This book is one of the various existing translations of the classic Buddhist manuscript Platform Sutra . The book is an authoritative English translation of the Tun-Huang manuscript by Phillip Yampolsky. The Tun-Huang manuscript is the earliest version of the eighth-century classic that covers original teachings by Hui-Neng, who is considered to be the founder of Chan Buddhism. In this book, Yampolsky offers readers a long but essential historical introduction of the Tun-Huang classic. The introduction contains information that is pertinent to the modern reader, who might be lacking a contextual understanding of Hui-Nengs teachings. The book begins by giving a detailed account of the known and unknown information on Chan Buddhism, including the traditional practices of the religion. In the second part of the book, the author analyzes the most important texts of Platform Sutra and then he contextualizes them. The complete Sutra is laid out at the end of the very end of the book with corrections relating to the Koshoji edition. This is a review of The Platform Sutra of the Six Patriarch: the Text of the Tun-Huang manuscript, translated with notes by Philip Yampolsky.
Response to the introduction part
The book begins by offering a long introduction that is divided into four parts. In the first part, the author explores Chan Buddhism both in its accurate stance and in its legendary sense. The book follows the religion from the time it is introduced in China until it becomes the most dominant religion in Asia. In the next section of the book, the author takes time to address the life of Hui-Neng. Yampolsky also validates or invalidates some of the biographical claims that have previously been made to Hui-Neng. The goal of the books lengthy introduction in the context of the history of Zen Buddhism in China is to make sure that the readers can separate fact from legend. The next section is titled The Making of a Book: The Platform Sutra , whereby the author tries to consolidate the factual development of the Sutra in this section1. In the fourth section of the introduction, the author analyzes the two most important aspects of the Sutra; the sermon at Ta-fan Temple and the later additions to the teachings. Zen Buddhism in China is subject to legendary connotations of information. Consequently, Yampolskys introduction attempts to set the record straight when it comes to Chan Buddhism.
Content analysis
The second part of the book is the authors translation of the Platform Sutra . In this section, the core elements of the main topic are discussed, including aspects of meditation, doctrines of the mind, oneness, purity of man, identity, and no thought. The categorization of these aspects reveals the authors deep understanding of Chan Buddhism, and his willingness to dig deeper into the context of the classic manuscript. The subtle differences between the original Platform Sutra and Yampolskys translation are evident throughout the text. For instance, the author delves into the deeper aspects of the Sutra especially in their relation to Mahayana. Consequently, the reader can be able to gather useful facts from the authors categorization.
Core review
The author can express himself clearly with a sense of simplicity that is characteristic of Chan Buddhism. This expression is valuable to the readers because it offers a polished version of Hui-Neng teachings. Eventually, the authors style of expression eliminates any misconceptions that first-time readers of the Tun-Huang manuscript might have concerning its authenticity. The author of this book is also able to deploy his scholarly prowess using various tools such as important footnotes, historical information, and contexts of names and places. Readers can use this additional information to engage in further discussions on the subject matter and add on their knowledge of the Chan doctrine. Nevertheless, the deployment of the scholarly element also serves as a challenge to the average reader. These scholarly snippets also widen the scope of the interpretations of the sutra teachings but they also serve as a burden to the average reader. The interpretations of the Chinese terms in the glossary are quite helpful to the reader as they ease the burden that comes with reading the original manuscript2. To avoid any ensuing confusion, the author also includes the original Platform Supra at the bottom of the book. A reader has the privilege of accessing different types of reading materials in one book.
Recommended reading and Conclusion
Although the books forward suggests that this work is palatable to all types of readers, this might not be the case. The average reader might find the books wealth of information difficult to navigate. The book can be recommended to the readers who can navigate these complexities and understand their intended purpose. For instance, scholars might enjoy the foundation that Yompolsky has laid out in terms of future research and expounded discussions. Before the publication of this book, the essence of Chan spiritualism was difficult to translate through text. However, the author of this book has made considerable steps towards communicating spirituality through a work of literature.
Bibliography
Yampolsky, Philip. The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch: The Text of the Tun-Huang Manuscript with Translation, Introduction, and Notes. Columbia University Press, 1967.
Footnotes
Philip Yampolsky, The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch: The Text of the Tun-Huang Manuscript with Translation, Introduction, and Notes (Columbia University Press, 1967), 89.
Philip Yampolsky, The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch: The Text of the Tun-Huang Manuscript with Translation, Introduction, and Notes (Columbia University Press, 1967), 185.
The Adventist group was established in the 1830s after the revelation of William Miller, who prophesied that Jesus Christ would return to earth, but when his prophecy failed to materialize, the movement split into factions. One of these splinter groups was organized by Charles Russell, who started disputing some of the traditional perspectives within Christianity and established himself as a controversial and independent Adventist teacher in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. His followers originally called themselves Bible Students, who devoted themselves to intense study of the groups literature. Russell continued to minister, convert, and publish magazines, which were distributed from door-to-door and on streets and made the groups membership grow into neighboring states, and the Jehovahs Witnesses (JWs) were born. Although JWs share similarities with Christian denominations, the followers do not believe that Christ is divine; instead, they consider him a lesser god. While Christians believe that God, Jesus, and the Holy Ghost are forms of Gods presence, the Jehovahs Witnesses think that Jehovah is the true God and the other two are separate entities.
Analysis of the Opposing Worldview
The JW adherents believe in various orthodox Christian views and several perspectives that are unique to the group. However, the major point of contention between Witnesses and various Christian denominations is their worldview of the Holy Trinity. The main diversion between these two factions is that JW followers do not believe in the unity of Father, Son, and the Holy Ghost as a single being. The Witnesses affirm that Father, also referred to as Jehovah, is the only the most high God. On the other hand, they view Jesus Christ as the Archangel Michael or the firstborn created by Jehovah before everything and the physical world existed. In this context, Jesus is not equal to the Father, in eternity or power, though he is a mighty god. Therefore, the Witnesses concluded that Jesus was inferior to God since he was created. The Witnesses non-Trinitarian teachings also liken the Holy Spirit to powerful, impersonal, and unseen force under the control of the supreme God.
JWs use the New World Translation (NWT) of the Holy Scripture to defend their view. For instance, regarding the Trinity, the group relies on various verses to disprove Trinitarian perspectives. For example, the Bible asserts that Jesus was created in the image of the invisible Father, and he is the firstborn over everything that was created. From this verse, Witnesses believe that Jesus has a beginning and, therefore, he cannot be eternal.
