Category: Religion 1596

Saint Marks Gospel is the shortest and the most volumetric text out of the four existing ones. His telling is in some ways similar to Mathews narrative, but some occurrences are presented in the other order, and the descriptions are shorter. The Gospel of Mark is believed to be the earliest one, and it was written for people facing suffering and persecution for their faith. The Gospel narrates the story of Jesus Christ and his fate; therefore, it includes various themes and descriptions of the ministry of Jesus. Mark repeats some topics in his textbook to pay more attention to them and gives the reader the opportunity to comprehend Christs lifetime correctly.

Mark reflects different topics in his Gospel, and some ideas are recurring and repetitive. The idea of kindness and disinterestedness are preached to people coming from Christ and hidden in some situations described in Marks book. It is depicted in the example of the poor widow (12:41-44) and through Jesus act of gradually returning the sight to a blind man to let him get used to the bright sunlight (8:22-26). Kindness is a significant part of Gods Kingdom, and the author proves that throughout his book in conjunction with his illustration of the Kingdom being a present reality. Mark continuously explains the essence of the Kingdom of God as healing the sick, casting out demons, healing the blind and crippled, feeding the hungry, and calling followers. One of the most repetitive themes is the description of Jesuss human nature, his feelings, and traits of character that make him the son of God.

In opposite to Christs human nature, Mark refers to the unreal part of the world. Attention is attracted to Gods Sons powers as well through his followers reaction to walking on water or dividing five bread flats and two fish among 5000 people (6:51, 52). Mark concentrated on Jesuss emotions while his crucifixion or when his family rejected Christ for his beliefs.

Although the authors text is not as specified in detail as the other three books in the New Testament, it pays attention to important occurrences and emotions. The textbook arranges them in the correct chronological order, which gives the reader a full understanding of Christs ministry and his lifetime.

The author attracts attention to various moral and biblical norms people should follow and describes different occurrences intelligibly. Mark wants the readers to know about the strength of Jesuss belief by describing his crucifixion. In Christs questions, the author sees not the doubts in God but the adherence to their own principles and persuasions even in the state of despair. Through his narrative, Mark expresses the idea of immediate discernment and rejection of irrelevant kindness from others as Christs followers have to be ready to forswear themselves and turn down their egoistic desires and aspirations. The author teaches us to follow in Jesuss footsteps and take his actions as a model. Some volume is provided to the institution of matrimony, where Mark explains Gods longing for stable and trusting marriages. Husband and wife need to stick to biblical principles and strengthen their love match instead of solving family issues through divorces. As Mark was the apostle Peters friend but not Christs closest follower himself, his Gospel is written in an understandable language. Therefore, the book is oriented toward the implementation of biblical norms in routine life and on the release of day-to-day problems by prayers.

The Quran is a central divine book of Islam, written in the sacred language  Arabic. Many scholars believe that the message written within the passages of the Quran cannot be imitated since the Book is unique and contains universal knowledge. However, despite the initial beliefs, the Book can be compared to the other religions divine writings. This essay will discuss how Quran differentiates from the other religious texts in the context of history and its message.

The comparison will occur between the two sacred texts because of their similarities: Quran and the Bible. The first field of comparison would be the age of the known fragments of the books. As stated in the article of Coughlan, the most aged pieces of Quran have been found near the Birmingham University, and it is as senior as 1,370 years (Coughlan, 2015). These manuscripts indicate the approximate date of the founding of Islam, and these parts are believed to be written by Muhamad himself. However, the oldest Biblical text is the 2,000-year ancient scroll (Griffin, 2016). The manuscript consists of passages from the Book of Leviticus. The Bible was presumably written by God, who inspired regular people to write in His name. Therefore, Quran is a younger sacred text than the Bible.

The role of women within both texts is an interesting part since, despite the initial beliefs, it is Christianity that deems women inferior to men and not Islam. The first story of the Bible uncovers the creation of Adam and Eve, where Adam was created from the soil and Eve  from the rib of Adam as his helper, which made her inferior and submissive. Moreover, it was Eve who was initially faulted for the First Sin since the devil chose her to spread disobedience. Therefore, females were bearing the fault of the First Sin, which is why, according to the Bible, they had to bear the pains of childbirth as a punishment:

I will make your pains in childbearing very severe;

with painful labor, you will give birth to children.

Your desire will be for your husband,

and he will rule over you. [Genesis 3:16]

On the contrary, Islam establishes equality between a man and a woman. It is described how God created both, from a single soul; and from it, He created its mate, and from the two of them He spread abroad so many men and women. [4:1] He also says: Mankind, we have created you all out of a male and a female. [49:13] Moreover, in Islam, the same episode of the First Sin is interpreted differently since it is showcased that a male and a female are equally responsible. Islam charges both sexes the same, both have equal requirements before God, and they are similar in receiving the reward.

