It is therefore evident that since time immemorial religion has been in the heart of America (Novak, 2006).

In this study, it is crucial for us examine religious liberty in America in order for us to gain an incisive understanding of the role of religion in the founding of America. Religious liberty can be perceived as the separation of the state from the church. Founding leaders of America greatly discouraged the establishment of a national or state church.

They did this in order to separate the two entities. On the other hand, they encouraged the state’s involvement in supporting religious projects such as the building of schools, hospitals and other public utilities. Undeniably, the separation of the church from state affairs encourages religious freedom. (Patton, 1991).

It also provides an autonomous source of authority and moral reasoning. Some analysts accentuate that Americas standing is not determined by shared theology but rather it is build on shared morality. Nonetheless, in the present society the connection between religion and the state is formidably deficient. In fact religion is in conflict with a number of constitutional endorsements (Spadling, 2007).

In recent times, the American judiciary has gradually embraced the separation between the church and the state as a virtual rule though this indictment is not stipulated in the American stipulation. Nonetheless, the American Supreme Court is faced with the challenge of interpreting the initial amendments of law prohibition that respect the establishment of religion. In reference to Jefferson’s sentiments, the initial constitution amendments were legislated so as to erect a wall that separates the church form the state.

Additionally, in present times the erected wall is regarded as an emblem of separating dogmatic religious influences that are intolerant especially in the public sphere from governance. On the other hand, state courts have used the concept of wall separation to validate their censorship of religious expression such as stripping and Christmas crèches among many other practices (Dreiscach, 2007).

Arguments for and against the issue of separating the church from the state have provoked different responses. For instance, James Madison, one of the founders of the American constitution claims that that the intention of separating the church and the state is basically geared towards keeping away from the continuous strife buried with blood in the European soil.

Madison implies that the implications of holy wars are indeed devastating. On the contrary, Antonin Scalia, a justice in the American Supreme Court, argues that the Ten Commandments symbolize the notion that the government gets its authority from God and thus leadership should be in line with religion.

In some areas, religious books have been used to justify discrimination against women, black people and atheists. George Bush’s administration was seen as one that was trying to create close ranks with certain religious groups that tend to transform secular democracy into a creeping theocracy. Many have termed this as a method of perverting the American value system. It is preferred that America should be committed towards applying reason, science and historic experience rather than using religion (Silverman, 1942).

A key advantage of religion lies in the fact that religion has the ability to inspire principles that are considered diametrically contrary. Nations that are governed on the basis of religion are naturally strong. Democratic nations on the other hand are considerably weak.

It is however undeniable that the manifestation of religious influence is present in civic and public spheres (Tocqueville, 1835).For instance, the 1990’s witnessed the supreme courts allowing the introduction of bible and prayer clubs in public institutions.

There exist propositions that religious values concur and support American values. In reference to Madison’s sentiments, the future of Americas expected civilization is not determined by the governments’ power but rather depends on the capacity of every person to sustain themselves in accordance to the commandments of God (Loconte, 2000).

Reference List

Dreiscach, L. (2007). The mythical wall of separation: How a misused metaphor changed church .state law, policy and discourse. New York: Heritage Publishers.

Loconte, J. (2000). Why religious values support American Values. New York: Word Press

Novak, M. (2006). Faith and American founding: Illustrating Religion Influence. New York: Heritage Publishers.

Patton, J. (1991). The wall of separation between the church and state. New York: Heritage Publishers.

Spadling, M. (2007). The meaning of religious liberty. New York: Word Press.

Silverman, H. (1942). American Religion undermines American values. New York: Heritage Publishers.

Tocqueville, A. (1835). From Democracy in America. New York: Word Press.

Washington, G. (1796).From farewell address. New York: The independent chronicle.

Introduction

The book of Philippians was written by Paul, a servant of God by the power of the Holy Spirit. It is one of the Pauline epistles and is found in the new testament of the Bible. The book was written when Paul was in prison in Rome. He had been arrested because of preaching the gospel of Jesus Christ.

The book of Philippians is a letter that Paul wrote to the church in Philippi and specifically addressing the saints, overseers and the deacons. Philippi was a roman colony that was inhabited by the veteran of the Roman army and there were Christians that worked together with Paul in his ministry. The author of the book was once a teacher of the law among the Jews.

He persecuted Christians for a long time, killed some of them and had others put in prison. He was a strict follower of the Jewish law and completely against Christians. His name was initially Saul but was changed to Paul when he encountered with Jesus whom he persecuted for a long time.

The Lord appeared to Saul when he (Saul) was on his way to Damascus on his usual mission of persecuting the followers of Jesus Christ. A great light appeared to Saul and he went blind for three days. This marked the beginning of his conversion to a true follower of Jesus Christ.

He was then sent to witness Jesus Christ to many places including Damascus where he was going to persecute the Christians. When writing the book of Philippians, he was well known as a true follower of Christ and was in chains for the sake of the gospel.

This book is basically Paul’s expression of gratitude to the Christians at Philippi for the support they offered him when he is in prison. He sends a message of thanks giving to the Philippians, warns them on how to live in order to advance the gospel. Paul also expresses his joy in his imprisonment as it served as away of advancing the gospel.

He asks them to rejoice with him. The purpose of this essay is to analyze the book of Philippians and evaluate its effectiveness to its audience. A brief summary is presented before analysis and evaluation.

Summary of the Book of Philippians

The book targets the Philippians who had worked together with the author, Paul, in the advancement of the gospel. He first thanks God for the Philippians because of the support that they gave him when he was in prison. They sent him gifts and any other things that he needed through Epaphroditus. Paul prays for tem that their love may continue and that they may live righteously until the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ.

He also explains that he rejoices in his suffering in prison because through it the gospel is advancing. He advises them to rejoice with him and also behave always in a manner that is in keeping with the gospel of Jesus Christ. The Philippians are also advised to imitate the humility that was with Christ Jesus who, being in the very nature God, considered himself as a servant and humbled to the point of death.

Paul tells them to continue in obedience as they have been in his presence and commendably in his absence. He tells them that through such obedience they will shine as stars amidst a perverse generation. He also promises to send Timothy and Epaphroditus to see how they (Philippians) are fairing. Philippians are warned of corrupt men who mutilate the flesh and are advised to have no confidence in the flesh but desire to know Christ the more as he (Paul) desires.

Paul also explains his mission of pursuing the goal of his heavenly calling. He then thanks then once more for the gifts they sent him through Epaphroditus. He finally sends them greetings from the saints with him and also wishes them the surpassing grace of the Lord Jesus Christ up on their lives.

Analysis of the Book of Philippians

The book of Philippians, having been written when Paul was in jail, contains a lot of facts that the audience are aware of. They knew that Paul is in chains for the sake of the gospel and they offered him support that he needed. The letter is quite persuasive yet not by the words of Paul but through the evidence of the facts presented.

Paul tells them in chapter one verse 3, 4 and 5 that, “[3]I thank my God upon every remembrance of you,[4] Always in every prayer of mine for you all making request with joy,[5] For your fellowship in the gospel from the first day until now” (KJV Bible 1).

This shows that the audience targeted had worked hand in hand with Paul in the course of his ministry from the beginning hitherto. Every word of Paul is very persuasive because they understand his course and the reason for imprisonment. The letter is written in the context of Paul’s experience which the audiences at Philippi were aware of.

The confidence he has in Christ Jesus is also convincing because he is writing to the people who are free, but him in jail, encouraging them not to move on with the work of the gospel. The example of the humility of Christ Jesus used in the book also persuades the audience that they should do as Paul advises.

According to KJV Bible (1), Jesus Christ suffered to the point of death, even death on the cross, but God later glorified him. This gives Paul strength to rejoice in his imprisonment because he knew that as Christ was glorified by God after suffering, his (Paul) suffering will as well be rewarding.

In this book, Paul expresses his love for the Philippians because of the support they gave him throughout his ministry. He compares this church with other churches in the early days and feels that it deserves his credit for their incomparable and outstanding support they gave him.

