Category: Religion 1596

Introduction

Religion is an integral part of most societies. In the history of humanity, religions have influenced major parts of the way of life of most societies. In many societies, passing religious beliefs to the other members of the society is taken as major duty for existence. In accordance with this trend, religious education was adopted as part of curriculum in many countries.

In United Kingdom, religious education is mandatory for primary schools and some secondary schools. Various approaches have been adopted in teaching religious education over a long period. Confessional, implicit, explicit, evaluative, phenomenological and experiential approaches are the major approaches used in religious education in both primary and secondary schools.

In the recent past there has been interest in phenomenological and experiential approaches to religious education. Both of the approaches have strengths and weaknesses on how they approach religious education and how they integrate with other fields in education. This paper critically analyse phenomenological and experiential approaches to religious educations by analysing the assumption, methodology, strength and weaknesses of each approach.

Overview of Religious Education

Conventionally, religious education is used to refer to teaching of a specific religion. However, in other usage religious education is used to refer to the teaching of religion in general while religious instruction is used to refer to teaching of a specific religion. Religious instructions are common with most people; most people have received religious instructions in one way or the other (Francis & Kay, 1997, p31).

Religion is an integral part of each person. Most people associate with a certain religion; some people consider themselves as Christians, Muslims, Hindu and other religions. Even in a particular religion such as Christianity, people identify with different denominations such as Catholics, Anglicans, and Presbyterians.

These religious identities indicate that people are conscious of their religions and religion takes a central part of their lives (Francis & Kay 1997, p 47). Although human beings are considered to be innately religious, religious instructions are responsible for religious consciousness. Religious instruction offer believers in a certain religion the foundation through which to build their personal beliefs.

Building from religious instruction in various religions and denomination, religious education was adopted in educational programs. Unlike religious instruction that aim at building faith in a particular religious belief, religious education has to accommodate varied interest in religion (Taylor, 1960, p22).

The purpose of religious education in the society can be viewed in three fundamental perspectives. Foremost, it seeks to communicate to individuals who are not religious an essential understanding of religion.

On the other view, religious education seeks to help individuals who are religious to be able to understand themselves and their religious beliefs. Lastly, religious education also provides, to both the religious and non-religious, the importance of studying religion (Francis & Kay, 1997, p98).

The benefits of studying religious education are not only important to students but they are also important to adults since religion have a far-reaching influence both to young and the adults.

Approaches to Religious Education

Various approaches have been adopted in religious education in various parts of the world. Since religion is known for bringing divisions among communities, some countries do not include religious education in their education programmes.

For example, in China, religious education is only allowed in theological schools or schooled sponsored by various religions (Keast, 2007, p73). However, most countries is Europe include religions education as part of their education programmes.

Initially, religious education was viewed as instruction towards a certain religion. The instructions emphasized on theological aspect of religious education of a certain religion. Thus, religious education was offered through pastoral studied offered by different denomination such as Catholics and orthodox.

This approach assumed that all individuals were associated with a certain religion and aimed at providing knowledge that would promote faith. However, increase in diversity in culture and religions called for review of such approaches. Diversity in culture and religious beliefs increased interest by scholars who wanted to study religion as subjects (Jackson, 2004, p67).

Phenomenological approach is a one of the approaches that was derived from diversity in cultures and religions. On the other hands, experiential approach to religious education has developed with aim to correct weaknesses in phenomenological by emphasizing on common experiences in various religions.

Phenomenological Approach Religious Education

In a conventional way, phenomenological approach to religious education can be refereed to as a multi-faith approach to religious education.

This term give an explanation of the aim of this approach; to appreciate religious practises in various cultures and religions. Theoretically, the approach tries to give understanding to the seven basic dimensions of religion.

Doctrinal, methodological, ethical, social, experiential, artistic and ritual aspects of religion are explained with disregard to a specific religion. Thus, phenomenological approach does not aim at teaching religious beliefs or theology of a specific religion but help individuals understand the religious aspect of human beings.

The term, phenomenology as used in religious education developed from early scholarly work by Professor Chantepie in 1889. The term developed from a study made by the scholar that aimed at coming up with a broad definition of religious education (Jackson, 2004, p132).