Both sacred texts had the figure of Jesus appearing; however, the difference between them is in the role of Jesus. Within the Bible, Jesus plays a major part in the New Testament and most of the occurrences within the Bible is connected to the figure of Jesus. Nevertheless, Quran shares an opposing view on the holy person, and he appears as the messenger of Allah, who was saved from crucifixion. Therefore, in Quran, no person is at least close to the divine Allah. In Bible, Jesus Christ performed miracles and was resurrected by God. However, in Quran, there was no such thing. Within the Muslim sacred texts, Jesus, son of Mary, was not a divine entity. Instead, he was just a man, a messenger to Allah, a person with no exceptional powers except for his belief.

Bible and Quran both share the afterlife beliefs with slight differences. Both sacred texts describe how only true believers are worthy to enter the gates of heaven while the rest will burn in hell. Both sacred texts describe the concept of respect for the parents. Honor your father and your mother so that your days may belong to the land that the Lord your God is giving you. [Deuteronomy 5:16]. We have entrusted the human being with the care of his parents.

His mother carried him through hardship upon hardship, weaning him in two years. So, give thanks to Me, and your parents. To Me is the destination. [Luqman 31:14]. Furthermore, both texts preach modesty among women of the religion. In Christianity, female was obligated to cover her hair and wear vail while praying since she was considered the source of sin. However, Quran specifies that a woman should be covering herself for the purpose of not being abused. Every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her headit is the same as having her head shaved. For if a woman does not cover her head, she might as well have her hair cut off; but if it is a disgrace for a woman to have her hair cut off or her head shaved, then she should cover her head. [Corinthians 11:5-6]. O Prophet, tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to bring down over themselves [part] of their outer garments. That is more suitable that they will be known and not be abused. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful. [Ahzab 33:59].

One more difference between the Quran and the Bible is the view on polygamy, which is the practice of having multiple wives or husbands simultaneously. Possessing lots of husbands is strictly prohibited both in Quran and the Bible, but having several wives is allowed in the Muslim sacred texts. In Bible, the marriage is allowed between a man and a woman, which possess each other and become one flesh, one soul. However, in Quran, a man could have multiple wives as long as he keeps all of them satisfied in every sense. The Bible and Quran also differ when it comes to the divorce process and re-marrying. Christianity highly discourages divorce and views it as a sin: I tell you that anyone who divorces his wife, except for sexual immorality, makes her the victim of adultery, and anyone who marries a divorced woman commits adultery [Matthew 5:32]. Although within Quran, divorce, and re-marrying are permitted, it is often discouraged, and it is regarded as the most hated of permissible things by Allah [Surah Talaq 65:1].

To conclude, Bible and Quran share some common ideas and worldviews. However, the core ideas of both sacred texts are different, since one proclaims that the woman is sinful and should suffer more than man as punishment, while the other commands respect for the women. In Quran, Jesus appears as a secondary figure, since within the sacred text of Muslims, one can understand that no entity can be more religious than Allah. In Bible, Jesus is the son of God, an entity similar to God in power and influence. Overall, as a younger religion, Quran appears to be more progressive and relates to the society of that time.

References

King James Bible. (2017). King James Bible Online. Web.

The Quran. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, Oxford UP, 2005.

Coughlan, S. (2015). Oldest Koran fragments found in Birmingham University. BBC News. Web.

Griffin, A. (2016). Scientists finally read the oldest biblical text ever found. Independent. Web.

Civilization is the process by which a human society or location attain an efficient form of development and prosperity and structure. While human civilization is vast, fundamentally every society is sustained by the fundamental foundations of classical religion, learning, and the family. Classical theology is one of the most significant cornerstones in my opinion, and it will face the most opposition and/or support when sociologists try to implement reforms (A. Zakrutko and L. Zakrutko 237). Religion refers to the values, ideals, and activities associated with holy or spiritual matters.

Religion is the key, in my opinion, because it has always played an important part in many cultures throughout history. There are numerous reasons why beliefs have performed such an important part in establishing a societys culture. The most noteworthy of these reasons is that believing or hope in a spiritual or heavenly force can provide purpose and value to many peoples mundane lives. This effect is particularly prevalent among persecuted individuals.

One of the factors why oppressed humans have a strong proclivity to keep firm religious views is that their spirituality can provide them with a message of optimism and a purpose in life, despite the horrible situations of torture. This can be seen in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic communities. All three of these communities have been exposed to various sorts of persecution at a certain juncture in their eras. Despite this, numerous archaeologists have highlighted the communitys unshakable religious convictions as one of the key factors of their tenacity.

I regard myself as a progressive scholar, considering everything expressed in the essay. This is due to my support for advocacy, advancement, development, progress, and transformation. I am resistant to things remaining as they are, particularly in social considerations. I contend that there is no civilization without spirituality. I establish this by reference to historical events, which demonstrates that, at the maximal ages of development, there has always been a type of profound religious ritual.

Work Cited

Zakrutko, A., and L. Zakrutko. Scientific support of the most widespread and socially significant diseases in 2016. Porto Biomedical Journal, vol. 2, no. 5, 2017, p. 237. Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health).