In his mission to Thessalonica, for instance, it is only the church at Philippi that shared with him in the matter. They shared in his troubles and even when he is jailed, they still offer him support. He tells them in chapter four of the letter that, […14] notwithstanding ye have well done, that ye did communicate with my affliction. [15]

Now ye Philippians know also, that in the beginning of the gospel, when I departed from Macedonia, no church communicated with me as concerning giving and receiving, but ye only.[16] For even in Thessalonica ye sent once and again unto my necessity…] (KJV Bible 1). In this Paul feels that the church at Philippi did exemplary good compared to other churches in supporting him in the ministry.

In his advice to the church concerning humility, he tells them to imitate Christ. Jesus Christ was in the very nature God but chose to be a servant. This is the humility that the Philippians are advised to have in the course of their service to God. In this manner, they should be ready to stand firm in case persecutions come their way without looking back.

The book persuades the audience to follow the advice of Paul through presenting to them overwhelming examples like the case of humility of Jesus. The audience is aware of how the Lord Jesus Christ suffered yet he remained humble to death. Then God glorified him even over death. The example in therefore quite convincing as it is backed up by the knowledge and faith the audience has on it.

The fact that Paul is in jail, his outstanding hope and faith in Jesus Christ serves as strong evidence that the faith and the sufferings of the saints is not in vain. Paul explains that he only desires to know Christ and the power of His resurrection. He is ready to share in the suffering of Christ to death and never compromise.

This is really convincing to the audience that there is hope in Christ if Paul has such confidence and is in jail. Paul would expect that the readers of the letter understands the kind of life he lived before he encountered with Christ; how he persecuted the Christ for whom he is now in chains.

According to KJV Bible (1), while advising the saints to move forward to attain the goal of heavenly calling, Paul gives his vision of pressing on towards the goal without thinking that he has attained it. He expects the reader to understand that the race is not yet over. They have to press on until the coming of our lord Jesus Christ.

The organization of the book also describes what would be the effect of not following what Paul advises. He explains the fate of those people that live as enemies of the cross. According to KJV Bible (1), the destiny of such people is destruction because their minds are on earthly things instead of on heavenly things through Jesus Christ. Paul also assures the readers that for them that follow the will of Christ he taught have heaven as their citizenship.

The evaluation of the book of Philippians

The book of Philippians is effective in what it intends to convey to the saints, in Christ Jesus, overseers and the deacons of the church of Philippi because it has convincing evidence as to why they should comply to what Paul teaches. The message concerning humility and living righteous lives is very convincing and enough to communicate the intentions of the author.

The message of thanksgiving is also effective because the person sent was also longing to see the Philippians. The message was therefore delivered to the intended audience. He says that, “[25] Yet I supposed it necessary to send to you Epaphroditus, my brother, and companion in labor, and fellow soldier, but your messenger, and he that ministered to my wants.

[26] For he longed after you all…’’. The letter is delivered by the person who is the messenger of the Philippians and he longed to see them.

The overall usefulness to the book is the author giving thanks to the church at Philippi for their support of his ministry, advice the church to imitate Christ humility, live lives worthy of the gospel, and remain obedience so that they may shine as stars amidst a corrupt generation.

The author also explains the joy he has in prison because his being there is serving as way of advancing the gospel. He also advises them to press on towards the goal of their heavenly calling and desire to know Christ the more. He explains this through giving his experience and vision. For instance, he tells them that, [… [14] I press toward the mark for the prize of the high calling of God in Christ Jesus.

[15] Let us therefore, as many as be perfect, be thus minded: and if in any thing ye be otherwise minded, God shall reveal even this unto you.] (KJV Bible 1).

Conclusion

The book of Philippians is a letter of Paul to the church at Philippi. He specifically addresses the saints, the overseers and the deacons. Paul explains his experience in the work of Christ and how his suffering helps advance the gospel. He commends the Philippians for the support they give him in the work of spreading the gospel and even when he is in jail. He advises them on how to live lives that will please the Lord.

Works Cited

King James Version (KJV) Bible. Philippians. US: University Of Michigan Digital Library, 1997. Web.

Introduction

Even in the midst of modern science and technology, a good number of New Yorkers adhere to religious faith. It clearly shows the pulse of the people. They believe in tradition. Mechanically or intentionally, they pass on the rich traditions of their religion to the new ones.

The statistics shows that the present generation is not irreligious though certain revolts against religious faith emerge from some quarters. Edward. A. Purcell Remarks here that “massive immigration and cultural changes have created an increasingly complex social landscape in which religious life plays a dynamic role in New York” (Purcell, 2007, p. 78)

New York City as a Cultural Center

The city has been noted for its financial, transportation and manufacturing brilliance. Even so, it attains a global glory for its religious diversity. Almost the entire world religions have its home in the heart of the city. It stands unique for its cultural amalgamation.

A religion is not merely a set of customs and traditions. It is of a greater dimension. A religion brings a distinctive culture with it. All the religions working in a specific locality get synthesized resulting in the materialization of a great culture. No religion can claim any right over such one. At the same time, the newly emerged culture belongs to each and every religion.

Unity amidst Religious Diversity

What makes New York City stand apart among other cities is its unique religious forbearance. Nowhere else in America can be seen such a distinctive convergence of different religions having different ideologies. Each New Yorker finds it necessary to identify himself/herself with a religious faith and it is done not at the coast of undermining other ones.

There are many reasons behind the City’s religious multiplicity. First of all, the population of the city is remarkably high. Hence, it is likely that there live people of multiple customs and traditions.

The New York City Department of City Planning reports that “with a 2008 estimated population of 8,363,710, New York is the most populous city in the United States, more than twice the size of the second largest city, Los Angeles. Over 3 million of New York City’s residents are foreign-born” (Population Facts). Such foreign born people carry their religion with them resulting in its expansion within the territory.

Ideas and Ideals from Outside

Religion is an open system. Anyone can follow any religion at any time. The twentieth century has witnessed an outburst of many ideologies. The changing man is in need of changed ideologies. With the emergence of advanced telecommunication systems, people really got to know much about the new philosophies and principles. It is natural that they are enticed by the latest movements on air.

It is nothing but the curiosity of the New Yorkers that tempted them to follow religions of far-off lands. Their search for novel things crossed the seas to reach India and its surrounding regions. Though having a less number of followers, Hinduism and Buddhism had its presence in the New York soil. Besides this, the immigrant Hindus and Buddhists contributed much to make the New York culture really a heterogeneous one.

Immigration

It can be aptly said that the history of mankind is the history of migration. Relocation has been an everlasting occurrence in human civilization. Large groups of the New Yorkers are such ones. An official report in The New York Times says that “sixty percent of New York City residents are immigrants or children of immigrants. New York was a heterogeneous city from its founding; 17 languages could be heard in the streets of New Amsterdam in the 1640s.

The wave of immigration has helped New York City maintain and even expand its population. Today, native-born whites with native-born parents represent less than one in five residents of New York City. Italians largely came from agricultural backgrounds, whereas Jews were more likely to come from industrial and urban backgrounds” (Chan, 2007).

Religion and the New Yorkers

The modern man is badly in need of emotional and spiritual assistance. The busy New Yorkers find it much difficult to make their mind settled down. In order to find out an outlet to the overwhelming emotional burden they quite often go for spiritual relief. It is this basic instinct of the city dwellers that many religions happen to thrive in New York City.

New York is remarkable among other cities because of its soaring residential density. Its extra ordinarily varied population exhibits a unique combination of culture. However, the New Yorkers began to embrace different religions only after 1775.Complete religious liberty was not allowed until the constitution of 1777. It is amazing to learn the fact that there were no Roman Catholic churches in New York until 1797. Right from that period, the city witnessed rapid spread of diverse religions and traditions in its soil.

In the early 19th century, pioneers like Presbyterian, Methodist, Universalist, Baptist, and Quaker had tried and succeeded in their attempt to carry their belief all over the country. Favoring this decision, many Protestant churches had shown interest enthusiastically in the abolitionist movement, and some churches had been formed by the blacks who fled northward out of slavery.

As regards the Roman Catholics and Jews are concerned, the history of the 19th century is the journey of alternating the implications of migration; Roman Catholics ancient from Ireland and Germany, afterwards from Italy and Poland, Jews ancient from Germany, Austria, and England, afterwards (in all-embracing numbers) from Russia and added Eastern European nations.