The growth in diversity in cultures and religious practises by different people called for an approach that was broader than religious instructions to a specific religion (Keast, 2007, p87). The main aim of the Chantepies study was integrate common themes observed across different religions. The various religions under the study were referred to as phenomena of groups of religion.

This led to the use of phenomenological approach to religious education to emphasize on the observations observed from the study. Chantepie tried to explain the common phenomena such as prayers, sacrifices and aims of various religions practises.

The main motivation to the study was earlier philosophical work by Hegel that made distinction between essence and manifestation. According to Hegel, the essence of an action in taken into consideration when analysing how an action in manifested.

Accepting that there was the essence of religion, Chantepie aimed at underlining the different and varied manifestations of religion across common themes. Other theologians and philosophers also made similar attempts in twentieth centuries aimed and explaining the essence of religion in different societies regardless of how the religious practises were manifested.

Phenomenological approach has seven major accepted features that distinguish it from other approaches in religions education. The approach takes more emphasis on the observable aspects of religion and ignores the unobservable. Thus, the approach fails to recognize the grand system and emotions proposed by speculative thinking. Phenomenological approach does not support naturalism.

Naturalism was a development from natural science and advocate for view of religion in a scientific way (Barnes, 2001, p113). The approach justifies cognition; which advocate for awareness of matter as disclosed for something of its kind. Object in natural and cultural worlds, ideal objects and conscious life are believed to be made evident in through this approach.

In phenomenological approach, inquiry into a religion is viewed as encounter and is directed at the objects. Thus, religious study with the approach seek too find correlation between objects of different religions as manifested by different aspects of religion. Description rather than explanation of observations is emphasized.

Before 1970, religious education in most education systems in Europe was fundamentally ecclesial and theological. In most extent, the religious education was biased towards Christianity and Christian traditions. However, in twentieth century there was increase in globalization and migration.

This led to significant changes in composition of people in Europe that led to religious and cultural diversity. With these changes, theories and approaches that assumed Christianity as the foundation for religious education were challenged in their ability to accommodate cultural and religious diversity (Barnes, 2001, p89).

With multi-religious societies, and school systems, a different approach was essential. Such an approach had to be able to not only accommodate different religious groups but also explain religion in general. From this dilemma, religious educators, researchers and scholars expanded the religious educations beyond Christianity or any particular religion.

In essence, phenomenological approach to religious education is not used a pure theoretical form in religious educations. The syllabuses, textbooks and curriculum do not use phenomenological philosophy in a pure form but the philosophy influences the didactics and the way of thinking towards religious education.

The approach tries to emphasize on neutrality in studying religious education. The religious belief of the teacher or the students ought not to influence the study. The teachers are encouraged to discuss religion in a thematic approach that try to understand religion rather than appeal for any particular religion.

In one side, phenomenal approach concentrates on looking at religions in a theatrical way. In this approach theatrical topics are discussed and compared across different religions. For example, sacred space, festivals, rituals and ideas on divinity are compares across different religions. Different religions have varied religious beliefs and practices.

These variations may be motivated by different cultural and other backgrounds. By discussing the religion using this approach, the students are taken through various religions. From this approach, the students are able to understand the similarity and differences in various religions. In addition, students are able to understand religion a topic without bias to any religion (Hull, 1993, p17). Thus, the approach is able to accommodate diversity in religion and culture by understanding the religious aspects of human beings in general.

Although the features above are noted as the major strength of phenomenological approach, it leads to some limitations. One of the limitations to approach is that the examples and discussions are drawn out of the social and cultural backgrounds of the students. Thus, major mistakes could be made in trying to understand another religion out of its context.

On the other hands, there is a risk making the students unstable in their religious beliefs rather than encouraging understanding. In addition, serious mistakes could be committed when some religions are not discussed out of their context.

When religious practises are discussed out of their context, wrong conclusion may be drawn. Instead of bringing about harmony and understanding across religions, the approach may lead to disharmony and tension in the classroom.

The approach is criticized for giving only descriptive account of the external aspects of religion. Phenomenological approach discusses the observable aspects of religion such as rituals and festival while ignoring the inner understanding of the external observations (Barnes, 2001, p123).

Thus, the approach in criticized for failing to take into consideration of the emotional depth manifested by the external observations (Ashton, 1999, p131). This criticism is valid as observed in some poorly prepared books that do not focus on the in-depth understanding of various religions. However, the criticism does not hold in a well-prepared phenomenological material and approach in general.