Paul wrote to the church in Rome when Jews were coming back to the city after their expulsion. A new emperor had assumed control of the empire, replacing the one who had dismissed the Jewish leaders. Besides, the Gentiles became in charge of the churchs leadership and changed the practices, for example, not observing the Judaic laws on food and worship.

Thus, they divided the house of prayer based on tribe and cultural background. Paul also writes after he has completed his missions in Asia and wanted their help in his next tasks (DeSilva, 2018). Knowledge of this background helps readers understand the rhetoric Paul uses while talking about transgression and salvation. They can understand why he goes to a great length trying to bring together the two groups  to win their loyalty and get help.

The text appeals to cultural concerns such as social roles by dictating the expected behavior of a believer. As Paul writes, a Christian cannot live in sinful ways but they should do it righteously as Christ. Additionally, it calls upon the parish to obey God as slaves obey their masters. Moreover, he challenges the temple to retain purity since they have received their salvation from the death of Jesus. Thus, the writing stands in tension with the traditions and beliefs of the sanctuary.

Furthermore, the Jews believe their salvation comes from observing Judaic laws, while the Gentiles disdained all the rules. Lastly, the factions did not think of themselves as similar, especially not as sinners (Ryliakyt, 2019). Therefore, Pauls message saying they have been united in sin and can receive salvation equally by grace is not in line with their usual perceptions.

References

DeSilva, D. (2018). An introduction to the New Testament (2^nd ed.). InterVarsity Press.

Ryliakyt, L. (2019). Gods mercy: The key thematic undercurrent of Pauls letter to the Romans. The Catholic Biblical Quarterly, 81(1), 85105. Web.

The Bible is the book of eternal wisdom and experience; it is the source that can provide answers to all questions if one is faithful enough and if he/she takes a deep look at the endless wisdom embodied in words. It is impossible for one person to convey this eternal wisdom since one man cannot be a wisdom-bearer; this is why the authorship of different parts of the Bible is ascribed to many people. The Gospels present special interest for the present research since they are the sources offering information about the earthly ministry of Christ. The word Gospel means good news and they are the true literary and spiritual masterpieces. Though numerous gospels were created, only four of them were recognized as those created due to divine inspirations: the Gospel of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John. If the first three Gospels are recognized as synoptic Gospels, that means viewed together, those that have a common view (Nickle 43), the Fourth Gospel differs greatly in many important aspects, such as style, theme, presentation of the order of events, etc. What is more, the Fourth Gospel was once considered heretical (Lierman 144). Thus, the comparison of the Gospels promises nontrivial results. As for the choice of the Gospel of Mark, it may be explained by the fact that this Gospel is considered the basis for two other gospels, thus being the primary source. The analysis will be multidimensional; four aspects of theology will be applied: Christology, Anthropology, Soteriology, and Eschatology.

If the Gospels narrate about the earthly ministry of Christ, it is necessary to consider the aspect of Christology in both Gospels since the personality of Christ is presented by Mark and John in different ways: the first emphasizes Jesus human nature while the second puts emphasis on Christs deity. In the first place, it is necessary to mention that virgin birth is not mentioned by Mark in his Gospel. There was the hypothesis that suggested that Jesus was adopted by God as his son at his baptism. Probably this accounts for the fact that the first event mentioned by Mark is Jesus baptism: Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee, and was baptized of John in Jordan (King James Version Mk 1: 9). However, the point of view was found heretical later. Thus, Christ is the Son of God that has a divine descent but human nature as presented by Mark, as God addresses him for the first time after his baptism: Thou art my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased (Mr 1: 11). In fact, the explanation of the term Son of God is needed. Marks point of view concerning Jesus may be compared with the notion of demigod due to the similarity and synonymy of the notions and images of Christ if compared, for instance with Heracles as the son of Zeus. Thus, Christ presented by Mark is the hero sent by God to save humanity.

A significant detail is that Mark calls Jesus Son of Man (Mr 10: 33), Son of David (Mr 10: 47-48) that proves his human nature. There are evident episodes in the Gospel that show clear separation between God and his Son uttered by Christ himself: none good but one, that is, God (Mr 10: 18). The behavior and Christs appeal to the Father in Mr 14: 35-36 seems to reproduce the pattern of human behavior instead of the behavior of God.

As for the mission of Christ as presented by Mark, Jesus was sent as a martyr to heal humanity and to die for the sins of people. This is why, healing is especially emphasized by Mark, exorcism is the main function of Jesus ministry that may be proven by numerous cases of healing in the Gospel of Mark (Mr 1: 23-26), (Mr 8: 22- 26). Thus, it may be said that the focus of Jesus ministry is on the poor and suffering people as it may be proven by the above-mentioned cases of healing. However, this healing is not only physical, it is more spiritual as it is expressed by the episode of the healing of Bartimaeus, the blind beggar who was cured by Christ and follow Jesus in the way becoming his true disciple (Mar 10: 52). This case of healing is the manifestation of the aim of Jesus mission: spiritual healing of humanity.