The Jews who acclimatized in New York City tended to abide there, the Roman Catholic immigrants were added broadcast throughout the state, with a ample German and Eastern European accumulation clearing in Buffalo. Irish Catholics were the ancient accession to win abounding political influence, but aback World War II, Jews and Italian Catholics acquire played a accomplished role, abnormally in New York City.

Christianity

During the last 25 years of the twentieth century, the missionary movements of the church had approved their best to advance the Christian belief throughout the world.The most extensively distributed of the world religions, Christianity’s spread and fame in New York City have been a much sought after topic for researchers and scholars. Beyond any uncertainty, one can say that it has substantial representation in New York City. A vast majority of New York identify themselves as Christians.

The history of Christianity in New York City begins the moment the Christian missionaries landed the soil. Besides setting up educational institutions, they could make drastic impact in the lives of New Yorkers. The new stream of thoughts and the distinctive way of living caught their attention. Christianity spread the whole of the region in no time.

Buddhism

Buddhism is a major world religion originated in Northeastern India. The religion is based on the teachings of Siddhartha, who, afterward, known as Buddha, or Enlightened one. Theologians and archeologists may find it amazing to learn that a mere monastic movement like Buddhism could develop so quickly among the mass across the world.

Why has New York welcomed Buddhism as one of its major religions? This has been a frequent query among the learners of religion and cultures. It is nothing but the distinctive feature of the religion. One of its long-lasting strong points has been its capability to get used to changing situations and to a variety of cultures.

As a philosophy, Buddhism is opposed to materialism. It does not recognize any disagreement between itself and contemporary science. As a result of rapid progress in the field of religion and cultures, many societies and organizations have begun to study the spiritual values of Buddhism.

The Buddhist monks are more energetic than ever before because they were alleged of being socially unconcerned. The New York City witnessed many social welfare projects conducted by the followers of Buddhism. In order to adapt to the new situation, The New York Buddhism still undergoes the process of acculturation.

Judaism

The list of religions alive in the city of New York cannot be full without mentioning Judaism, the world’s oldest ongoing religious traditions. Judaism is the religious culture of the Jews. Originated in the land of Israel, it happened to have a hand in almost all parts of the world at one time or another.

The people who follow Judaism happened to be in New York due to the voluntary migration of the Jews as well as enforced exile or expulsions. According to the American Jewish Year Book, the total world Jewish population in the year 2000 was estimated at 13.2 million, of whom 5.7 million lived in the United States. It is obvious that a good number of them lived in the City of New York to make its culture richer.

Since the mid-nineteenth century the United States of America has become an figure of freedom. Countless numbers of immigrants from all over the apple accept arise to the United States gluttonous ambush from the ancestral and religious harassment they encountered in their built-in lands.

America symbolizes a place of opportunities free from these discriminations, area anybody has the appropriate to accept what they wish to believe, arise as they wish to appear, and say what they wish to say. America is a capitalism area anyone, behindhand of their socioeconomic status, can actuate their own afterlife by alive their way to success. America became a dream for the bitching humans of Europe and Asia, and New York City adumbrated the aperture to their dreams

The Jews were tortured and expelled by the Spanish in the Middle Ages. The Plight of the Jews became beyond words in the time of the Second World War. The ‘Holocaust’ has eaten up many of the Jewish community. As a result of this political disorder, they started migrating to distant places. The United States have been a secure place for refugees. They found America a nice place to live in and here starts the history of the Jews in ‘New World’. A group of Jews moved to the City of New York to make it their permanent residence.

Throughout the history, the Jewish people have been moving from one place to another in search of secure shelters. It gave the people and their religion a lot of experience and dynamicity. It evolved to be an easily adaptable system among the people of varied cultures. Lance J. Sussman of the New York State University once opined that “Religious life among New York Jews also became more diverse as East European Jews immigrated to America.

Already in 1887, the Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS) was founded in New York City. Jews also played an increasingly significant role in the general cultural life of New York as the 20th century progressed. In every dimension, New York will most likely continue to function as the vital center of the American Jewish community during the 21st century” (Sussman).

Muslims

Statistics tells that there were less than ten mosques in New York City before 1970. The situation has changed. Now, there are over hundred mosques in the heart of the city to actively participate in the city’s cultural and traditional affairs. It also indicates that there is a rapid growth of Muslim population.

On an average of 600,000, Muslims community now represents one of the fastest developing religious communities in New York City. Over a period of many decades of clearing and conversion, Muslim New Yorkers form an active variety of ethnic, racial, bigoted and socioeconomic diversity.

New York City has become a city with small percentages of a number of religions and community owing to the diversified immigration. Some of the commonly seen are Buddhists, Muslims, Hindus, and Orthodox Christians. It has been found that there are about 223,968 associates of Muslim believers in the city itself.

Though the exact numbers were not available, there were about 121 Buddhist followers and 83 Hindu congregations statewide (New York Religions). There is as well a wide spectrum of religious-nationalist sects and cults, including the World Community of Islam in the West, which is otherwise known as the Nation of Islam (Black Muslims), the Hare Krishna group, and the Unification Church of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon.

Hinduism

Hinduism is a set of religious, cultural and philosophical system having rich, multifarious, and inclusive mythology like the Greeks. Though it is centered on India, Hinduism crossed the marital boundaries to reach the United States some decades before. In New York City, there are reasonably a good number of followers in Hinduism, living in close adherence with the Hindu traditions. For daily of weekly worship, there are a number of temples too.

Hinduism has been providing much to the religious and cultural diversity since its establishment in the city. The Hindu pundits and scholars teach the lessons of Ramayana and Mahabharata to the children of Indian origin and to the spiritually inclined people of the New York City.

The peculiarity of soil of New York is that it welcomes all customs and traditions. It is nothing but this unique feature of the city that it accommodates even minor religions from different parts. The Indian subcontinent has not been the only source of major Hindu migrations in the last 50 years. These communities, whose forefathers left India 150 years ago, have unique elements today.

Commotion and Confusion

No system is devoid of defects. There has been a great deal of bewilderment among different religions for years. The September 11^th incident created drastic alterations in the patters of different religions. It had a great impact on the very foundation of the Muslim community.

A study conducted in 2004 reveals that “facing increased discrimination after the Sept. 11 attacks, New York City’s Muslims have identified more deeply with their religious roots, setting aside the sectarian and linguistic differences that have traditionally divided them. Though New York City’s Muslims are from many places – Guyana, Turkey, Pakistan, Morocco – they were united after Sept. 11 by a common burden” (Elliott, 2004).

Conclusion

Because of its huge geographical area, its material prosperity, and its mixture of people from around the globe, New York offers an amazing array of cultural riches. The diversity in their culture is best seen in different street festivals and ethnic celebrations. In many cultures, religion is a cementing force which is deep-rooted in the soil for the benefit of humanity.

Quite often, it happens that religion becomes a means to narrow-mindedness and fanaticism. However, the necessity of religion and religious faith is indispensible for the development of all cultures. It is not an exaggeration to say that, for the people of New York, religion has been a part of their daily life affairs.

Work Cited

Beckman, Joanne. “Religion in post World War II”. National Humanity Center. 2009. Web.

Chan, Sewell. “Immigration in the New York City: Taking the long view”. City Room. The New York Times, 2007. Web.

Elliott, Andrea. “Study Finds City’s Muslims Growing Closer Since 9/11”. New York Region-The New York Times. 2004. Web.

“New York Religions”. New York Detailed State Guide. 2009. Web.

Population Facts. “Department of City Planning”. New York City. Web.

Purcell, A. Edward. Originalism, federalism, and the American constitutional enterprise: a historical inquiry. Yale University Press, 2007.

Sussman, J. Lance. “New York Jewish History”. New York State Archives.

People always used to express their point of view, and one of the best ways to do it is satire. This comes from the ancient times, for there are examples of satirical writings even in ancient Egypt, which proves that people always resorted to satirical expression of their point of view.