Recent phenomenological approach take into consideration of the criticism made against this approach (Marvell, 2002, p89). In defence, advocates of this approach claim that the approach is proper for contemporary study of religions education rather than in the study of any specific religion in particular.

The defence suggest that religious education should be studies in contexts of other aspects of human existences such as a culture, social and economical aspects. From this, religious beliefs and practises are compared across social cultural economical differences of the communities under the study (Ashton, 1999, p89).

Instead of focussing on historical religious practised, the approach emphasizes on study of living examples of religions that can be easily compared. In addition, the approach engages with the linguistic and conceptual issues and do not put categories in one religion to the other.

In pedagogy, using this approach calls for use of pedagogy methodology such as role-play and drama that enable imagination in a certain religion (Marvell, 2002, p132). The students should be able to understand the various aspects of religions without confusing one religion to the other or being influenced in their religions.

Role-play as a pedagogy method enables the students to assume the role of the individuals that practise the religion. By so doing, the students are able to have in-depth understanding and compare other religion.

Experiential Approach to Religious Education

As used in religious education, experiential approach makes use of students experience as a bridge to teaching religious education. The use of this approach to religious education developed from research made by Alister Hardy. According to the study, religious experience was a development from natural selection due to its survival value for an individual.

Hardy made an argument that there was an awareness that was different from the everyday awareness (Schreiner, 2002, p78). This awareness was attributed to religious experiences and observed to be an important element in human survival.

However, the transcendent awareness was believed to be the common experiential root of all religion. Thus, spirituality and religious experience is not a reserve for any particular religion or religion in general. Individuals who do not associate with any religion do also express their spiritual awareness through other forms

Experiential approach to religious education is a development from experiential education that was promoted by Freire and Dewer. Freire protested against passive students and advocated for an approach that would enable students to participate in their education.

On the other hands, Dewer criticized the conventional approach to education where teacher passed on fact on subjects to passive students (Drawbridge, 1906, p211). He advocated for an approach that would allow students to be, not only recipients of information, but also active participant to the process of acquiring knowledge (Drawbridge, 1906, p213).

The pioneers to experiential approach saw a connection between activity and knowledge. They viewed learning as a social endeavour and called for close examination of the social setting that would provide the proper context for learning. Experiential approach to education is also known by other terms such as situational and action learning to refer to the importance of students participation.

In pedagogy, experiential approach to religious education aims at making religion real to students. For example, while using experiential approach in Christian faith, the approach enables the students to have a real experience of Christian faith. This is made possible by showing the students that Christian faith originates from their own experience (Maloof, 2006, p173).

Thus, the approach help the student not only understand a specific religion but also make sense of their personal experience in religion. For example, a teacher teaching about the passion of Christ in Christian religion would not just describe the events but would also ask the students on how the events affect their religious experience.

In addition, the teacher should also be able to relate the biblical themes under study to moral issues in the class and the society.

Using experiential approach to religious education implies that students will be actively involved in the lesson. The role of students in this approach is not just listening and taking notes from the teacher but they would part of the process of education. Participation and involvement is not reserved to the lesson alone but continues throughout the period. This enables the students to understand themselves, their environment and their religious experiences and practises.

According to the experiential approach to religious education, the main objective of religious education is viewed as deindoctrination. This is used to refer to the role of religious educations to accommodate more that a single perspective of reality. The aim of religious educations is thus, to expand a students awareness of religious experiences as well as promote respects to varied reactions to reality.

The approach encourage the teachers to be able to show the students that the varied ways of being human taught in religious education presents a possibility for themselves. It is the responsibility of religious education to assist students to be conscious of ordinary experiences taken seriously by religious people.

The active participation of students as proposed in this approach is an important element in education. Active participation enables the students to separate the perception from reality of religious experiences.

In addition, this approach does not require eloquent ability to explain concepts but ability of a teacher to help students experience religious experience. Thus, linguistic and semantic barriers that encounter phenomenological approach could be overcome by this approach.

In teaching religious education by use of this approach, the teacher may use their personal experience, actual experience of the class or an imagined experience. The teachers also confront the students with experiences or situations that aim at evoking a desired response (Maloof, 2006, p57).