The principal difference of the Fourth Gospel from the Gospel of Mark is in the divine nature of Christ and his embodiment of God. Jesus is the embodiment of the divine Logos. This is why Jesus is described as the Son of God from the time the Universe is created (Jn 1:34) instead of the time of baptism that is not mentioned by John at all because of its senselessness if Jesus is God. The divine nature accounts for the theme of the teaching of Jesus: if for Mark the main theme is the Kingdom of God, this theme is secondary for John, while Jesus himself stands in the center of teaching being its main theme. The common nature and equality of Christ and God may be traced in the following quotations: I am in the Father, and the Father in me, the Father that dwelleth in me (Jn 14: 10), I proceeded forth and came from God; neither came I of myself, but he sent me (Jn 8: 42). Thus, the mission of Jesus is to make people believe in Him as the Son of God as it is the way to achieve personal salvation. This is why there is no emphasis on exorcism or healing in the Gospel, Jesus is the center of the whole work, it may be seen even on the level of language that demonstrates the frequent use of I am by Jesus: I am the light of the world (Jn 8: 12), where I am, there shall my servant be: if any man serves me, he will my Father honor (Jn 12: 26). Johns emphasis on Jesus may be also proven by the fact that Jesus in the Fourth Gospel carries his cross himself while in Marks Simon carries it: Simon & who passed by & to bear his cross (Mr 15: 21), and he [Jesus] bearing his cross went forth (Jn 19: 17).

The question of the anthropological aspect is very important and the part assigned to human beings according to Mark and John should be determined as numerous contradictions may be observed in the Gospels concerning the human issue. As it has been mentioned above, Mark depicted Jesus as a human being that automatically increased the importance of a man in the Gospel. It may be assumed that a man is very powerful since a Son of man is able to cure people and forgive sins (Mr 2: 10). A man is even elevated to the level of Jesus, thus, to the level of Son of God if a man can become Christs family: For whosoever shall do the will of God, the same is my brother, and my sister, and my mother (Mr 3: 35). The only condition that should be met by a man is to follow the will of God, however, the generation of people described in the gospel is faithless and sinful, and it is in the deadlock and needs a healer, a Savior (Mr 2: 17). Human weakness is evident in the Gospel as people are compared with sheep without a shepherd (Mr 6: 34). It is necessary for people to come to believe in God, it is the only possible salvation.

John also states that human beings are not ideal, they should be born again (Jn 3: 7). In this matter, the views of Mark and John coincide, humanity needs salvation by means of healing or rebirth. However, Johns point seems more radical and pessimistic for humanity, he strictly divides people into those who can ascend top heave and those who are doomed to suffering due to their sinful descent: Ye are of your father the devil, and the lusts of your father ye will do (John 8: 44).

The above-mentioned position of John concerning two descents of people is decisive in his soteriology. Since Christ is the embodiment of God, he is the way to salvation. Thus, those who have faith in Him, will be granted life and salvation after death (Jn 5:25). Still, according to John, it is possible for a living person to acquire eternal life as well, it is necessary to get faith in Lord (Jn 11: 26). Thus, Jesus is the Savior, he grants salvation to those who are faithful.

However, the principal difference of the role of Jesus in the Gospel of Mark determines his soteriology that differs from that of Johns. Jesus is the martyr; it suggests the necessity of following his example, of bearing ones cross on the way to salvation. In order to get to the Kingdom of God, it is necessary to become pure, it is not by the incident that children are frequently mentioned by Mark as those who will get to Kingdom as they are pure. It is necessary to abandon sinful thoughts, earthly riches (Mr 10: 23) and one will be accepted to the Kingdom of God. Thus, both authors state that faith is needed to save ones soul. Still, Mark also asserts that not only faith but good deeds are needed for salvation.

The Eschatological aspect is presented by the authors in different ways: in the Gospel of Mark, the end of times is definitely coming, while John offers a more spiritual and philosophical view of eschatology. Mark says: in those days shall be affliction, such as was not from the beginning of the creation (Mr 13: 19). In his Gospel, the end of times is imminent, it is sure to come and it threatens with sufferings and pain. However, the time and place are unknown even to Jesus, God is the one who knows everything, and he will determine the flow of things (Mr 13: 32).

If Mark does not know the time of the end of times, John is able to give the time of resurrection already. He says that resurrection will come as soon as a person believes in Jesus for he is the resurrection himself (Jn 11: 26). Thus, spiritual resurrection is much more important for John, this is why he does not mention suffering, and he states that faith will grant eternal life as soon as real faith comes.

Drawing a conclusion, it is necessary to state that the texts of the two Gospels have a lot of evident contradictions. The authors apply different approaches to the character and place of Christ, to the role of humans in the world. However, it is impossible to state which Gospel is more reliable or accurate from the point of view of history but this is not necessary. Both Gospels stress the necessity of faith as the way to salvation. The Gospels evidently show divine inspiration in them, it is necessary to study all Gospels in complex to get a better understanding of the intention of God at the time he sent inspiration to Mark and John.