Thus, satire can be found in every area of human life: in everyday life, in books, in periodicals, in films, on TV, in the Internet, etc. Of course, satire can be very offensive for its object, but that is the point of satire to strike and to show that changes are necessary, as Sullivan stated satire must be “crude but powerful” (Sullivan).

It is quite obvious that the most of satire is pointed at controversial things, such as politics and religion. It is necessary to point out that these two subjects are connected very often, especially when it deals with Islamic religion.

I think, Western people do not understand this religion, and which is more crucial, they don’t understand that religion is very important for Eastern people and that is why sometimes Western people cross the boundaries, and here I am not consider fanatics who kill people, to my mind, both sides have them, here I only mention the satirical representations of some definite thoughts.

To show the role of satire in politics, concerning Islamic religion, it is possible to depict cartoon South Park and comedian film You Don’t Mess With Zohan. As far as South Park is concerned it is necessary to point out that it is a satirical reflection of the modern society, and, of course, some series deal with Islamic religion.

For instance, in the episode 200 the inhabitants are concerned with the Islamic rules about Muhammad depiction, or rather prohibition of this depiction. And, of course, some extremists sent threaten to the makers of the cartoon. Another example of mockery at the whole issue is film You Don’t Mess With Zohan, which reveals some of the “peculiarities” of Muslims and their “struggle”, depicting the constant rivalry between two super agents of Islamic and Jewish worlds.

The film is full of satire but it is quite moderate and, to my mind, not offensive, moreover, this film shows that the whole confrontation is quite fictive, no one even remembers why it was started, and all the nations can live in peace. To my mind this is the best way of using satire with controversial issues.

It is necessary to add that not only Islamic religion and culture is under satirical supervision, but even western, i.e. Catholic, religion is being satirized as well.

The film Dogma is a bright example of satire over Catholic religion, it is necessary to stress that it is quite revolutionary and offensive for those who still believes in God, since the main postulates of this religion are being satirized. The film makers were also sent some threatens from the Catholics, who were offended by such “blasphemy”.

To my mind, Dogma is far behind the acceptable boundaries, and really should be restricted in the broadcasting and sales, though it has right to exist and be watched by people who are ready to understand the film makers’ message.

Thus, I would like to conclude that satire is indispensable part of human life, which is very important and valuable in terms of people development, though it is always necessary to stay in the boundaries, trying to accept traditions others.

Works Cited

Dugan, Dennis, dir. You Don’t Mess with the Zohan. Columbia Pictures, 2008. Film.

Parker, Trey and Stone, Matt. South Park. Comedy Central, Animation.

Smith, Kevin, dir. Dogma. Miramax Films, Lions Gate Entertainment, 1999. Film.

Sullivan, Andrew. “Your Taboo, Not Mine.” Time Magazine Online, 07 Feb. 2006. Web.

Introduction

Taoism is a Chinese theoretical and religious system, which was the basis for a civilization in olden China. Lao-Tzu born in 604 BCE is said to be the initiator of Taoism. Buddhism had a significant impact on Zionism after its initiation in China. Taoism supported Buddhism and basically united with it.

People saw Buddhism as a distant form of Taoism. Later, Taoism became a simple practice and its priests and followers later implemented various supernatural and mysterious customs similar to those of European alchemists. Afterwards, Taoism lost its zeal and the devotees of its practice are now mainly found in Hong Kong and Taiwan. ^[1]

The history of Taoism

The beginner of Taoism was known as Lao-Tzu. It is claimed that Lao-tzu wrote the classic book of Taoism: the Tao Te Ching, during his life. In the fourth century a book was written that promoted observance to the way of nature of life in everything. It is referred to as the key features of wu-wei; action not influenced by external forces. Another book expounded on these ideas further. It was known as Chuang-Tzu, and named after its author. ^[2]

In the first century C.E many groups used these insights to form practices and associations. Some hoped for a golden period in years that followed. This period was known as the great peace. The devotees of Taoism values were supposed to reign during the golden period. Motivated by such ideas, many private associations attempted to lead in the great peace. Among them was a trial to depose the Han dynasty in 184 C.E. ^[3]

Another Taoist movement that was founded in the same era was referred to as “the way of the heavenly masters”. The initiator declares to have been instructed by Lao-Tzu, whom he regarded as a god. In addition, the association assured to cure diseases. It also gave its followers manuscripts for writing their spiritual growth.

The first millennium was the era of the great peace of Taoism. Taoists formed detailed customs. They also formed various practices that would lengthen life and immortality. Many times Taoism did not emerge the authorized religion. Different kingdoms obliged their followers to do Taoists rituals, for instance, to rejoice the anniversary of Lao-tzu. ^[4]

The first millennium C.E. was a period when Buddhism began in China. Taoists always resisted Buddhism, and they persuaded many leaders to abolish it.

However, the two religions did influence each other. Taoists concepts played a role in modifying Buddhism. Through the impact of Buddhism, Taoists formed monasteries and convents supported by the government. During the second millennium, Confucianism ruled over Chinese religions. The official outlook enhanced the unity of the three religions; Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism.

During this era Taoism formed systems appropriate to the requirements of specific people instead of official sects. With the triumph of communism in China in 1949, Taoism endured immensely. This was because the states outlawed both customs and religions, it resisted Taoism. In the 1980s some Taoists associations were formed and Taoist worship began again. Taoists rituals thrived in Chinese society specifically in Taiwan. ^[5]

Concept of God in Taoism

In Taoism, Tao has the same definition as that of God. Tao signify a bed of river. Therefore, it implies course or way; the path of sensible living. Since Tao is signified as God, He is not visible although his being is there in everything. Tao, hence, is the path and every living thing has to commit to it. Taoism requires its devotees to adapt the features of Tao in their lives.

According to Taoism, a good person is like water. This is because water helps all living things without competing with them. By learning from this principle, a good person will love insight, people, and order.^[6]

The solution to knowing the origin of Taoism is based on the definition that the phrase Tao came to acquire in the traditional Taoist barriers. In Confucian records Tao signifies a path, the right manner of behavior for people and for the administration of governments. The idea is both wider and deeper in Taoism.

Not only is Tao a ritual, something that can be possessed or lost. It is also the very creature of the world. There are three obvious differences but connected definitions of Tao. It is a metaphysical truth. It is a form of ordinary regulation. It is a kind of standard or model for a person’s life.

The key ideas of Taoism comprise the idea of Tao as the common element of every living thing. Tao does not only involve real things of whichever form, in their origins, transformation, and decay. Tao is an inseparable, fixed whole. People are elements or sections of an individual’s life. ^[7]

Philosophy of contradiction

Tao is a motivation or purpose which directs the life. Therefore, the manner of existence is in accord with Yin and Yang. Ying-Yang is the olden Chinese philosophy of two unlike and complimentary powers in life. The Yin is linked to the womanly, while the Yang is linked to manly. According to the Yin-Yang theory, life is defined in terms of succession and adjustment of the balance of the two powers.

Shariati think that the complete accounts of Taoism together with Zoroastranism, Buddhism are founded on contradiction. A clash between two unlike poles forms history. In Taoism and the Chinese culture, dialectical perspective is of paramount importance. Everything, on the view of Yang and Yin theory, are in continuous fight and are the result of disagreement.

The existence of all these different powers in the matter and in religion, according to Shariati, forms a structure and way in the form of Tao. Below all these adjustments of facts is the course of Tao, which accepts the agreement of the unlike. ^[8]

The notion of Taoism

In Taoism, the aspect of unity in diversity is similar to the aspect of Wahdatul-wajud. It considers first love, then understanding. Self-control, empathy and kindness are regarded as the three valuables of Taoism. Nevertheless, the theory of Tao did not induce reaction from people.

For the Taoist, believed it was a phony matter required for debate, and dangerous to wisdom and to stay with harmony. Taoism thought that the wise individual was a risk to the society because he thought in terms of laws and rules which would ruin the liberty that people had. Although Taoism was an opposition against the social financial system, it was so much into the current of personality, futurity and wisdom that it destabilized the society. ^[9]

Taoism instructs that by staying in agreement with the Tao or according to nature, it is likely to lengthen life and even become eternal. Researchers have differentiated between two different forms of Taoism: philosophical and religious.