JWs view the Holy Ghost as Gods active force, while Christians consider the entity as also God himself. Another verse that supports the Witnesses perspective is derived from the words of the angel of Laodicea, which indicate that Jesus is the origin of Gods creation. Therefore, Jesus was a perfect human form while he was on earth, and he was not a god in the flesh. Witnesses take Christ at his word (he never thought of himself as equal to God), particularly when he said, the Father is superior than I am. The groups objection to Jesus deity is perhaps the most cardinal since they do not worship him as a divine supernatural being.
JWs do not support the triune God because the scripture never clearly mentions the word trinity. Research shows that during the first few centuries, traditional Christians never viewed Jesus as equal and eternal like God, rather as a subordinate. This is because Christ had a beginning, and he was created by God. The historical data links the Trinity doctrine from creeds and pagan origins that developed gradually over many centuries. For instance, in 325 AD, the council of Nicea declared that Jesus is Lord. Similarly, in 381 AD and 451 AD, the assembly in Constantinople and Chalcedon proclaimed that the Holy Ghost is God and Jesus is both God and man, respectively. Therefore, perhaps the societys respect for the creed given by the councils made believers accept the Trinitarian teachings, even though it is not mentioned in the scripture. The sovereignty of Jehovah is supported by several verses in the Bible that affirm the Witnesses belief in one God. Thus, this is the evidence JW adherents use to support the view that Christ is Jehovahs (God) son and totally separate from his Father.
The concept of the Trinitarian view is inconsistent with the scripture. This is because it contradicts what Christ himself, the apostles, prophets, and the early Christians taught and believed. The group also finds it challenging to comprehend the notion of one God made of three separate persons or entities persons. Therefore, they easily reject the triune of God because it is confusing and contrary to normal human reasoning. When a particular phenomenon is perceived as beyond human understanding, they also believe that even the scripture cannot possibly teach it.
Critique of the Opposing Worldview
JWs beliefs on the nonexistence of the Holy Trinity contradict the teachings in the Bible. Witnesses consider Jesus as an angel who was created by God. They also perceive him to be a lesser God because he was created. However, several accounts from the scriptures portray Jesus as an eternal God who is equal to God the Father. Christ is depicted as an eternal God who shares the same divinity and power as God. In the New Testament, Jesus clarifies to his disciples that he and God the Father are one; therefore, those who have seen Christ have seen God. Throughout the New Testament, Jesus healed the sick and raised the dead back to life. This can only prove that Jesus shares in the divinity of God. The Old Testament describes Archangel Michael as a protector of the Israelites. In contrast, Jesus is described as the mighty God who is the Lord of Lords. Therefore, the view of Jesus being a lesser God may be inaccurate.
JWs perception of the Holy Spirit as an impersonal being may be untrue. The Bible indicates that even before creation, the Spirit of God was present. Additionally, when Jesus ascended into heaven, he promised to send his followers a helper to assist them in preaching Gods teachings. This shows that the Holy Ghost is a person and not a mere force. The scripture also refers to the Holy Spirit as a He because he has several personal attributes. The Holy Spirit has a will, emotions, and a mind. This may explain why the scripture states that the Holy Spirit may be grieved. Similarly, the scripture demonstrates the personal roles performed by the Holy Spirit. In this case, he teaches, testifies for Christ, and intercedes on behalf of Christians. All these accounts stress the personality of the Holy Spirit. Although the Holy Ghost is a distinct entity, He is part of the Holy Trinity. Acts 5:3-4 likens lying to the Holy Ghost to being untruthful to God. Thus, the view of the Holy Spirit as a mere force may be misguided.
Contrary to the JWs beliefs, there is Biblical evidence about the triune of God. Many JW followers oppose the view of the Trinity because it is not exclusively mentioned in the Bible. Instead, they base their views on Catholic Encyclopedia and revisionist history to prove their arguments that the Trinitarian teaching is entirely pagan. Nevertheless, several passages in the scripture suggest the existence of the Trinity. For instance, the Bible affirms the existence of the Father, Son, and the Holy Ghost in heaven, who are united as one. Hence, these accounts signify the triune of God. Understanding the Holy Trinity may be challenging for the human mind. The nature of God is very complex; for instance, it is difficult to fathom how the universe was created in six days. It is also hard to explain how God became a human being through Christ. In the same way, Christians may be unable to comprehend the triune of God, but that does not rule out its existence.
Defense of Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion founded on the belief in one true God who is the maker of the universe. However, Christians trust in the oneness of God, who exists in three distinct entities as the Father, Son, and the Holy Ghost. Various evidence from the Bible supports the triune of God. For example, in Genesis 1:26, God says, Let us make man in our image, according to our likeness& This proves that God existed as a triune even before the world was created. Also, during the creation stories, the Bible states that God created man in his own image. These creations stories depict God as a triune and emphasize His oneness. Likewise, after the resurrection of Jesus and before he ascended into heaven, he urged his disciples to preach the gospel to different countries. The disciples were also to baptize Christians in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Thus, there is a lot of evidence in the Bible supporting Christians belief in the Holy Trinity.
The Bible portrays Jesus and the Father as different persons. Throughout the New Testament, there are instances where the scriptures show the relationship between Christ and God. Jesus describes the overwhelming love of God, who sent his only Son to save the world. The belief that Jesus was crucified and died to redeem Christians portrays him as a separate entity from God the Father. This is because God, who is perceived to be in heaven, sent Jesus to earth to redeem humanity. Also, in Jesus teachings, he asserts that all things have been given to him by his Father. He also stresses that no one has the knowledge of the son apart from the Father, and nobody knows the Father except the Son. 24Similarly, Jesus explains the unity of the Father and the Son by stating that the Son only follows what the Father does. The verse proves that God and Jesus Christ are distinct forms, yet they are united as one. Therefore, many accounts in the New Testament depict the existence of God in two distinct forms (Father and Son).
Christians perceive the Holy Spirit as a separate entity from the Father and Son. According to the Bible, the Spirit of God existed even before the universe was created. The scripture gives an account of how the earth was empty and covered in darkness while the Spirit of God drifted over the water. Additionally, during Jesus ascension into heaven, he promises to pray to God to send another helper who will dwell with the disciples and help them spread the gospel. The helper is perceived as Gods Spirit whose purpose is to guide Christians to abide by Gods teachings. The Bible also describes Christians as Gods temples within which Gods Spirit lives. Another account in the Bible asserts that God sent the Holy Spirit who dwells amongst the Christians. These verses depict the Holy Ghost as a distinct entity from the Father and the Son. This is because while God and Christ are professed to be in heaven, the Holy Spirit lives among the Christians.