Since the students are close to their teacher, use of teachers personal experience enables students to see the relevance of the topic under study. Personal account also enables the students to reflect of on similar religious experiences that they could have had in the past. Class experience is important in bringing out the relevance of religion in the society.

Experiential approach brings strength to religion education. The approach includes spirituality, which had been marginalized in education for a long time. The approach respects students personal experience in religion enabling them to develop in their spirituality

Relation between Phenomenological and Experiential Approaches

Experiential approach to religious education is viewed as a reaction and correction to criticism made against phenomenological approach. Phenomenological approachs focus of external element of religion receives criticism for failure to accommodate the individuals religious experience (Mull, 1984, p67). As a correction, experiential approach focuses on religious experience rather than the external presentation of religion.

Review of the two approaches shows some truth in experiential approach as a reaction to phenomenological approach, however, a sharp contrast between the two approaches cannot be drawn. Experiential approach is not a sharp contrast to phenomenological approach but is thought to express and recover the fundamental form of phenomenological approach.

Some scholars and educators have misrepresented phenomenological approach to religious education. The view that phenomenological approach is an influence of secular and scientific views is not always true. Tolerance to multi-religion does not imply that the approach fail to recognise religious experiences in different religion. Various textbooks on religious education have also misinterpreted phenomenological approach.

Originally, phenomenological approach had two hermeneutical steps. The first step involved describing religion without use of critical judgement while the second step involved intuitive awareness (Hull, 1993, p12). To accommodate for multi-religions and cultural diversity, the first step in phenomenological approach did not intend to draw any conclusions to the observable religious expressions.

However, after the description, the approach reviews the essence of believers religious experience. As used in school, only the first step of the approach is used making the approach to be viewed as a mere description of multiple religions.

Experiential approach is an attempt to correct the deficiencies on how phenomenological approach is used in schools. The approach provides resources and ideas that enable the students to go into their personal experiences and those of other peoples with aim of understanding religion (Mull, 1984, p59).

Personal religious experience enables students to not only understand their religions but also relate their individual experiences to those of other individuals.

Conclusion

Religion is an integral part of human being. Study on various communities across the worlds show religion expressions in almost all communities. As an important part of humanity, study of religion becomes imperative in education. There have been various approaches adopted for teaching religious education.

Phenomenological and experiential approaches are some of the approaches that have drawn attention to educators and scholars. Phenomenological approach focuses to the phenomenon of religion across varied religions. As used in religions education, the approach attempt to accommodate religious and cultural diversity by studying religion in a comparative approach.

This approach is criticised for its over-emphasis on external expression of religion; which is viewed an influence of secular and scientific views.

Experiential approach can be viewed as a reaction to phenomenological approach by how it focuses on religious experiences of the students. Both of the approaches are important in religious education. Phenomenological approach is important for contemporary study of religion while experiential approach help to promote spirituality in the students.

Reference list

Ashton, E 1999.Religious education in the early years New York: Routledge.

Barnes, L. 2001 What is wrong with the phenomenological approach to religious education?. New York: Routledge.

Butler, J 1962. Religious education: the foundation and practice of nurture. London: Harper & Row.

Drawbridge, C 1906. Religious education: how to improve it. Birmingham: Longmans.

Francis, K. & Kay, W 1997,Religion in Education. London: Gracewing publisher.

Hull, J. 1993. The nature of religious education The Bahai publishing trust. Web.

Jackson, R 2004.Rethinking religious education and plurality: issues in diversity and pedagogy. New York: Routledge

Keast, J 2007.Religious diversity and intercultural education: a reference book for schools. London: Council of Europe.

Maloof, J 2006. Experience this! The experiential approach to teaching. Journal of Progressive education.

Marvell, J 2002. New Direction in religious educations: Phenomenology and the future of religious education. New York: Routledge.

Mull, J 1984. Studies in religion and education. New York: Taylor & Francis.

Schreiner, P 2002. Towards religious competence: diversity as a challenge for educations in Europe. Berlin: LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg- Munster.

Taylor, M 1960. Religious education: a comprehensive survey. London: Abingdon Press.