Philosophical stands for thoughts established from 600 to 200 B.C.E. Religious signifies activities and rituals like alchemy (changing metals into medication that would make one live forever) and meditation that started around the first century C.E. These two forms play a role in differentiating two key levels in the history of Taoism. However it would be wrong to say philosophical and religious were completely different movements. ^[10]

Teachings

The first Taoist writings commemorate the Tao. According to the foundation of the Tao Te Ching, it is difficult to provide a name for the Tao. It is simply beyond words. In addition, the Tao is the creator of everything. It forms all things on the earth, including human beings. The first records indicate that people should live in agreement with the Tao.

An example is given of water flowing in a river. It moves because of the pressure on it from other factors such as force of gravity, yet it appears powerful than the banks; it erodes the banks away. Taoists find this illustration informative. Taoists claims the best action from people is not forced by deliberate intention. This example is also applied in the government. A government performs best if its people are unaware of their work. ^[11]

Afterwards Taoism forms various legendary ideas. It informs that there are many immortals. Some are linked to the earth, while others are linked to people. In addition it educates about the islands of immortals; holy mountains of China, the holiest being Tai Shan; and concerning the life giving features of things like gold.

Moreover, Taoism studies a person in precisely. The most significant power is the original breath referred to as chi. Chi and other powers dwell in the: head, heart, and navel. These three places are the sacred and most significant where immortals live. There are also residences for the three creatures referred to as worms that consume the crucial power and bring loss.

Practices

There are two key forms of Taoist practices: exercises to lengthen life and large, complex ceremonies for the health of the society. The exercises to lengthen life attempt to keep or reinstate the crucial power with which an individual is born. Some rituals known as external elixir pertain eating and drinking, specifically metals.

For the early Chinese, gold signified the nature that all Taoists wanted to achieve. It could neither be ruined neither tainted. This ritual tried to produce gold from baser materials, like lead. In theory, one achieved more days on earth by using utensils made of gold or eating and drinking gold. These traditions are the origin of what referred to as Europe and America in alchemy. ^[12]

About 1000C.E. the external elixir was replaced by an internal elixir. In these rituals Taoists did not consume physical matters but rather performed rites. The practices involved reflection and breathing and acrobatic exercises. Similar to the two elixirs, the largest public ceremonies, referred to as Jiao, lengthened the life of the priests who did those ceremonies.

They ensured the society had peace, health, and safety of the people as a whole. In these colorful ceremonies, the three immortals were welcomed to a feast. Practically, only the priests gave the feast, although people from the community also contributed with rites of their own.

Taoism comprises both nuns and monks. However the number of nuns has been considerably small and many of the priests are not monks but dwell with relatives. Today, Taiwan has two levels of priests. Those possessing red headbands do rites of exorcism. Those possessing black headbands do key public ceremonies. Some Taoist societies, like “the way of the heavenly masters”, have been cautiously ordered.

Today the leader of the society, referred to as a pope, still declares to be an heir of the first pioneer. Moreover, Taoists have created private communities devoted to the defeat of the government. Apart from being a great participator in the Chinese culture, Taoism drew the attention of Europeans and Americans in the 20^th century. Notions from the first Taoist writings became famous. Physical exercises such as Tai Chi and Taoist-impacted martial arts also became famous. ^[13]

Conclusion

Taoism is a religion in China whose followers believe that one can lengthen his life by obeying the instructions of Tao. It began in China during the first emergence of philosophical thinking and of the general inquiry into the nature of humanity and the meaning of life. The lack of any description is not only viewed in Taoist philosophy, but also the rituals of Taoism and its very survival on the earth.

For nearly two centuries, people have stayed in societies ordered in shrines, adhering to ceremonies that match to the liturgical systems of Taoism. As a religious and liturgical association, Taoism, the social institution of the society, has not experienced any real governing body, or canonical principles. ^[14]

Bibliography

Ellwood Robert, Alles Gregory. The encyclopedia of world religions. New York: InfoBase Publishing, 2007.

Kirkland Russell. Taoism: the enduring tradition. New York: Routledge, 2004.

Lan Hu Hsiao, Allen William. Taoism.USA: Chelsea House Publishers, 2005.

Robinet Isabelle, Brooks Phyllis. Taoism: growth of a religion. USA: Stanford University press, 1997.

Schipper, Kristofer. The Taoist body. California: University of California Press, 1993.

Stein Rebecca, Stein Philip. Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft (2ndEdition). USA: Ally & Bacon, 2007.

Watts, Alan. What is Tao? Canada: Publishers Group West, 2000.

Footnotes

1. Alan Watts, What is Tao? (Canada: Publishers Group West, 2000), 35.
2. Rebecca Stein, Philip Stein, Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft (USA: Ally & Bacon, 2007), 55.
3. Kristofer Schipper, The Taoist body (California: University of California Press, 1993), 112.
4. Robert, Ellwood Gregory Alles, The encyclopedia of world religions (New York: InfoBase Publishing, 2007), 99.
5. Isabelle Robinet, Phyllis Brooks, Taoism: growth of a religion (USA: Stanford University press, 1997), 134.
6. Hu Hsiao Lan, William Allen. Taoism (USA: Chelsea House Publishers, 2005), 47.
7. Alan Watts, What is Tao? (Canada: Publishers Group West, 2000), 40.
8. Kristofer Schipper, The Taoist body (California: University of California Press, 1993), 115.
9. Russell Kirkland, Taoism: the enduring tradition (New York: Routledge, 2004), 67.
10. Rebecca Stein, Philip Stein, Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft (USA: Ally & Bacon, 2007), 60.
11. Hu Hsiao Lan, William Allen, Taoism (USA: Chelsea House Publishers, 2005), 55.
12. Robert, Ellwood Gregory Alles, The encyclopedia of world religions (New York: InfoBase Publishing, 2007), 117.
13. Russell Kirkland, Taoism: the enduring tradition (New York: Routledge, 2004), 67.
14. Isabelle Robinet, Phyllis Brooks, Taoism: growth of a religion (USA: Stanford University press, 1997), 139.

Voodoo as a religion has its roots in traditional African religions. It original name is Vodu, but that paved way for the more widespread name; Voodoo. Other names referring to it include “Voudou, Vaudau, Voudoux, or Vaudaux” (Tallant 9). Captured slaves from West Africa carried its essential ideology into Haiti, then to America.

The practice of Voodoo involves, “complicated rituals and symbols” (Riguad 7). It involves the worship of spiritual deities, with priests called papa loa, which means “father of the spirits” (Felix 21), and priestesses acting as intermediaries between the spiritual world, and humanity.

Some of them also operate as oracles, revealing spiritual mysteries to those who seek their services. The term Voodoo also describes a charm that has supernatural powers known as juju. Adherents believe that it acts as a protective force over them. They also use it to mete out revenge on their enemies. Voodoo therefore refers to an entire religious system and to certain specific aspects of its practice.

Voodoo picked pace from the practices of a snake cult in Haiti during the slave trade period. The cult came from West Africa and spread with slave trade, in the Americas and to Haiti. As new slave communities grew in the Americas, different religious identities amalgamated into a unified faith as the slave communities tried to forge a common belief system to unify them in their new locales.

Felix says, “Voodoo became the intermingling of essential attributes of all the religions of the different African tribes to which poorly assimilated elements of Catholicism were added” (20). Voodoo got its form in Haiti, which was an important station during slave trade.

Missionary efforts among the slaves saw them incorporate elements of Catholicism in practice of the Voodoo religion. In the process, some Voodoo spirits replaced catholic saints because of close relationships between their roles.

Currently, it is common to find prayers offered to Mary and other Catholic elements such as the Lord’s Prayer and the sign of the cross forming part of the Voodoo liturgy. In fact, many Voodoo adherents are staunch Catholics. In America, Voodoo practice first took place in New Orleans before spreading to other states. This was because of the role New Orleans played in slave trade.

The Voodoo belief system builds on the idea of an all-powerful impersonal Supreme Being responsible for creation of the entire universe, but who does not get involved in day-to-day running characterized by the affairs of men. The adherents worship lesser deities known as Loa who are animistic spirits. The initial practice of Voodoo revolved around slave communities that sought to retain the vital link with their ancestral heritage.