The Bible portrays each entity of God as having a distinct divine function. Throughout the scripture, Christians can understand the role of God, Christ, and the Holy Ghost. The Genesis accounts of creation depict God the Father as the creator of the world. He created birds, fish, trees, the sky, and human beings, amongst other creatures. The role of Jesus described in the Bible was to save humanity from sin and restore a good relationship between Christians and God. This is portrayed through the New Testament, where Jesus teaches about the kingdom of God and how to communicate with God through prayer. On the other hand, the divine function of the Holy Spirit is to guide and comfort Christians as well as to intercede for them to God. The Holy Spirit also fills Christians with love, joy, peace, and happiness. Hence, Christians believe in the concept of the Trinity because each entity of God performs its own distinct functions.
Despite the existence of God in three forms, the scriptures emphasize the oneness of God. The trinity assists Christians in comprehending the complex nature of God. Even though God exists in separate entities, the Bible portrays him as one. In his teachings, Jesus emphasizes that he is one with the Father. Jesus also teaches his disciples that whoever has seen him has seen God because he (Jesus) is in the Father, and God is in him. Regarding the oneness of the Holy Spirit and God, the scriptures liken lying to the Holy Ghost as equivalent to deceiving God. Additionally, the Bible shows that God is the Spirit who brings freedom to Christians. Therefore, Christians believe in the Trinity because different accounts from the Bible support this view. However, although God is portrayed to exist in different entities, the scriptures emphasize the oneness of God.
Conclusion
The worldview of JW developed and was formalized in the 19th century. This was the period when the ideas of premillennialism were common in the United States. It was also when most believers expected the return of Christ and the imminent Armageddon. However, when the second coming of Jesus did come to pass, as earlier prophesied by William Miller, the Adventist movement disintegrated into different factions. JW adherents started meeting in private homes to discuss scripture and developed a unique interpretation of the Bible that differed them from the rest of mainstream Christian denominations. One of the major differences between JWs and Christians beliefs is the trinity doctrine. While JW adherents think that Jehovah is the true God and that the Son and Holy Ghost as distinct beings, Christians believe in the oneness of God, Christ, and the Holy Spirit.
Bibliography
Bible, New International Version (NIV)
Christadelphia. Historical Background of the Trinity. Christadelphia World Wide. Web.
Deigloriam. A.M. Gods Messengers. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock, 2021.
Elliott M. Paul. What Do Jehovahs Witnesses Teach About the Trinity? Teaching the Word Ministries. Web.
Hull, Timothy. Faith and Modern Thought: The Modern Philosophers for Understanding Modern Theology. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2020.
Jehovahs Witnesses. Should You Believe in the Trinity? Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Web.
Knox, Zoe. Jehovahs Witnesses and the Secular World: From the 1870s to the Present. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
Lucci, Diego. From Unitarianism to Deism: Matthew Tindal, John Toland, and the Trinitarian Controversy. Open Edition Journals, no. 35 (2019): 1-31.
Smith, Gary Scott. American Religious History: Belief and Society through Time. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2020.
Tan, Carolyn E. L. The Spirit at the Cross: Exploring a Cruciform Pneumatology: An Investigation into the Holy Spirits Role at the Cross. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2019.
Christian entrepreneurship is an aspect characterized by special principles of following biblical values in the process of business management. However, not all entrepreneurs realize the true purpose of their work and may interpret their authority incorrectly. As Keller and Alsdorf (2014) note, when using all available resources to achieve their goals, business owners can ignore biblical precepts and forget what the real source of power is. This proposal is aimed at exploring the problem of the failure to address biblical rules in entrepreneurship through applying relevant methodological principles and an appropriate design for building an optimal research course.
Background of the Problem
Due to the fact that many entrepreneurs cannot clearly identify their work goals, they often neglect the Christian rules that define the service to God as the main task. Keller and Alsdorf (2014) draw particular attention to business owners overemphasis on power, which they take for granted and may misuse. In this regard, entrepreneurs inability to follow the biblical precepts in their practice creates the problem of not understanding the true source of power and, therefore, violating Christian rules.
Problem Statement
The general problem to be addressed is the failure of Christians to understand the aim of their work resulting in the inability to serve Gods true commandments. Cailing (2018) states that Gods plans regarding human work are not restrictive, but any daily activity should not be contrary to the basic values laid down by the Creator. Grimes and Bennett (2017) note that people lack the knowledge of applying spirituality and religious values in the workplace to follow Christian covenants. In his research, Spangenberg (2017) argues that the Bible is interpreted by many Christians as the word of God but is not seen as a real manual giving specific advice and explaining the causes and consequences of certain actions. Rhodes and Pullen (2017) emphasize the incorrect behavior of individual entrepreneurs who, while running their businesses, perceive their own power as that comparable to the divine. The specific problem to be addressed is the possible failure of Christians within the business sphere to realize the true essence of their working purpose resulting in the possible inability of entrepreneurs to serve God responsibly and not to forget about the true source of power.
Conceptual/Theoretical Framework & Design
Based on the aforementioned problem statement, an optimal framework can be identified to explore the failure of Christians to understand the aim of their work resulting in the inability to serve Gods true commandments. Ali and Anwar (2021) propose a model that is based on job satisfaction and includes several variables to consider to identify specific correlations between them and determine the incentives driving employee behavior. Since the non-observance of Gods commandments in the workplace is caused by peoples internal beliefs, their personal motives and rationales should be viewed as the key factors influencing their organizational behavior. Therefore, a theoretical framework presented in Figure 1 is appropriate in this context and may help study the issue under consideration as accurately as possible.
Fig. 1. Theoretical framework
This design may help address the gap in the research area and prove that a theoretical background is an essential component of valid activities. Serving to God, whether in the workplace or in daily activities, reveals itself in the perception of incentives that affect peoples behavior. Therefore, analyzing different influences is an appropriate method to assess the issue under consideration and draw the necessary conclusions.
Research Paradigm
The concept of constructivism most closely matches the research perspective and helps analyze the tasks to be performed. In the context of this paradigm, one sets goals he or she can accomplish due to personal experiences and knowledge. Fletcher (2017) compares constructivism with positivism and argues that the former is based on viewing reality as entirely constructed through and within human knowledge or discourse (p. 182). As a result, following the idea of constructivism helps remain an observer but not an influencer, hence being open-minded.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this qualitative study is to evaluate entrepreneurs perceptions of their power and connect their opinions with Christian dogmas to find out whether business owners attitudes to their working purpose correspond to serving God responsibly. One of the central reasons for performing this research is the close relationship of religious beliefs to business decision-making, which, as Grimes and Bennett (2017) note, is a characteristic of many entrepreneurs. Therefore, revealing the connection between individual perceptions of power and real implications for the practice of serving God is a relevant topic to study.