Works Cited

Lierman, John. Challenging Perspectives on the Gospel of John. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006.

Nickle, Keith Fullerton. The Synoptic Gospels: An Introduction. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster Knox Press, 2001.

Introduction

The Lost Letters of Pergamum is a collection of letters in which prominent people from the nobility and churches of the first century communicate and discuss various matters. In general, this book shows people writing letters about how Christianity gradually appeared and influenced the world around them. The plot describes the appearance of the first ideas of Christianity through persecution to recognition.

Society

In the first century world depicted in this book, society was divided into several layers. The desire for honor and patronage stood guard over the code of relations between patricians and plebeians. Therefore, Antipas, communicating with Luke and discussing Jesus of Nazareth, fears for his honor (Longenecker and Witherington 87). It seemed impossible to sacrifice social norms the way Jesus did, but it was this example that allowed looking differently at honor, reciprocity, and patronage. These categories are only a fraction of the total number of Antipas transformations. The influence of Christianity encroached on the pronounced segregation of society, in which the code of social honor was valued above all else. If Antipas first tries to ascribe more titles to himself, boasts of patronage, and promotes his city, he later moves away from this, increasingly showing love and care for the servants.

Antipas Transformation

Through the dynamics of the transformation of Antipas, it is clear that honor is not at all connected with the number of titles and positions in society. Moreover, reciprocity and patronage began to be expressed through love and not the condescension characteristic of representatives of the noble society. As a result, Antipas reaches sacrifices himself to save his brother, which confirms his belief in Christ.

First, a profound closeness to like-minded people in the houses of Calandion and Antony, later real Christian love awakens in Antipas, who increasingly understands the diametrical opposition of the society for which Jesus and the Roman society of the first century stood up. In addition, through Lukes stories about Pontius Pilate, the Pharisees, and the great fire in Rome, the personality of Christ is gradually revealed, which is why Antipas feels his increasing influence on himself (Longenecker and Witherington 59). These stories sounded new to the representatives of the Roman society of that time, built on old traditions, the reasons which were not so obvious. Christs actions are contrary to the code of honor and shame concerning sinners or tax collectors. In addition, Jesus was not always meek; he selfishly adhered to the principles of these anachronistic codes, which demonstrates his behavior in a society without culture.

Understanding the New Testament

The history and culture of the New Testament are presented here, not academically or religiously, which creates a sense of life. Styles, events, events, and even the communication style of the authors of letters better reveal their personalities. Imperial traditions collide with Christian teachings, and the reasons for the first persecutions, the development of Christianity, and the transformation of social thought become more apparent. The social code, which is often possible to lose humanity, mercy, and gratitude, goes into lawful oblivion. The imperial nobility, firmly holding on to such a foundation, is indignant, so there are reasons for the first persecutions. People who have gone through the transformation and are impressed by the new teaching no longer stop on their way because of shame, fear of losing privileges or title, or acquired property, but more value their kindred people. The New Testament with this book is now much better perceived as a real story with a hidden and very complex layer of problems.

The book quite vividly illuminates the events of the New Testament  this format for many readers will be more familiar and accessible than the original. Perhaps not all of the letters in the book are important for revealing the characters, but the atmosphere of that time is conveyed perfectly. I would recommend this book to other readers who are partial to the history of Christianity to look at it from a rather unexpected and unpopular point of view.

Work Cited

Longenecker, Bruce W., and Ben Witherington III. The lost letters of Pergamum: a story from the New Testament world. Baker Academic, 2003.

Viderunt Omnes is an old Georgian chant based on a biblical Psalm XCVII. It is sung as a gradual, which is a liturgical celebration of the Eucharist, mostly in the Catholic religion. The hymn is usually performed at the masses on such catholic and Christian holidays as Christmas and, historically, on the Feast of the Circumcision. Viderunt Omnes has been musically interpreted by multiple composers, the most famous being two from the Notre Dame School  Leonin and Perotin. In this assignment, the Viderunt Omnes version by the composer Leonin will be further analyzed.

Leonin wrote a two-part version of a Georgian chant around the XII century, making it one of the most prominent musical pieces of the Medieval Era. In each part of the composition, the lower voice sings the pre-existing melody and the top voice echoes the firsts singing (Buja, 2020). The listeners can distinctly hear the bare-bones structure of the work. The usage of lower and top agents in the melody creates such an impressive feeling that the text becomes something of secondary importance. The piece has a slow beat; however, the melody changes from part to part; therefore, it is not steady.

Leonins version of Viderunt Omnes is composed of organum duplum. In such musical setting, the rhythmic models can be easily identified and counted. In this musical piece, the combinations of long and short sounds make a vivid meter feel  trinity (Buja, 2020). It is difficult to unequivocally describe the texture of this musical piece. The simplicity of polyphonic music, as an identification of a chants texture, allowed particular sections of the composition play in unison.