Present followers include descendants of these slaves spread throughout the Americas. In addition, tourists all over the world visit Voodoo priests and priestesses in America and Haiti to obtain special charms and amulets for all manner of purposes. Its practice involves praying, dancing, and ritualistic expressions. It is important to distinguish between faithful adherents who actually believe in power of Voodoo, and those who participate in Voodoo recreational purposes.

The use of dolls in Voodoo is the enduring image of the faith system though this is only a piece of the entire system. This view, propagated by Hollywood horror movies, depicts Voodoo priests as spiritual powerhouses using the dolls to control the outcome of an individual’s activities. There are a number of opponents to Voodoo who believe it is evil. Official catholic faith rejects Voodoo as demonic and considers use of saints in the Voodoo liturgy as syncretism.

The question of whether Voodoo is fact or fiction is hard to answer sufficiently using a scientific approach. It does not lend itself to purely scientific investigation to determine its efficacy. This is true for all faith-based systems. Evidence given by practicing Voodoo adherents does not meet criteria for objective study because they are likely to associate ordinary outcomes to their faith. It is difficult to dissociate outcomes of Voodoo mediated occurrences from random chance.

The Placebo effect also applies to Voodoo. Someone may actually experience a favorable outcome because of participation in Voodoo rituals based on their belief in the efficacy of the service received. Taking a healing portion from a Voodoo priest may result in better physical health. We can therefore conclude that Voodoo is effective to the extent that such outcomes portray a positive relationship to Voodoo practice.

Voodoo has had many tangible consequences in the world. The most notable was the drive towards independence by Haiti, which begun in earnest during a Voodoo festival, where all the participants took an oath to fight for independence. Consequently, Haiti became the first predominantly Negro nation to attain independence. Riguad also attest to some of the effects of voodoo practice when he says, “a curious moral consequence of the slave trade was the exaltation of the African religion by an increase of faith in the Voodoo divinities” (12).

Berry identifies one of the mystifying occurrences of Voodoo when he says, “One of the most spectacular features of Voodoo is ritual possession trance, in which saints (loa) enter into and “possess” the practitioner, who can either be a believer (with no special psychological problem), a patient, or a priest/doctor who seeks to heal”. This shows that Voodoo is not without its share of paranormal occurrences that science cannot fully explain.

Works Cited

Berry, John, et al. Cross-cultural psychology: research and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Print.

Felix, Emmanuel. Understanding Haitian Voodoo. USA: Xulon Press, 2009. Print

Riguad, Milo. Secrets of voodoo. New York: Lights Books, 1985. Print.

Tallant, Robert. Voodoo in New Orleans. Louisiana: Pelican Publishing, 1983. Print.

The world history knows a lot of different variations of religious opinion. The existence of various forms and ideas about God impresses. Ordinary people do not know much about the variations of the religious points of view, they believe in God and follow the rules established by the church they got used to attend.

Still, it is useful to know that Christianity is a religion which gave “birth” to different descendants and branches. The Anabaptist is a religion which has rejected conventional Christian ideas and seceded from it having created its own ideas and beliefs.

The main idea of this paper is to provide the reader with the main information about Anabaptism foundation and the leaders who supported the movement. Moreover, this paper is aimed at representing the reader with the comparative analysis of the leaders of the movement with the leaders of other representatives in the Reformation Movement, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli.

The Main Idea of the Anabaptist Movement

The movement called the Anabaptism was born on January 21, 1525. A number of people gathered in the house of Felix Manz which is located near Grossmunster, Zurich. The main purpose of their gathering was pray, but after the procedure one of the participants of the meeting stood up, it was George of the House of Jacob and demanded from Conrad Grebel to baptize him one more time. This procedure was called the baptizing with “true Christian baptism with faith and knowledge”.^[1]

Thus, the main idea of the Anabaptist movement is to baptize people one more time in another, new religion. The central event which was a starting point for the movement birth was “a black-garbed Austrian monk”,^[2] Martin Luther, who dared to confront Rome and brought a manuscript, the Ninety-Five Theses, to the very citadel of the Roman Catholic Church on the 31^st of October, 1517. This document, the Ninety-Five Theses, is considered to be the beginning of the Reformation Movement.

Martin Luther criticized the religion and most of the Catholic canons. Thus, the Anabaptist movement was the part of the Reformation Movement in the 16^th century. It should be mentioned that the meeting in Grossmunster, Zurich where the Anabaptist movement was formed is considered to be crucial in the whole Reformation period as that group of Christians dared to create a church of the Swiss Brethren which symbolized a complete break with Rome.^[3]

To understand the movement better, the definition of Anabaptist should be considered. An Anabaptist is a person who took part in the movement occurred in the 16^th century and was a part of the Reformation. An Anabaptist believed that infants should not be baptized, that the church should be separated from the state, and that life is simpler than people usually think.

Leaders in the Movement and the Places They Worked in along with Their Teachings and Beliefs

The main leader of Anabaptist movements is considered to be Conrad Grebel, a person who founded the movement, the new religion. Moreover, it should be mentioned that the ideas of Anabaptist movement were formed in different countries and different leader supported each variation.

Thus, Conrad Grebel and Felix Mantz were the leaders of the Anabaptist movement in Swetzelend. They believed that “every man wants to be saved by superficial faith, without fruits of faith… without love and hope, without right Christian practices”.^[4] At the same time they believed that it was possible only in case if they live their faith. David Joris was the leader of the Anabaptists in South German–Austrian area.

He proclaimed that personal cleaning is the only way to be awarded. Moreover, he interprets “sin chiefly as latent guilt about sexuality”.^[5] Melchior Hoffman was a leader of Anabaptist movement in the Netherlands. The proclaimed the nearest date of the end of the world and the return of the Christ.^[6] One of the main problems in Anabaptist movement was the fact that it was confused with many other movements in Reformation period.

Strong and Weak Sides of the Anabaptist Movement

Analyzing the situation in the world and the movement in particular from the point of view of Anabaptism’s strong and weak sides, it should be concluded that due to the religion imperfection it was rather weak. But, considering the fact of its ability to become so widespread and survive till now it was strong. To specify the mentioned information, it should be mentioned that the main desire of the movement was “the reinstitution of the church”.^[7]

This movement was one of the few who managed to create a church in the 16^th century (when the Reformation movement was in full play) and the appearance of the ideas of the movement in different parts of the world almost simultaneously. It is the strong part. Nevertheless, there was one main weak side of the movement, some leaders could not agree on the main statements of the religion they tried to implement.

The Comparative Analysis of the Beliefs in the Anabaptist Movement and Those of Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli

As it was mentioned before, Anabaptist movement descend from the ideas proclaimed by Martin Luther, still, the main statements of this person and the religion Anabaptists proclaimed are different in some content. Here is the comparison of the ideas declared by the leaders of Anabaptist movement and Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli. Ulrich Zwingli believed that faith God is the only way to be saved and protected. According to Zwingli, all newborns had to be baptized which was not agreed by Manz, Grebel and Blaurock.^[8]

Martin Luther said that he was sinful before God and stated that only faith and belief may save his soul. Anabaptists, on the contrary, did not pay much attention to faith and claimed that surface faith was enough.^[9] Anabaptists believed that soul sleeps and waits for the day when it will be revive. John Calvin, along with Martin Luther, did not believe in this nonsense and were sure that dead people are dead.^[10] They also stated that dead remembered nothing.

Anabaptism Today

Considering the movement from the point of view of the modern time, it may be concluded that it exists. The work which was conducted in the 16^th century was rather effective as the descendants of the movement, born that time, continues its existence. The Mennonites is one of the main schools which exist today. There is a tendency to unite the descendants of the Anabaptist movement is an ethical group. The ideas these organizations proclaim have already changes, still, they remain important for people in the 21^st century.

At the same time, it is not so easy to understand the main principle of the modern Anabaptists as the traditions of the movement vary “from pacifists to militants, from politically engages to withdrawn, and positioned on nearly all points of the theological spectrum on many major doctrines”.^[11] Furthermore, Langmead concludes that Anabaptists want to create a church which is going to live separately from the whole world. Those who remain devoted to this religion should refuse from everything they have and live under the authority of Jesus.