Significance of the Study
The importance of the proposed study is due to the potential prospect of identifying specific trends in entrepreneurs leadership behaviors and determining which models of perception of individual power diverge from Christian dogmas about true service to God through work duties. Mabey et al. (2017) mention various leadership actions that are used to achieve desired results but contrary to existing ethical and religious norms, for instance, lying, competition for status and power, jealousy of our peers, blaming others, and some others (p. 761). The planned study may help find out whether participants support any of these workflow approaches to achieve their goals or whether they condemn such practices, as well as reveal members attitudes towards the Bible.
In addition, the findings of the study will help reveal the unique views of the participants involved on the phenomenon of power and its manifestation in the work process. The findings will contribute to highlighting relevant frameworks from entrepreneurs individual perceptions and will allow drawing conclusions regarding the extent to which people with the right to control and manage are able to control their powers. Keller and Alsdorf (2014) mention the approaches that are highly undesirable for personnel management, particularly coercion and guilt. Thus, the planned study will cover additional unethical and non-Christian practices to avoid.
Research Questions
Regarding the topic under consideration, by asking qualitative questions, one can research the lack of entrepreneurs awareness about how to apply spirituality in the workplace. Khurana et al. (2021) mention the deep meaning of Christian entrepreneurship and highlight its inclusive nature and specific forms of interpersonal interaction. Therefore, the following qualitative research questions can be utilized to create a framework for solving the analyzed problem:
What is the role of power in entrepreneurship from the perspective of serving God and following Christian canons?
Why do entrepreneurs forget about the true sources of power and perceive their strengths as expanded and unlimited?
What roles do Christian faith and religion play in the entrepreneurial process?
Method with Rationale
The analysis of the topic helps argue that a flexible method is the most appropriate practice to research the issue. As Spangenberg (2017) argues, Christian values are often treated differently by entrepreneurs, which explains a flexible design as a rational approach. Moreover, the problem at hand is individual in nature, and planning outcomes is impossible in advance, which also speaks in favor of this method.
Design with Rationale
With regard to the research design, a qualitative strategy is acceptable for solving the proposed problem. According to Rhodes and Pullen (2017), many entrepreneurs ignore biblical norms and build the entrepreneurial process based on an individual vision that can be different from that of Christianity. Therefore, information from the participants involved is the main tool for analysis, and numerical calculations are irrelevant in such a context.
Discussion of Design Method with Rationale
In relation to the design method, phenomenology is a suitable approach for such a study. Grimes and Bennett (2017) draw attention to entrepreneurs distinctive knowledge of what power is and how businesses should be managed to serve God responsibly. A phenomenological approach is based on analyzing the experiences of the members involved, and specific actions and behaviors can be assessed to identify general trends. Participants can report whether they adhere to some restrictions on the use of power, and these data may be utilized as the core of the analysis.
Conclusion
The proposal may allow analyzing the problem of the misinterpretation of biblical precepts by entrepreneurs and assessing their perception of power. Appropriate methodological principles will make it possible to conduct a valid study based on a specific theoretical framework and use constructivism as a research paradigm. A flexible method with a qualitative design, supplemented by a phenomenological approach to data collection and interpretation, will help answer the research questions posed and address the issue raised comprehensively.
Grimes, M. A., & Bennett, R. H. (2017). Christ-centered leadership: God-honoring leadership for committed Christians. Journal of Biblical Integration in Business, 20(1), 24-35.
Keller, T., & Alsdorf, K. L. (2014). Every good endeavor: Connecting your work to Gods work. Penguin.
A relationship, be it with another human being or with a divine entity in any religion, entails feelings and responsibilities. Taking a responsibility often involves rational reasoning, but feelings, on the other hand, are not precisely manageable. This characteristic makes them a source of confusion for many Christians. This essay will discuss what Christian faith says about handling feelings and emotions based on the Pauls Longing to See Thessalonians excerpt.
People are highly emotional creatures, and sometimes the power of what they feel surpasses their internal sources. In Christianity, a feeling or an emotion are not sinful in their nature as long as they are not acted upon (Laynton, 2015). In Thessalonians 2:17-20, Paul shows a prime example of having an intense longing for reuniting with his fellow Christians in Thessalonica, from whom he is separated for an undefined period of time.
However, the grief of not having someone around does not crush him because his faith in Jesus Christ gives him much-needed solace and the certainty that God will take care of the situation. According to Clapper (2010), a person is capable of having fleeting feelings but trusting deeper emotions. Thus, the key to walking the fine line between experiencing an overwhelming feeling and succumbing to it is commitment.
When a person makes a decision to give his life to Jesus Christ through baptism with the Holy Spirit, his or her top priority is no longer to serve their human interests merely but to build a deep and intimate relationship with God. Among many other benefits that firm faith offers are the ability to manage feelings and distinguish between what is temporary and what is right. When Paul longs for Thessalonians companionship, he puts Christ in the middle of their relationship and thus, gives his experiences a meaning.
Engaging Culture
The role of the church in spreading and upholding faith varies greatly depending on the branch of Christianity. For instance, Catholicism capitalizes on the ritualism and the involvement in the church community, which constitutes orthodoxy, whereas Protestantism prioritizes spiritual commitment over formalities. This essay will discuss the importance of orthodoxy and orthopraxy in church and how the church can be amended to provide better guidance to foster congruence.
Admittedly, one should not dismiss the orthodoxal part of Christianity which gives a persons convictions logical structure and the ideal. Orthopraxy is more of a practical commitment entailing making ethical choices and recreating the image of Christ in ones life through every action. Moreover, what all branches of Christianity have in common is the encouragement of a righteous lifestyle both in and outside the church, which leads to the conclusion that the significance of orthopraxy surpasses that of orthodoxy. Yet, it is safe to say that in theology, theory and practice are inseparable, and the church should be the one to build a bridge between belief and conscious behavior.
The power of conviction would only go as far as the church succeeds in enhancing its members engagement. In recent years, the numerical data on church participation revealed a certain decline (Voas & Watt, 2014). It would be only logical to seek ways to amend church life in a way that would compel people to engage more. Casidy and Tsarenko (2014) found that among the perceived benefits of going to church, people named spiritual growth and social connections, which are individual and group advantages.
In the case of specified church, the pastor could find it useful to organize more events for people of all ages which would both emphasize the main aspects of Christian belief and be generally entertaining. As for other examples, one could think of tea parties with discussions or youth Bible study groups out in nature. Even such simple changes could be decisive factors for people who wish to make better decisions but do not know how to embark on practicing faith alone.
Every worshipper needs to take time to answer the question as to what makes a good Christian. While this question may seem simple at first, especially given that there is plenty of resources including the primary source the Bible to which anyone can refer, there might be more depth to living in Christ. Just like in any other religion, in Christianity, there is a certain duality of what the adherents believe and what they act upon, which can be vastly different. The church should bring together identity, mission, and theology through building a tight-knit community in which people could connect, take after those who display good Christian qualities, and simply have fun.