The uniqueness of Leonins piece is identified with the prolonged performance of the prayer. Having listened to the whole piece of music, one can identify the main prayer and a chorus accompanying him. However, it is impossible to determine the exact number of voices heard. With twenty-two words of the original text, the composer ran for 12 minutes long, where each syllable took from 30 seconds to several minutes. Thus, Leonins version of Viderunt Omnes is a unique musical piece with individual parts and textures that became identification elements of Medieval music, particularly the Notre Dame School.

Reference

Buja, M. (2020). Stretching time, stretching meaning  Viderunt Omnes. Interlude. Web.

Historical Context

Both Anselm and Aquinas were significant religious leaders during the times when the church was a powerful institution. There are mentions of Anselm being acquaintances with the Pope and having conflicts with King Henry I, illustrating his importance in the medieval hierarchy (Himma). Moreover, Thomas Aquinas was described as being sought by kings, countesses, and other influential individuals at the time (Brown). Since the medieval period is illustrated as a time period when the catholic church was a major social, political, and economic force, Anselm and Aquinas were prominent figures.

Contrasting Overviews

Anselms authoritative approach contrasts with Aquinas less confident yet, nevertheless, religious overview. The main difference is the perception of God. Aquinas suggested people know God based on scriptures and their personal experiences, while Anselms ideas highlighted that people have an intrinsic understanding of his power. Moreover, Anselm tried to explain divinity through an almost scientific perspective, while Aquinas viewed such a concept as impossible. St. Augustine was a significant influence on Anselm, which is illustrated in the way both church leaders refer to their teachings as Christian philosophy (Himma). Moreover another crucial influence was the Platonian notion of participation which signifies peoples complete dependence on the creator and the current reality being temporary before eternity. On the other hand, Aquinas was influenced by Aristotles teachings, specifically when it comes to science (Brown). The common idea was that a notion is scientifically valid only if the science is correct.

Metaphysics: Religion and Science

The metaphysical question in regards to the ontology that appears to be more convincing in todays societal and historical context is that science is trying to look for answers while religious interpretations are never questioned. Due to the fact that the religious overview involves an answer to every question since God is omnipotent, the need to ask questions and try to find the truth disappears. On the other hand, the scientific approach involves curiosity and discovery, which contrasts with the spiritual one, which only requires belief.

Works Cited

Brown, Christopher M. Thomas Aquinas (1224/61274). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Himma, Kenneth Einar. Anselm: Ontological Argument for Gods Existence. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Pauls Letter to the Romans is acknowledged as one of the most important letters from Paul that presents the apostles systematic explanation of relationships between the Jewish and Roman Christians. The letter was purposed to explain salvation through faith and bring peace to both house churches. While reading and understanding Romans requires a thorough study of the letter, one should also concern the historical and cultural background of the letter. The book Reading Romans in Context addresses the issue with the collection of essays that focus on comparing Pauls Letter to the Romans with other Jewish writing from the period.

The book itself presents a collection of essays written by students of Durham University, collected and edited by Durham Ph.D. graduates Ben C. Blackwell, John K. Goodrich, and Jason Maston. Durham University is one of Englands oldest universities that originated as a church university, with a highly acknowledged Religious Studies department that holds high positions among world university rankings. Blackwell is an associate professor of Early Christianity who wrote many articles on Historical Theology and currently works at Houston Baptist University. Maston is a New Testament lecturer, and Goodrich is a Bible professor at Moody Bible Institute. Zondervan published the book with a collection of essays in July of 2015. Considering the editors similar backgrounds and approaches, one can identify that the collection essays can include potential biases or presuppositions commonly practiced at Durham University. However, in featuring twenty pieces from different authors, the editors minimized the opportunities for biases and predispositions.

The editors explain that their approach to Pauls letters was influenced by John Barclay, historian of early Christianity, and Francis Watson, theology and New Testament scholar. Both Barclay and Watson hold the position of professor at Durham University. The editors thesis, stated in the books preface, suggests that reading Pauls letter to the Romans alongside other nonscriptural texts from the same period can enhance and enrich the readers understanding (p.27). To illustrate the need to examine Pauls letter to the Romans in connection with other nonscriptural texts, the authors draw an example of Christian radicalism that can only be defined in related literature (p.25). Moreover, according to Watson, perceiving Pauls Letter to the Romans as an isolated piece diminishes its meaning (p.25). Therefore, the editors primary objective in this book was to illustrate the importance of viewing Pauls letter to Romans in historical and cultural contexts through comparing the letters with other relevant texts. Even though the thesis cannot be developed through the book that features several different essays, the essays are structured in narrative progression depending on which part of Pauls letter to the Romans they observe.