Personal Reflection on the Teachings and Beliefs of the Anabaptist Movement

Frankly speaking, my personal opinion about this movement is rather negative. I do not support the ideas they proclaim about the unnecessary to have a deep faith. Moreover, having fighting for the idea during the time of the Reformation Movement in the 16th century I cannot see the results of their struggle. What have they achieved? Having conducted a research, I may conclude that having remained till now, this Anabaptist movement does not have specific statements, the principles and rules they follow.

I suppose that the different and variety of approaches to this religion was formed in the times of the movement creation. Anabaptist movement was born in different parts of the world almost simultaneously. Still, there was no connection between Anabaptist Movement in those parts. This division was one of the main reasons why one and the same religion has so many ideas and points to believe in today.

In conclusion, Anabaptist movement has been considered from different perspectives. We managed to follow the birth of this movement. It was found out that the formation of the religion and the creation of the church was a great step, valuable for the whole Reformation Movement in the 16^th century. Then, the leaders and the places have been discussed.

It is important to understand that being the decadent of the philosophy proclaimed by Martin Luther, Anabaptist movement was considered absolutely different. The ideas proclaimed by the leaders of the Anabaptist movement were analyzed and compared with the ideas stated by Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli. It should be stated that the movement remained till now, but the ideas it tries to deliver to people are not effective, in my personal opinion.

Why should church be separated from the state? I am not sure that it is so significant. Moreover, infants should be baptized as in this case God protects them. I suppose, this feature is the most crucial. But, no matter what religion one supports, belief in God is what unites most of religions and people.

Endnotes

1. William Roscoe Estep, The Anabaptist Story: an Introduction to Sixteenth-Century Anabaptism (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1996) 13.
2. Estep, 9.
3. Estep, 14.
4. Thomas N. Finger, A Contemporary Anabaptist Theology: Biblical, Historical, Constructive (Westmont: InterVarsity Press, 2004) 233.
5. Finger, 38.
6. Benjamin W. Redekop and Calvin Wall, Power, Authority, and the Anabaptist Tradition (Baltimore: Redekop JHU Press, 2001) 65.
7. Roger Haight, Christian Community in History, Volumes 1-2, (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005) 223.
8. Carter Lindberg, The European Reformations Sourcebook, (Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell, 2000) 113.
9. Lindberg, 55.
10. Lindberg, 164.
11. Ross Langmead, The Word Made Flesh: towards an Incarnational Missiology, (New York: University Press of America, 2004) 63.

Works Cited

Estep, William Roscoe. The Anabaptist Story: an Introduction to Sixteenth-Century Anabaptism. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1996. Print.

Finger. Thomas N. A Contemporary Anabaptist Theology: biblical, Historical, Constructive. Westmont: InterVarsity Press, 2004. Print.

Haight, Roger. Christian Community in History, Volumes 1-2. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005. Print.

Lindberg. Carter. The European Reformations Sourcebook. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell, 2000. Print.

Langmead, Ross. The Word Made Flesh: towards an Incarnational Missiology. New York: University Press of America, 2004. Print.

Introduction

“Gnosticism is mainly influenced by the comprehension of the Hellenistic religion that the spirit is good while the material world is evil” (Keller). The teachings of the Gnostics about Jesus heavily contradict what the Bible teaches about Jesus. Some of the most common texts of the Gnostic Jesus are the Apocryphal of James, The Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Truth and The Gospel of Phillip (Keller, 2010).

It is not easy to describe the conception of Jesus from the Gnostic perspective because they fractioned him into various entities. According to them, Jesus was different from Christ, the savior as different and the begotten was also different as well as the logos. They also explained that there were two Christ. It was taught that Jesus was a man, just like any other and born usually by Joseph and Mary, thus disregarding the virgin birth (Samsel, 2008).

Comparison of the “Arabic Gospel of the Infancy of the Savior: and the “Infancy Gospel of James” to the Infancy Narratives in Matthew 1:18-2:23 and Luke 1:26-2:52.

Several similarities and differences exist in the three accounts of the infancy of Jesus as will be seen in the following discussion.

Mary and Joseph

Chapter 1 to 9 of the infancy gospel of James gives a detailed account of the lives of the parents of Mary, the birth of Mary and her childhood until she got espoused to Joseph in her teen years.

This is not so in the Gospel as given in the Bible passages from Matthew and Luke. The history of Mary’s parents and her upbringing and how she got espoused to Joseph is not explained, we only get to know Mary at the point where the angel Gabriel appears to her, a virgin, espoused to Joseph, and tells her that she will conceive a child by the power of the Holy Spirit (Hock; Keller).

The Joseph that is spoken of in the gospel of James is different from the Bible one: He was a widower who had children already while the Bible one had not yet married, Mary was espoused to him and they had not come together, and he knew her not until she brought forth her first son, Jesus. The Jesus in the Bible does not speak to her mother while lying in the manger (King James Bible).

The message of the angel to Mary

In both accounts, the angel of the lord comes to Mary, calls her blessed and favored among women and delivers the news of the birth of a son who shall be called Jesus and who shall deliver men of their sins. However, the gospel of James posits that Mary will conceive from the word of the lord, but the passages in Luke and Matthew are clear that that which she will conceive will be of the Holy Ghost.

Mary’s visit to her cousin Elizabeth

The account of Mary at her cousin Elizabeth are same the gospel of Luke and Matthew and James. However, the claim by the gospel of James that Mary had forgotten the mysteries she had been told by the angel Gabriel concerning being called blessed by the generations is not so in the Bible. Mary and Joseph did not have to go through any ritual to prove their purity as is the case in the infancy gospel of James (Keller).

Jesus’ birth at Bethlehem of Judea

Joseph took with him his wife Mary to Bethlehem of Judea to be taxed according to the decree of Caesar Augustus, which is also the case in the infancy gospel of James and the Arabic gospel. However, Joseph was not ashamed of Mary and did not complain about having to get a place for her to birth her baby. Furthermore, the Bible does not say that they were in a desert as is the case in the infant gospel of James, they were in the city of Judea where they had gone to be taxed (King James Bible).

The Biblical Joseph did not go to look for a Hebrew midwife to help Mary and did not put Mary in a cave as is the case in the Arabic and James’ gospels. Mary gave birth to her son alone and put him in the manger because there was no space in the hotel and Joseph did not look for a midwife as the two gospels posit.

In the Arabic gospel, the old Hebrew midwife asks for payment and having been affected with palsy, is asked by Mary to place her hands upon the child upon which she receives immediate healing and makes up her mind to be the servant and attendant of the child the rest of her life.

Likewise, Salome, who was with the Hebrew midwife in the gospel of James receives healing by lifting the baby, for her hand that was falling away and being consumed by fire after she put her finger on Mary to confirm the virgin birth. This is not so in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew (Hock).

The Arabic gospel is in agreement with the Bible concerning the baby being wrapped in swaddling clothes. However, He, according to the gospel of Luke and Matthew, was placed in a manger and not on a stall as in the Arabic gospel (Keller).

A star stood over the place where the child lay and not lights more beautiful than the gleaming of candles and lamps filling the cave as in the Arabic gospel, or the great light appearing in the cave that the eyes of the midwife and Joseph could not bare as in the infancy gospel of James, which also claims that the light, which had replaced the dark cloud that hovered over the cave, had withdrawn again until an infant appeared and went and took his mother, Mary’s breast.

The three wise men

The commotion as a result of the astrologers in Judea as posited in the gospel of James is not the case in the Bible. The Arabic gospel, on the other hand, says that as Zeraduscht had predicted, magi came to Jerusalem from the east and brought with them the gifts of gold, myrrh and frankincense, adored Jesus and presented him the gifts (Knight).

Mary took one of the swaddling bands and gave it to the magi (Hock). The Bible talks of three wise men, not astrologers, and not magi, seeking, just like James’ astrologers, and the Arabic magi, where Jesus had been born after seeing his star. Herod inquired, in the Bible, about the time the star would appear and not what sign they saw about the messiah (Keller). The star the wise men had seen led them to where the baby was, but this was not the cave, mentioned in James’ and Arabic infancy gospels.