References
Casidy, R., & Tsarenko, Y. (2014). Perceived benefits and church participation: A comparative study among regular and irregular church goers. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 26(5), 761-776.
Clapper, G. S. (2010). The renewal of the heart is the mission of the church: Wesleys heart religion in the twenty-first century. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers.
Laynton, R. (2015). An easy to understand introduction to Christianity. Staffordshire, UK: Companion Guides.
Voas, D., & Watt, L. (2014). Numerical change in church attendance: National, local and individual factors The church growth research programme report on strands 1 and 2. Essex, UK: University of Essex.
In todays society, religion significantly influences moral foundations and values, and thus can be called a force of progress. Organized Religion Debate features Alan Keyes and Alan Dershowitz, who candidly present their perspectives on whether organized religion provides the answers to 21st-century problems. Although Keyes and Dershowitz stand on opposite sides of the debate, they succinctly express their perspectives on religion and morality, the Bible and moral guidance, religion and politics, plus religions impact on the founding fathers (C-SPAN, 2000). The speakers further addressed several issues such as civil rights, gender and sexual orientation, poverty, crime, industrialization, and sexual orientation. While Keyes and Dershowitz depicted contrasting techniques and delivery styles, they provided multi-faceted knowledge that cut across various disciplines, contributing to an active, engaging, and rigorous debate. Religion serves as a powerful antidote to the problems of the modern world but faces several challenges.
Themes
Keyes opens with a disclaimer, which he offers partly as an effort to unravel the problems of the 21st century. Keyes points out the challenge of predicting the problems of the modern world and rather attests that I do see a challenge though, that ought to be fairly evident to us and that becomes increasingly acute because of some of the temptations& (C-SPAN, 2000, 10:35-11:00). However, Keyes should acknowledge that current trends and practices drive the future. For example, the 1929 stock market crash, government policies, plus world trade and money supply collapse caused the Great Depression. Therefore, the challenges of the current century could be predicted. Nonetheless, Keyes provides a strong argument that &our knowledge&does not equal the knowledge of the one who put all things in their places (C-SPAN, 2000, 19:34-19:47). For this reason, &we cannot allow power to replace our submission to Gods will& (C-SPAN, 2000, 20:29-20:31). Knowledge and power demand absolute certainty and people inherently make mistakes.
Furthermore, people often follow the religion they are born with, guiding their actions, beliefs, and practices. Keyes believes that the founders of this nation&had a particular wisdom&that we are all of us created equal and endowed by our creator with the foundation of our rights and justice (C-SPAN, 2000, 19:34-20:01). Conversely, Dershowitz argued that the founding fathers were ordinary people who discussed issues including slavery and sexism. Thus, from Dershowitzs view, Keyes mocked the Shintoists, Christians, Buddhists, and atheists who confronted issues such as cruelty. In this sense, Keyes attacked great individuals and articulated a correlation between morality and religion. On the other hand, Dershowitz articulated that morality cannot entirely coexist with religion because there are always going to be people who are not religious (C-SPAN, 2000, 23:48-23:56). Religion shapes the framework that distinguishes right from wrong, but this excludes non-believers, questioning the weight of the argument.
Despite contrasting principles, agnostics and atheists possess a sound sense of morality as religious believers. The converse is true: using religion for bad appeals, from God commanding Abraham to sacrifice his son to the conflict between Shiite and Sunni Muslims. In the United States, the case of sexuality gets increasingly challenged since it goes against Gods word. Religious institutions have autonomy over theological affairs but justifying rights violations can be greatly challenging. While Dershowitz posits organized religion as divisive, Keyes insists that it can override problems faced by todays society. Dershowitz provides a valid counter-argument that Religion does provide some answers to some problems&but organized religion particularly creates division (C-SPAN, 2000, 28:30-28:39). The use of organized religion for preferred appeals fails to equally respect individuals who can attain morality without religion.
The apparent relationship between religion and morality supports the belief in Gods existence. Keyes points out that a firm belief in God through all circumstances helps embrace the universal purview of justice and human rights. Religious belief or faith helps some people meet their spiritual and psychological needs such as getting comfort during tribulations. However, Dershowitz invokes rhetoric in Keyes assertions by arguing that the history of organized religion relies on constantly apologizing for misunderstanding Gods word. Religion failed to solve societal problems before and can continue to do so. For this reason, human rights stand strongly against religion. For example, the use of religion to justify gender and sexual orientation discrimination violates the freedom of expression. Dershowitz says that I dont know whether God exists. I dont know that. And I tell you one thing, I am not frightened of my beliefs (C-SPAN, 2000, 48:25-48:29). Respecting religious diversity and individual beliefs is essential in upholding a moral precept.
Delivery Style
The delivery of an effective and productive debate transcends logic and reason. Keyes and Dershowitz effectively delivered their arguments by taking advantage of key techniques. For one, both Keyes and Dershowitz used their voices meaningfully and expressively. Although Keyes spoke with appropriate loudness, his variation in speed adversely affected his delivery, including unclear articulation. In contrast, Dershowitz slowed down while presenting his counter-arguments to increase communication effectiveness with the audience. With Dershowitzs delivery, one can comprehend and synthesize every word, conveying careful reasoning. Despite the difference, Keyes and Dershowitz focused on sharing their ideas with the audience. Additionally, both speakers meaningfully used body expressions; Keyes and Dershowitz showed commitment and sincerity in the debate plus used gestures to emphasize key points and underscore transition. The speakers particularly used pauses to enhance the clarity of their points, enhancing audience engagement.
Keyes provided compelling arguments by attempting to take an ethical approach but failed to do so repeatedly. For example, Keyes occasionally attacked Dershowitz instead of criticizing his points, questioning Keyes credibility. Dershowitz retaliated by pointing out the absurdity in Keyes arguments through the use of Islamic rhetoric, He would be talking about the great needs of Islam. He would be talking about how when our young people go to war and kill Iraqis or kill Jews, they are doing it in the name of Allah (C-SPAN, 2000). Although Keyes crafted strong opening and closing arguments, he displayed information overflow and jumped from one point to another. On the other hand, Dershowitz balanced his points, providing concise arguments on morality existing without religion. Additionally, both speakers repeatedly rephrased their contentions to claim a misunderstanding of their arguments. Good argument delivery communicates confidence and clarity of thought.