Introduction

Due to his advances in terms of nearly every field of philosophy and religion, St. Thomas Aquinas was a remarkable catholic theorist and a prolific author. Thomas Aquinas was an outstanding scholastic thinker, theologian, and political philosopher who served as a Dominican bishop and priest in Italy (Ilodigwe 19). Important philosophical and religious questions that persisted in later eras of philosophy occupied his whole activity. The most well-known part of his writings is his exposition of Gods existence, particularly the notable five reasons he presented to prove the existence of the Creator. The five-ways concept was designed to justify Gods absolute truth, as well as to illustrate both the potential and the limitations of religious philosophy and natural theology. In general, the arguments can be assessed as successful since St. Thomas Aquinas provided rational justification and used the principles of the cosmological method.

General Essence

Aquinas offers five arguments for Gods original presence in the Summa work. Specifically, the evidence from motion, the evidence from efficient causation, the evidence from required against potential existence, the evidence from levels of excellence, and the evidence from the universes structure. The five arguments share a common pattern: Aquinas does not introduce the concept of an ideal being at the outset of each argument.

The first argument presented by Thomas includes motion; according to Thomas, the truth that any moving object requires a mover proves the existence of the Almighty, the Unmoved Mover. According to the second theory, God is the First Cause since in order for the chain of visible causes and consequences to correspond, it needs to have a commencement. Thirdly, if everything is contingent, then nothing could have existed since everything may have been absent at one point. Therefore, in this case, God is necessary to explain how everything exists. The fourth method demonstrates that there are many degrees of anything, such as greater and lesser greatness or greater and lesser accuracy. As a baseline for all of the comparative gradations, the presence of such degrees necessitates the presence of a Perfect Being. The fifth method asserts that God is the implied Grand Creator or constructor of the universe based on the behavior of objects.

Aquinas bases the reasoning on the concept gained from a logical knowledge of the common objects that individuals perceive with their experiences, as opposed to starting with the intrinsic ideas of excellence. In other terms, Aquinas approach starts with a property of the cosmos that can be examined, and then he supports the argument that God is the primary reason by assessment and logical inference (Ilodigwe 20). The five ways follow this basic pattern, with the exception that each one deals with a different aspect of the cosmos (Ilodigwe 20). These include motion manifestations, effective causality, the reality that separates obligatory from possible beings, or, in addition, the truth of natural perfection and the reality of arrangement in the universe.

Aristotle essentially influenced Aquinas in a specific way, providing factual evidence to support each of the enlightening truths that have been seen. However, the essential factor is that, after examining the relevant evidence, it is possible to demonstrate that Gods presence is the only plausible theory for it (Ilodigwe 20). The ontological methodology and the cosmological methodology of St. Thomas Aquinas are distinct from one another. The ontological methodology is a normative method that shifts from the domain of reasoning to the domain of emergence, as the word ontology indicates (Ilodigwe 20). The ontological position establishes the reality of Gods authority from the notion of God by commencing with the Gods concept and exclusively employing the tools of rational thought (Ilodigwe 20). It is asserted that the presence of God stems logically from the conception of God since the idea of God assumes his actuality (Ilodigwe 20). Therefore, to reject Gods presence is to accept a paradox or a conflict.

Contrarily, the cosmological method is a separate technique in that, unlike the ontological principle, it does not depend only on practical reasoning. Rather than beginning with the perception of the world, as the word cosmos indicates, it infers the presence of God as probable cause for particular observed aspects of the world (Ilodigwe 21). The cosmological justification is equally as widespread as the ontological one; nevertheless, it obviously resonates more with empiricist academics considering its retrospective nature (Ilodigwe 21). Aquinas introduces his thoughts by questioning the ontological perspective that arises from Anselm before offering his cosmological evidence for Gods presence (Ilodigwe 21). It is crucial to concentrate on each way individually, starting with the way of motion, in order to gain a thorough and comprehensive understanding of the arguments, their underlying mechanics, and how Aquinas expresses them. The evidence from motion is well-known, and it serves as the finest example of how Aristotles science influenced Thomas Aquinas.

The First Way

The Summa Theologiae contains the first argument or way, known as the evidence from motion. Regarding the reasoning from motion, it should be noted that Aquinas employs the concept motion broadly to denote change rather than simply movement (Ilodigwe 21). Since nothing in the world is impervious to alteration and degradation, this wide definition of motion encompasses the actuality of things being and then dissipating, making the term potentially applicable to everything (Ilodigwe 21). Aquinas is explicit that transformation is a fundamental aspect of the entire universe. Aquinas goal, however, is to explain the origin of motion by highlighting this aspect of the world (Ilodigwe 21). Nevertheless, the contradiction in this situation is that the object that is functioning and moving and hence prompts another to engage cannot be responsible for its own mobility but instead needs to be explained by another. In other terms, it is difficult to take responsibility for its activity if it is capable of changing anything from prospective to genuine since it is already genuine (Ilodigwe 22). It is challenging to accomplish this unless someone can explain what motivates something to behave.