James says the men were warned by the angel to depart to Judaea. In the bible, God himself warned them through a dream not to return to Herod, but return to their country, and not Judea, as in James’ gospel. The Arabian gospel posits that an angel, in the form of a star appeared to the magi and led them until they reached their country. The wise men in the Bible went to their country using another route, but were not led by the star that had led them as they came to see the baby Jesus (King James Bible).

Herod’s command to kill children under age 2

Joseph, in the Bible, being warned of Herod killing children under age 2, and being instructed on what to do by an angel in a dream took Mary and the child and went to Egypt by night. On the other hand, it is posited by the Arabian gospel that Joseph took Mary and the child and set out to Egypt towards cockcrow.

The infant Gospel of James is different and posits that Mary, hearing about the destruction of children, wrapped the child and put him in a stall of cows, while Elizabeth was guided through the mountain with her child, John, guided by the angel of the Lord, and Herod not finding John, ordered that his father Zachariah be murdered, and in his place, Simeon appointed (Keller). This is not so in the Bible.

Simeon and the baby Jesus

In all the three accounts, it had been revealed to Simeon by the Holy Ghost that he would not die before seeing the Messiah, but not in the flesh, as is the case in the gospel of James. “Simeon is, in the Arabic infancy gospel, said to have seen the child Jesus shining as a pillar of light his mother was carried him and rejoicing over him with the angels too were praising him as they stood around him in a circle as life guards standing by a king” (Wesley Center for Applied Theology) .

In the Bible, Simeon, led into the temple by the spirit of God, took up Jesus in his hands and blessed God. He did not speak to baby Jesus and the Holy Spirit, and Jesus is not the one who revealed to him about his seeing the messiah before dying.

The angels, stated as standing around them, are no existent in the Bible. Hanna, a prophetess also present in the temple came up, thanked God and referred to Mary as blessed (Keller). In the Bible, she is named Anna and she thanked God and spoke of him to all that required liberation in Jerusalem.

The shepherds and the baby Jesus

The shepherds in the Arabic gospel are said to have lighted a fire were greatly rejoicing when a heavenly host appeared to them celebrating and praising God and the shepherds were doing the same at which time the cave was made like the a temple of the upper world since both earthly and heavenly hosts glorified and magnified God at the birth of Jesus (Keller).

This is different from the Biblical account in which the angel of the Lord came to the shepherds who were watching their flocks by night and the glory of the Lord shone around them and scared them (King James Bible).

The angel delivered the news of the savior’s birth to them and the sign of the baby enclosed in swaddling clothes in a manger. The angel was all of a sudden joined by a large number of heavenly hosts praising God. After the departure of the angels, the shepherds went to see the baby and told the news to all abroad.

Circumcision of Jesus

Circumcision is on the 8^th day is in both the Biblical and Arabic gospels (Keller; King James Bible). In the Bible, the baby was named Jesus, as had been prophesied. However the Arabic gospel posits that Jesus was circumcised in the cave and the old Hebrew woman took the foreskin while some say she took the navel string which she laid in a jar and instructed her son, a dealer in ointments, not to sell the jar (Keller).

This jar is believed to be the one Mary the sinner used to pour expensive oil on the feet of Jesus. “It is claimed that after 10 days, the baby was taken to Jerusalem and on the 14^th day, after his birth, was taken to the temple, put before the Lord and sacrifices offered to him as per the Law of Moses which according to which every firstborn male was to be the lord’s holy” (Wesley Center for Applied Theology).

Jesus at 12

At 12years, Jesus was taken to Jerusalem for the feast and at its conclusion, they went back but Jesus remained in the temple with the teachers, elders and educated men of Israel who wondered at his understanding and knowledge. His parents came to seek him after three days and he told them he was after his father’s business. This is true in both the Arabic and Biblical accounts.

The two thieves

It is said, in the Arabic gospel, that Mary and Joseph met two thieves and one of them showed them kindness. The Arabic gospel posits that baby Jesus told Mary his mother that when he, Jesus, will reach 30 years, the Jews will crucify him at Jerusalem and the two robbers, whom they were with, Titus and Dumachus, will be hang on the cross alongside him, Titus to his right side and Dumachus to his left side and that Titus shall be in paradise on that day before him, Jesus gets there (Keller; Hock).

While it is true in the Bible that Jesus was crucified alongside two thieves and one went to paradise after asking Jesus to have mercy n him, it is not true that Jesus told his mother about this and the names of the thieves are not given in the bible as is so in the Arabian gospel.

The Arabic gospel and miracles

The Arabic gospel of the infancy of the Savior is entirely about the miracles of Jesus Christ, who is referred to as the Lord and Master and Savior Jesus Christ.

An account of the miracles of all sorts of the child wherever he and his parents passed is recorded. Among the many miracles he performed include: demons left a possessed boy after he put upon his head the washed clothes of Jesus, idols were broken at the presence of Jesus in the surrounding, robbers ran and left all their plunder and captives at the approaching of Jesus carried by his parents, Satan left those he had possessed just by Mary looking at her and pitying her or by those possessed holding the baby Jesus, a dumb bride spoke by holding the baby Jesus, various illnesses like leprosy were healed by pouring on the sick individuals the water used to wash Jesus and life was also restored in the same manner, impotence was loosed by Jesus and his parents spending the night in the victim’s house, a city of idols was turned to sand hills as they came near it, in Bethlehem, Mary instructed a woman to sprinkle water she had washed Jesus in on her ill son and his eyes were healed, a child healed by Mary’s child could not be burnt in a hot oven or drowned in the well after his step mother did this to him, a dying boy arose after being laid in the bed Jesus was lying in and covered by Jesus’ clothes.

It is claimed that this child is the Bartholomew in the gospel. Jesus, at 7years, playing with other boys, modeling, is said to have made his models walk, fly, eat and do everything he ordered. These miracles are not in line with what Jesus in the bible did, especially the manner in which they are done (Hock).

Additional personal reflections

The gospel of James puts a lot of emphasis on the life of Mary, the mother of Jesus and gives a lot of details. The Arabic stresses on the miracles experienced by people who came in contact with Jesus while the Bible accounts of Luke and Matthew are centered on Jesus himself, his birth, the prophesies being fulfilled and his kingship.

It is my opinion that we be faithful to the picture of Jesus presented in the biblical narratives about narratives. This is because they are consistent with earlier prophesies given and thus the Biblical account can be relied on.

The biblical gospels were written earlier than the Gnostic ones hence can be relied upon as authoritative. The biblical ones were written in the 1^st century by the apostles and their close associates while the earliest the Gnostic ones were written was in the second century. The details of Jesus as depicted by the Gnostic accounts are different. They are not consistent and are not coherent in terms of the life and ministry of Jesus.

Gnosticism hides a lot of knowledge concerning salvation since they present a variety of views on Jesus. The bible, however, gives a coherent view. Most of the Gnostic accounts are combined material from the bible and from other religious traditions which may not be reliable historically as compared to the bible (Small) thus the importance for us to stick to that.

Gnosticism is described as the perverted Christianity due to speculation and learning. Gnosticism changed Christianity into a philosophy. It is a mystic religion and mystifies Jesus thus the need to stick to the Biblical account of Jesus.

Works Cited

Bible gateway. The Christian’s Battle against Gnosticism. 2010. Web.

Hock, Ronald. The Infancy Gospel of James. 2010. Web.

Keller, Tim. The Gnostics and Jesus. 2010. Web.

Keller, Tim. The Gnostics and Jesus: Gospel of Thomas Sounds Far More Misogynist Than Anything Found in the Bible. 2010. Web.

Knight, Kevin. The Arabic Gospel of the Infancy of the Savior. 2009. Web.

Samsel, Roger. The Gnostic Jesus. 2008. Web.

Small, Keith. The Historical Reliability of the Gnostic versus the Canonical Gospels. 2010. Web.

Wesley Center for Applied Theology. The Arabic Gospel of the Infancy of the Savior. 2010. Web.