Conclusion
Given the 21st-century problems, organized religions exist as a structure to rebel against and within. According to Keyes, organized religion compels people to embrace history, reminding them of the communal power in a society and the belief in God. However, social behavior, norms, and culture inevitably change, and so does religion. Political institutions often use religion to justify their actions, contributing to the growing distrust of organized religions. Dershowitz essentially argued that the existence of organized religions contradicts their core purpose, spiritual enlightenment. For instance, with organization comes oppression and power, thus, excluding a certain group of people. Generally, Keyes and Dershowitz provide compelling arguments on organized religion, leaving the audience with a point to ponder.
The concept of scientific discovery is often juxtaposed with religious dogmas; however, on closer inspection, one will realize that the two notions are often intertwined. In the first chapter of their book, The Soul of Science, Pearcey and Thaxton argue that Christian faith has inspired multiple scientific discoveries and revelations, therefore, leading to the development of new ideas (4). While the process started with Aristotles groundbreaking ideas, Christian philosophers and scientists would explore these ideas, later on, and contribute to the evolution of the understanding of the world by adding their perspectives. Namely, in the Middle Ages, the perception of science was slightly skewed due to the focus on the pursuit of the glory of God (38). Nonetheless, the evolution of scientific analysis continued, leading to the emergence of new concepts.
Since initially, the scientific inquiry received a powerful impetus from Christianity in its exploration of the nature of the world, it would be reasonable to believe that, with its strong presence in present-day society, Christian values will continue to drive scientific development forward. Though one could claim that the Christian faith no longer has a lasting and overwhelming power over people, its values remain the foundation for present-day ethics and principles of conduct. Therefore, while some of the aspects of the Christian faith may have an r4educed impact on peoples decision-making, Christian values remain engrained into the scientific community. Affecting a range of choices, from the ethics of beneficence and non-maleficence to the use of mathematical analysis as a set of foundational principles that lay at the core of the Creation process, the Christian faith has and always will advance science to a significant extent (Pearcey and Thaxton 27). Therefore, one may presume that science and Christianity will remain closely intertwined.
Work Cited
Pearcey, Nancy R., and B. Charles Thaxton. The soul of science. Wheathon: Crossway Books, 1994.
Everyone possesses a worldview greatly determined by society and culture, influencing their beliefs and actions. Therefore, a worldview is a collection of attitudes, values, and ways of expression about the society, environment, or world that inform individual thought and action. Four prominent worldviews include attitudinal philosophical, ideological, and religious worldviews that generally subscribe to differing approaches to knowledge. Overall, worldview is how an individual or a society interacts with the world around them to define major aspects of life, such as origin, identity, humanitys purpose, morality, and destiny.
Biblical Worldviews in Origin, Identity, Purpose, Morality, and Destiny
Origin
A biblical worldview is based on Gods infallible Word, the Bible that creates the foundation of Christian reality on the origin of humanity, identity, the purpose of life, destiny, and absolute moral truth. According to Genesis (1:1), God was the creator of the heavens and earth at the beginning. On the sixth day of creation, God created humanity out of the dust in his image and likeness to become a living soul with authority over all other creations (Genesis 1:26-28). Belief in God is a relative core doctrine of a biblical worldview that describes God to be the creator of the universe and humanity.
Identity
According to a biblical worldview, humans are unique from all creatures, and identity is ultimately bestowed and revealed by God. Man is created in Gods real image and granted authority over all other Gods creations. Therefore, humans are superior beings entrusted with Gods creation and image. However, the scripture does not describe that humans are of more importance than other creations but rather holds that they should take care of the other creations Genesis (1:28). Human identity is superior to all Gods creation in that it resembles Him and has authority over other creations but is not defined as more important.
Purpose
Individuals and groups strive to understand their purpose, guiding life decisions, influencing behavior, and shaping goals and direction. According to Christology, humanitys purpose is stewardship and dominion over other creatures to bring glory to God. Isaiah (43:7) highlights the ultimate purpose of humanity is to glorify God. Since men are created in Gods image, they are to fulfill their purpose through a life devoted to Him (Genesis 1:26-27). From a biblical perspective, the sole purpose of humanity is glorifying God through actions, decisions, and faith that align with the Word of God.
Morality
Morality includes the principles regarding the distinction between right and wrong and influences the conduct of individuals. In the Bible, morality is ethical laws imposed by God on humans that are subject to retribution and cannot be dismissed, diluted, or compromised (Romans 7:10-12). Differentiation of right and wrong behavior in Christianity involves determining the conformity of personal actions and faith to a set of principles and code of conduct dictated by the Bible. God sent his son, Jesus, to reconnect with sinners and set standards for righteousness (Matthew 28:18-20). Therefore authentic Christians acknowledge Biblical laws and Christ as the ultimate standard of right and wrong.
Destiny
In a biblical worldview, human destiny extends beyond earthly life and can either be heaven or hell, determined by personal choice and morality on earth. After death, the soul goes into a sleeping state until judgment day, when it will be either subjected to eternal life in heaven or damnation in hell. Gods sovereign will is for man to fulfill his destiny and acquire eternal life in heaven. God has a predetermined plan for everyone and is sanctified to achieve salvation (Jeremiah 1:5). However, the human was created with the capacity to make moral choices and decisions and take responsibility for them (Leviticus 5:7). In Christianity, the destiny of humanity is either heaven or hell determined by moral choices made on earth.
Conclusion
Biblically, humans should associate with each others in unconditional love, harmony, kindness, and compassion regardless of their differences. Jesus modeled kindness, compassion, and unconditional love to people holding differing religions by not discussing other religions and advocating for equality (Han & Varghese, 2019). The Bible commands that everyone should treat others as they wish to be treated (Mathew 7:12). Therefore, I should not be judgmental or mistreat those who differ in beliefs.
Drawing from Gods Word, I should act with kindness, prayers, and love towards a family member who is hard to get along with or unkind. Believers should love, pray for their enemies, and do well to those who are unkind (Mathew 5:44). Family is the foundation of Gods plan for happiness and righteousness since one cannot claim the love of God while showing hate or unkindness to others (I John 4:20). A family member who is mean and unkind should be prayed for and treated with love and kindness.
References
E.S.V., Bible. (n.d). The Holy Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments with Apocrypha.
Han, H., & Varghese, M. (2019). Language ideology, Christianity, and identity: Critical empirical examinations of Christian institutions as alternative spaces. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 18(1), 1-9.
John Winthrop, Anne Bradstreet, Mary Rowlandson, and Jonathan Edwards may be regarded as prominent Puritan/Calvinist authors of the New World. Regardless of the fact that they dedicated their works to philosophy, governance, social sciences, or personal reflections, their strong religious heritage was constantly reflected in their writing. In general, highly dissatisfied with the Anglican Church for idolatry and demonstrativeness in its worship, Puritans aimed to restore it on the basis of Calvinism. At the same time, considering that the individual features of every person that impact his worldview are unique, they inevitably influence the way in which he perceives and describes his relationship with God. The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the works of Puritan/Calvinist authors in relation to reflected themes and depictions of religion.