The Second Way

Aristotles notion of efficient correlation is precisely what Aquinas uses to formulate his argument from it. Conversely, his main objective is to support the presence of God by using the phenomena of efficient causation (Ilodigwe 23). The objective of Aquinas is to use efficient causation as proof for the concept of God, not merely to note this feature (Ilodigwe 23). Aquinas ultimately questions the reality of effective causation in order to prove the presence of God (Ilodigwe 23). The efficient causation of an object is what causes the object to exist, but, at the same time, no efficient causation is a main reason in and for itself. In this manner, logical rationalization can be recognized as a manifestation of the successfulness of the arguments.

The Third Way

The third piece of evidence is a declaration that there are potential creatures as opposed to required beings, which is a judgment about nature. The idea of feasible and essential entities, as well as the contrast between them, is key to the evidence (Ilodigwe 24). A potential being, according to Aquinas, is a dependent self or an entity that , in other terms, can or cannot occur (Ilodigwe 24). On the other hand, an essential entity attributes its presence to itself alone and not to any other creature (Ilodigwe 25). It is feasible to claim that certain hypothetical entities owe another specific one their being, and in this way, it is possible to explain how they arose.

The Fourth Way

The evidence from categories of excellence begins with a factual assertion that there are different levels of merit for objects, similar to preceding arguments. Nothing is as evident as the reality that people evaluate objects on a relative basis since some items have a greater or lesser worth than others (Ilodigwe 26). Aquinas believed that it was always assumed that there was something that embodied the attribute in an issue to a superlative degree anytime someone made comparative judgments about objects. In addition to the notion that relative degree implies a superlative degree, the criterion by which people assess an objects worth is a superlative degree (Ilodigwe 26). As a result, anything is superior to another in as much as it approaches the ideal more accurately.

The Fifth Way

The assumption of the reasoning is that people can see a concrete and predefined type of order in the world. In another sense, the cosmos is initially designed, and events occur in accordance with a predetermined plan that is embedded in them rather than merely arising randomly (Ilodigwe 27). People therefore, cannot comprehend the structure that the world has unless they assume that there is a certain creator. There is always the assumption that if there is a system, there additionally has to be a developer since a system cannot exist without a creator (Ilodigwe 27). Considering that the world is ordered, a creator, whom we recognize as God, must have formed it. Due to the planets inherent order, God must have been its creator.

The God of Aquinas

The God of Aquinas can be considered as the Almighty and superior being that exists in reality and this fact should be perceived as original and initial. As presence is a component of Gods principle or nature, according to Aquinas, the claim that God is real is self-evident in and of itself (Ilodigwe 29). Aquinas reasoned that since something knowledgeable had to guide creatures toward their ultimate objective, God must be doing it. The God of St. Thomas Aquinas can be described as not only the most powerful being and the ultimate rules but also as a smart being that created the universe with a concrete purpose. Consequently, people and their lives should have their own goals and intentions due to the initial will of the Almighty. In fact, Aquinas utilized the cosmological method, logical argumentation, and religious principles in his five ways; thus, the justifications can be considered successful due to the inclusion of evidence and sources.

Conclusion

To summarize, the five ways that were elaborated by St. Thomas Aquinas in order to justify the existence of God are essential examples of philosophical heritage. In fact, by analyzing the five arguments, it is feasible to formulate various questions and argue the idea. Indeed, the arguments can be assessed as successful since the theory of Aquinas is widely recognized and possesses different types of evidence and logical explanations, for instance, the concepts of Aristotle. In addition to being the most omnipotent being and the author of all principles, the God of St. Thomas Aquinas can be defined as a wise being who designed the universe with a particular goal.

Work Cited

Ilodigwe, Damian. Aquinas and the Question of Gods Existence: Exploring the Five Ways. International Journal of Philosophy and Theology, vol. 6, no. 1, 2018, pp. 19-32.