Furthermore, comparing the text of Pauls Letter to the Romans with other pieces from the Second Temple literature works cannot define whether Paul was writing the letters concerning the existing literature. However, comparing the letters with other pieces helps to develop an understanding of issues addressed by Paul and how these issues were perceived by Jewish people. Furthermore, to illustrate the importance of relevant literature, the authors state that most Jewish literature from the Second Temple period survived because it was preserved in Christian communities (p.24). Moreover, Jewish literature was translated to other languages as Christian communities acknowledged it as a beneficial context to canonical literature reading (p.24).

The essays featured in Reading Romans in Context explore a wide range of themes that emphasizes similarities between Pauls Letter to the Romans and relevant literature from the Second Temple era. For example, one of the essays written by J. R. Dodson pointed at the similarities in the personification of Grace, Death, and Sin in Pauls Letter to the Romans and personification of Wisdom in Wisdom of Solomon (p.131-139). Dodson suggests that for believers choosing to serve Righteousness as their lord is similar to the challenge of embracing wisdom instead of death in the Wisdom of Solomon. The similarity emphasizes the aspect of holiness in faith and the significance of the ability to resist sins.

However, while the collection of essays provides a significant amount of context for Pauls Letter to the Romans, sometimes comparing the texts has little to no relevance due to different approaches to the topic. For example, the same chapter that discusses the use of personification in Wisdom of Solomon and Pauls Letter to the Romans makes two conclusions (p.131-139). One of the authors conclusions focuses on how the pieces perceive the death of the Righteous one. The author determines contradiction between two pieces: in Romans, the crucifixion of Christ is perceived as freedom of those who were previously enslaved by Death and Sin. On the other hand, the Wisdom of Solomon defines the holy ones execution as an act of sin made out of foolishness, and all participants of the execution will be doomed forever. Such striking differences between the two texts can potentially make the interpretation of the text as well as its purpose more complicated and obscure.

Next, another chapter of the book, which presents an essay by A. Linebaugh, also compared Pauls Letter to the Romans with Wisdom of Solomon (p.57-68). The chapter examines how both pieces approach the apostolic announcement of Gods wrath. The chapter does sufficient work comparing the descriptions of divine justice in defining several stages of theological contact in both texts that have similarities. In particular, the author focuses a significant amount of his essay on determining the meaning of Gods wrath against all people and how it is related to the people of Israel (p.63). The authors finds suggest that Romans applied the wrath of God to all people with no differences between Jews and Gentiles as they all have sinned. On the other hand, the Wisdom of Solomon utilizes an opposite approach and focuses on opposing Israels innocence and immorality of non-Jews (p.66). Therefore, the chapter provides sufficient context to Pauls letter in emphasizing the immorality in all Adamic humanity, including Israel.

In conclusion, Reading Romans in Context presents a significant resource for additional context to Pauls letter to the Romans. However, the essay collection content can be beneficial to understanding the initial letters and misleading, as some additional details can be confusing for an average reader. Therefore, while the essays intelligibly explain the differences and similarities of Pauls letter and other literature pieces of the Second Temple era, its primary audience is scholars and overall people interested in the theme. The editors objective of conveying the idea that context can improve the understanding of Pauls letter is fulfilled in the book; however, not all featured essays can be perceived as sufficient context. Compared to other works in the same field, Reading Romans in Context presents a valuable joint scientific work of people with similar views. The book can be beneficial for the purpose of expanding personal knowledge in the field of study.

Abstract

The Making of a Leader by Dr. J. Robert Clinton explores the complicated nature of spiritual dynamics. The book provides readers with numerous accounts of leadership stories that are meant to serve as guidance for emerging leaders. In the first chapter of the book, Dr. Clinton describes five main stages that every inexperienced leader has to go through in the process of their maturing. Those are Sovereign Foundations, Inner Life Growth, Ministry Maturing, Life Maturing and Convergence. The author stresses that generalized timeline was developed by analyzing numerous individual patterns and, therefore, it cannot be applied to all cases. He also mentions that this is only a functional framework and that the process of transformation into a healthy and successful leader might be associated with the sixth phase that is called Afterglow or Celebration.¹

Dr. Clinton also identifies other foundational elements of the process of becoming a real leader: patterns, principles and activities. By providing a framework for describing areas of influence, boundary episodes and process phases, he helps the readers to explore their individual stages of development and gives them a fresh understanding of the touch of God in their lives.² Dr. Clinton stresses that God tests a character of an emerging leader by providing them with tests: integrity checks, obedience checks, word checks and ministry tasks. The writer argues that the submission process is essential for boundary transition between the Ministry Maturing phase and the Life Maturing process.³ He teaches the readers that Gods involvement helps the future leader to shift their philosophical basis for ministry from doing to being and make it the dominant power base.⁴