First of all, it is necessary to admit that the works of all authors based on their religious beliefs correspond with the main principles of Puritanism. Puritans emphasize the significance of self-discipline and unconditional faith for them, Gods will should be unquestionably accepted. At the same time, they believe both in the rationale of Gods punishment for sins and misbehavior and Gods mercy. This perception is vividly reflected in the work A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, written by Mary Rowlandson in 1682. In it, she describes her experience when she was captured by Native Americans in Lancaster in 1675. First of all, she emphasizes the difference between Puritans and indigenous people, writing that it is a solemn sight to see so many Christians lying in their blood, some here, and some there, like a company of sheep torn by wolves, all of them stripped naked by a company of hell-hounds, roaring, singing, ranting, and insulting, as if they would have torn our very hearts out (Rowlandson par. 4). Indeed, for Puritans, the Bible is regarded as supreme authority, and people who follow the Scripture are superior in comparison with others. At the same time, here, the author uses such imagery as a comparison to emphasize the difference between the innocence of religious people and the brutality of infidels.
Puritanism believes in salvation and damnation predetermined by God on the basis of a persons actions in his earthly life. When Marys eldest sister is killed, she writes, I hope she is reaping the fruit of her good labors, being faithful to the service of God in her place, underlining that faith in God and good deeds will be rewarded after death (Rowlandson par. 3). However, one of the most vividly described topics in her work is Gods punishment and mercy. Rowlandson regards her captivity as Gods punishment for her careless attitude to religion. At the same time, she strongly believes in Gods providence, mercy, and help she constantly repeats that God was with me in a wonderful manner, carrying me along, and bearing up my spirit, that it did not quite fail (Rowlandson par. 8). Thus, for the author, God is almighty He entirely controls peoples lives punishing and supporting them at the same time.
A Divine and Supernatural Light by Jonathan Edwards is dedicated to Gods will and providence as well. In it, the author emphasizes the significance of the Lords ability to let a person carry and see a divine light. According to his doctrine, there is such a thing, as a spiritual and divine light, immediately imparted to the Soul by God, of a diferent Nature from any that is obtaind by natural Means (Edwards 4). This light can be seen by other people through the spirit, and this light determines a persons devotion for instance, a sinner will feel repentance if he is filled with light. The divine light allows a spiritual man to see Gods glory. At the same time, the ability to see the divine is regarded as an expression of Gods grace available only for selected individuals. These notions fully correspond with Christian beliefs in Gods salvation sent to people through his prophets in order to ensure His presence and mercy. Using epithets and metaphors, the author explains that God is a source of knowledge, wisdom, and beauty; spiritual people perceive Gods love through the light rather than rational judgment and common grace.
Gods will and providence are reflected in the sermons of John Winthrop as well. Thus, in his A Modell of Christian Charity, he reflects Gods order, which should be followed by people: God Almightie in his most holy and wise providence hath soe disposed of the Condicion of mankinde, as in all times some must be rich, some poore, some highe and eminent in power and dignitie others meane and in subjeccion (Winthrop par. 1). In other words, it is the Lord who decides what characteristics a person will have. Thus, in this work, Winthrop depicts Puritan beliefs in predestination and the concept of manifest destiny.
Finally, Puritans total trust in Gods love and providence is reflected in the poems of Anne Bradstreet. In By Night When Others Soundly Slept, he addresses God as the only savior who wipes the tears of His followers and takes away their sorrows (Bradstreet). At the same time, in the authors words, such as My hungry Soul he filld with Good; He in his Bottle put my tears, My smarting wounds washt in his blood, And banisht thence my Doubts and fears, it is possible to detect the contrast between the womans state and Gods actions. Thus, these word refers to another Puritans belief, which is original sin. To be precise, people are regarded as innately sinful; they should work hard to deserve Gods mercy. Using a rhetorical question ( What to my Saviour shall I give Who freely hath done this for me? ), the author expresses a Puritans enormous gratitude to her Lord for His mercy.
All in all, from the analysis of the works of Puritan/Calvinist writers, it is possible to state that all of them reflect the main principles of Puritanism, such as beliefs in salvation and damnation, Gods grace and mercy, providence, and original sin. At the same time, there is a peculiar difference between these works from a personal perspective, this difference implies the authors attitude towards the role of people in their relationship with God. This, Edwards and Bradstreet depict an unquestionable power of the Lord and peoples duty to obey His will. In turn, Rowlandson and Winthrop address the ability of peoples will to impact Gods providence and grace. For instance, Rowlandson admits that Gods providence had changed when she decided to be released in a respectful way rather than escape. Similarly, Winthrop emphasizes peoples responsibility to create a society to please the Lord through justice, mercy, and brotherhood.
Many people practice wearing a turban, and this headpiece is common in a variety of ethnic and religious groups. Turbans are mostly worn by men in multiple African and Asian countries. Reasons for wearing such headwear can be to honor ones God or to adhere to ethnic traditions. The most prevalent example of turban-wearing people in the US is Sikhs a religious group that practices Sikhism.
The history of this faith system started when Guru Nanak Dev Ji attempted to address the conflict between Islam and Hinduism (Dhillon 1). He introduced the idea that all people are equal before One God to whom all religious paths lead in the end. Sikhs wear turbans in multiple styles, but the purpose of this accessory is to connect the person with their religion. The turban hides Sikhs long uncut hair that they grow out in respect of God (Dhillon 2). It is one of the main symbols of the religion, and both men and women have to uphold this tradition regardless of their occupation or location.
Choice and Feelings
I chose to wear a dastaar, a traditional Sikh turban that is worn by all followers of the religion. I selected this type of turban from many others because Sikh people have to wear this headwear at all times and not just on special occasions. Therefore, their beliefs imply that Sikhs do not have an opportunity of disregarding this accessory if they want to adhere to the standards of their faith. This choice places them in a position where their cultural and religious heritage is always represented in society.
When I was putting the dastaar on, I noticed how difficult it was to make it look authentic and believable. Sikhs perfect their technique for years, and their headwear is much more complicated that is may seem. I felt somewhat uncomfortable when looking at myself with the turban on since I did not feel a connection with this piece in the same way that Sikhs do.
Reactions
I went to multiple public places to see how peoples reactions might differ. First, I went to a large mall and entered different stores. While there, I noticed some people looking at me, but most of them turned away if they noticed that I looked at them in response. Nobody approached me to talk or comment since many people were walking rather quickly. Then, I went to sit at a bus stop for some time.
Similarly, people appeared to be suspicious of me, but nobody wanted to talk to me. Nonetheless, although I did not face any confrontation, I felt uneasy and nervous when sitting in crowded places or walking near groups of people. It is unclear to me whether my feelings were caused by people paying more attention to me and my headwear or my thoughts about what someone may say or do to me.
Value
This experience allowed me to understand how easy for people to link others appearances to some prejudices. Sikhs clothes and hair are often attributed to other cultures and religions, although they do not have much in common. In turn, these connections are perceived as dangerous by people who think that individuals of a particular religion (such as Islam or Sikhism) all behave and think similarly.
Dhillon provides examples of Sikh people being the victims of crimes that followed the September 11 tragedy (3). The hours during which I wore a turban were filled with nervousness that I would be exposed to a person who did not see a difference between a regular person and a criminal. As a result, I was able to gain a deeper understanding of how judging someone by their appearance could be dangerous and life-threatening.
Work Cited
Dhillon, Jasleen. The Effect of the 2016 Presidential Election on Sikh-Americans Perceptions of Safety in Texas. SMU Journal of Undergraduate Research, vol. 2, 2019, pp. 1-4.
Social class as a determinant of religious expression
Social class determines religious expression in that the adherence of a person to certain religious beliefs is correlated to his or her position in the social class he or she belongs. People in the non-working class tend to be more conservative in their religious beliefs. Sectarianism is a term that helps to describe this fact better, which refers to a form of organization of religious beliefs that is common in the lower class. Religious beliefs and doctrines of the traditional churches tend to meet the needs of people in the upper classes (Campbell & Putnam, 2010).
On the other hand, evangelical churches offer a fantasy world in order to meet the needs of its working class. People with poor social-economic backgrounds tend to associate themselves with activities of sect-type religion. In Great Britain, it is also observed that the majority of poor people comprise a greater percentage of sect churches (Johnstone, 2007).
In the United States of America, there is a notable difference in the involvement of religious activities among people in different social classes (Honeycutt & Sheldonand, 2011). People in the middle class are more oriented toward traditional beliefs and tend to engage in insect activities. Social class determines religious participation because high-class people tend to participate more in voluntary organizations.
There is always a high correlation between membership in such organizations and religious beliefs and churches linked to particular social classes. People from the middle class tend to work at different times with many organizations, which include churches. People from these middle class also tend to join church organizations and activities voluntarily. Religious expressions vary with different social classes (Campbell & Putnam, 2010).
For example, members in protestant churches in the middle class prefer formal organizations when it comes to church activities. On the other hand, people in the working class who confess protestant faith prefer expressing their religious beliefs in an emotional, spontaneous style.
Members being less expressive in their religious behavior characterize main denominations in the United States of America. Extreme commitments, on the other hand, characterize membership in sect denomination where members are more involved to the extent of affecting other aspects of life. Members in sect denominations, unlike those in churches, are more psychologically involved at a personal level. Secularization through the church activities for members in the middle class has also caused a correlation of religious expressions and social class in the United States of America (Honeycutt & Sheldonand, 2011).
In a society that has both privileged and underprivileged people, the common trend is that underprivileged people tend to join religious organizations that are organized while privileged people prefer traditional beliefs. Religious expressions are related to the needs of people in different classes. For example, people whose social class is low and are undergoing frustrations in life engage in religious styles that are more involving (Johnstone, 2007).
If a person is socially underprivileged, he is likely to join a sect in order to gain increased status where they feel they are equal to other people in the society or even recognized as spiritual elites to be emulated by other people. When such underprivileged people join the sects, they perceive other people outside the sect as sinners. However, both lower and higher social class members have alternatives to their needs and frustrations and, therefore, may opt not to join any religious sect (Honeycutt & Sheldonand, 2011).
Gender as a determinant of religious expression
In many religious beliefs, there has been social conflict regarding the shaking of hands between members of the unrelated and opposite gender as a way of maintaining values in the religion. The related opposite gender allowed for handshaking includes spouses and members of the extended family. For Muslim scholars, the religion does not allow unrelated sex members to have physical contact. In Muslim society, adhering to the rules of avoiding physical contact does not cause any discomfort. However, adhering to the same rule can easily lead to social conflict for non-Muslims, even when transacting business (Honeycutt & Sheldonand, 2011).
Forgiveness is a virtue rooted in many religious practices where all people, irrespective of their gender, ought to have. However, through research, there have been differences in the level of forgiveness in females compared to males. Women tend to forgive more than males because moral reasoning is different for men and women (Johnstone, 2007). Females have their modal stage of development characterized by the desire to maintain relationships and to meet the expectations of other people. On the other hand, males go through their modal stage that is characterized by inherent desire to preserve law and order where people have to uphold law for social order (Johnstone, 2007).
The ethic of care is a common practice for many religious organizations and all people regardless of their gender should observe this virtue. However, when it comes to religious practices, females are observed to be more adhering to religious practices because they care to preserve relationships and meet needs of other people in the society and in churches. Males on the other hand like seeing justice exercised through fairness.
Females are also more religious than males and therefore use religion to promote good values, which are associated with religion such as personal forgiveness (Johnstone, 2007). When a conflict arises in marriage, women initiate talking while men are found to avoid it. This is a virtue correlated to religious practice. Women are better emotional managers; they prefer discussing issues to avoid conflict in marriage and therefore are more religious as religion promotes this virtue (Johnstone, 2007).
Females are more religious than males because in most churches, they are observed to engage in worship services more compared to their men counterparts. Women also attend player services and express more strongly their agreement regarding beliefs in traditional religious practices. Women also have more interests with religious practices and generally show importance of religion in their lives compared to men.
These differences occur because of the processes through social influence during training in sex roles at earlier stages in life. For example, the society expect women to practice submissiveness and be more nurturing to men especially in marriage, which are traits linked with religiosity (Johnstone, 2007). There is also a general expectation in the society that women compared to men should exercise expressions that are more religious.
Men and women perceive God differently especially on their reaction to female versus male God. For example, a study on men and women reaction towards Gods of different sexes revealed that the reaction of men towards God was more concerned with action while the reaction of women involved more of feelings than action. Skepticism and criticality as well as surprise in reaction towards a male God was less observed towards a male than in a female God, which is a concept that can develop in early childhood through socialization process (Johnstone, 2007).
References
Campbell, D., & Putnam, R. (2010). American grace: How religion divides and unites US. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Honeycutt, J. & Sheldonand, P. (2011). Impact of gender and religiosity on forgiving communication. Journal of Communication and Religion, (34), 59-75.
Johnstone, R. (2007). Religion in Society: A Sociology of Religion (8th Edition). Pearson: Prentice Hall.