Dr. Clinton devotes an entire chapter to the discussion of guidance process and other miscellaneous processes that occur during various development phases and are related to the maturing stage. He stresses their importance by saying that even though some of those items can be perceived as negative experiences, they provide emerging leaders with the important lessons that are essential for those who want to go ahead and take action.⁵ The writer expresses his amazement at the amount of conflict he encounters during his travels; nonetheless, he reassures the readers that clashes with other peoples opinions as well as periods of crisis and isolation are Gods lessons that help acquire spiritual authority. Another important teaching that the book provides for those who are willing to lead is that maturity process is unavoidable and it will come out of the experience with God.⁶ The reader is also being admonished that personality of each leader is defined by the process of serving Gods purpose; therefore, those who want to minister have to be what God wishes them to be.⁷

Concrete Response

The book evoked in my memory a story of a crisis. It happened a couple of years ago when a member of my family developed an illness. I was particularly broken about it because I knew that before the onset of her disease our bonds were not strong. I still remember the evening when I said to her, I believe with all my heart in Jesus commitment to healing you, and I also want you to open your heart to me. I would like to bear your pain as my own and know that it will become Gods way of bringing us closer in illness. She told me that my tenderness and courage alleviated her suffering and anguish. Throughout the course of her illness, there never was a lack of prayer for her. I prayed both personally and collectively with the rest of our family and knew that our solidarity in time of crisis helped us to strengthen family bonds.

This situation allowed me to better understand what it might mean to minister in crisis. I realized that critical times are marked by a sense of responsibility that is heightened by increased pressure caused by a threatening loss. It became clear to me that I should not be afraid of those situations and treat them like Gods tests on my way to spiritual maturity. The crisis also taught me that if I want to minister to ill I will have to walk a mile in their shoes, admire their courage and strength as well as draw inspiration and encouragement from their stories.

Reflection

When reading The Making of a Leader, I found that the author did a great job of building a framework for the development of a leader and a role of Gods providence in this process. I immensely enjoyed his method of making scripture a part of the argument. However, even though Dr. Clinton admits that the book is observational and broadly based on his own and other leaders experience, it can be argued that the word leadership was employed in a rather narrow sense. I liked the personal touches he added to the book making it more intimate; nonetheless, I believe that many readers who are not willing to minister wondered if the lessons from The Making of a Leader could be applied to their personal life. Dr. Clinton could have made the book better by asking whether it is possible to apply some of the phases that every inexperienced leader has to go through in the process of their maturing for the purpose of guidance for an average reader. It can be argued that most of the processes described in the book could help to develop a personal philosophy of values.

I took a genuine interest in the content of The Making of a Leader; however, it was hard for me to maintain a learning posture throughout the entire book due to the fact that it was too technical and filled with numerous terms. I felt that by constantly adding new definitions, Dr. Clinton detracted from the cogency of his argument. He could have made it more appealing by streamlining it and reducing the number of technicalities. Nonetheless, I think that the book should be taken as a template for systemizing and conceptualizing the process of becoming a leader.

Action

In the sixth chapter of The Making of a Leader, Dr. Clinton admonishes the readers that they always have to be mindful about the concept that he labels with a special sensitivity. He titles it a sovereign mindset and explains that it is associated with the way of viewing life and lifes events with the focus on Gods purposes in them.⁸ To make his point clearer, the author provides an example of the Apostle Paul as one of the biblical leaders. The writer states that Paul had a unique leadership approach in which he always tended to see Gods hand in all events surrounding his lifes journey as a part of Gods plan for making him a real leader.⁹ It can be argued that Paul can serve as a perfect example for all aspiring leaders. Therefore, I decided to generalize his leadership approach and apply it to my own life.

To this end, I am going to devote three hours of free time per week to studying his life and missionary journeys in order to draw inspiration from the mature leader who was close to God. Paul wrote a major part of the New Testament thereby contributing to a wealth of wisdom for Christians around the world. The Apostle started preaching about Jesus Crist from the moment of his salvation and traveled many years spreading the word of God and opening churches in every place he visited. During long years of his mission, Pauls life was endangered many times; however, guided by God, he converted many gentile nations to Christianity. I believe that acquiring more knowledge about the Apostle will help me better understand myself and my personal journey. After all, one of the philosophy values that leaders have to develop is to always maintain a learning posture. Moreover, who could be a better example of a successful leader than the man who has been called the great apostle by numerous scholars?¹⁰

The second action step that I decided to take is related to Dr. Clintons challenge for his students: to develop a list of values. It was extremely interesting to find out about values that serve as guiding posts for his actions. The Making of a Leader inspired me to create my own list that would help me with making complicated choices and decisions. To this end, I am going to seek out solitude in order to create a list containing five values during the following month.

Bibliography

Cate, Robert. One Untimely Born. Macon: Mercer University Press, 2006.

Clinton, Robert. The Making of a Leader. Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2012.

Footnotes

1. Robert Clinton, The Making of a Leader (Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2012), 28.
2. Ibid., 46.
3. Ibid., 105.
4. Ibid.
5. Clinton, The Making of a Leader, 127.
6. Ibid., 145.
7. Ibid., 185.
8. Clinton, The Making of a Leader, 186.
9. Ibid.
10. Robert Cate, One Untimely Born (Macon: Mercer University Press, 2006), 1.