Introduction

Christians should pursue specific values, notions, and ideas in order to fulfill Gods purpose on earth. Since the ultimate goal is for believers to become part of His kingdom, it is necessary to understand the meaning and role of discipleship. The inference analysis paper presented below begins by giving a detailed summary of the first chapter of this book by Dietrich Bonhoeffer: The Cost of Discipleship. It goes further to offer a detailed inference that can guide Christians to pursue their spiritual goals.

Evidence and Information

The chapter, Grace and Discipleship presents evidence-based ideas and insights that all Christian believers should take seriously. Bonhoeffer indicates that cheap grace is the deadly enemy of our Church (43). The meaning obtained from the presented text is that grace should be characterized by discipleship, Jesus Christ, and the cross. Preachers and theological scholars should encourage their followers to pursue costly grace because it is what will make it possible for them to achieve their objectives. These individuals should go further to encourage believers to repent if they want to have their sins atoned.

They should pursue church discipline for them to be baptized. They should confess before being part of the Holy Communion (Bonhoeffer 44). The spread of Christianity is something that has resulted in increased secularization. The result has been that the costliness of grace has become undermined. People should promote Christs teaching in such a way that they protect the Church from falling into schism.

The author asserts that entire process of Martin Luthers Reformation tried to justify unacceptable behavior. This religious leader indicated that sin was justified in the world, thereby encouraging many Christians to disobey God. Luther suggested that the grace of God was enough since it could forgive all sins and empower more Christians to pursue their religious goals. According to the text, these developments led to the secularization of the Church. This cheap grace is, therefore, something that continues to affect peoples spiritual lives negatively (Bonhoeffer 54). This means that Christians should follow the costly grace described by the author.

The second issue described in the selected chapter is the call to discipleship. Bonhoeffer indicates that Jesus Christ has the authority to call and to demand obedience to his word (57-58). Discipleship is a practice that promotes adherence to Gods teachings and commandments. Those who want to achieve this goal must put Christ first and remain obedient. Those who engage in discipleship without allowing Christ to take over will result in rejection.

The author indicates that those who after discipleship should leave their past lives behind and become new people in Christ. He gives the examples of different disciples and how they followed Christ without giving excuses. Christians should consider spiritual calling as a command that should be obeyed. Disciples should believe in Christ and always focus on the most appropriate actions and ideas that can support Gods creation on earth. Believers should also ensure that sin does not distract them from their goals or purpose. They should also stand firm against any form of temptation.

Another subject the author of the selected chapter addresses is that of single-minded obedience. Using the stories of Peter and Levi, the reader observes that those who decide to follow Gods teachings should not have regrets or doubts. This is the case since Christ always means business. The outstanding message is that Christians should take the call of Jesus with absolute seriousness (Bonhoeffer 80). The issue of inward attachment appears to challenge many individuals and believers. This presentation makes it possible for the author to guide the reader to understand how he or she can pursue his religious objectives.

Every action on earth should be undertaken as if it was aimed at proclaiming Christ. Those who concentrate on material possessions and their belonging are deemed to be double-minded in their pursuit of Christs teachings and Gods kingdom.

In the fourth section, the author tries to describe the relationship between discipleship and the cross. The text presents several passages from the Bible to describe some of Gods teachings and promises. Individuals who want achieve their spiritual goals should engage in mandatory actions and practices while they are still on earth. The author uses the word must to describe several verses from the Bible. For example, it is written that Jesus Christ must suffer and be rejected (Bonhoeffer 86).

It is agreeable that Christ suffered on the cross and was eventually rejected by his own disciples. The cross is presented to believers as a sign of suffering. This means that those who decide to follow God will have to encounter numerous challenges. Individuals planning to achieve their religious goals will have to surrender themselves to Jesus Christ and embark on their discipleship journey. To endure suffering or the cross is not something that should be viewed as a tragedy.

Suffering is something inseparable from a righteous life. Those who decide to follow the discipleship journey should embrace the most appropriate actions and pursue things that might appear incomprehensible. They should not care about where they are going. These practices will empower them to realize their goals and eventually become part of Gods kingdom.

The final section focuses on the issues of personality and discipleship. The author indicates that those who receive Christs calling become individuals by Gods grace (Bonhoeffer 94). This kind of calling should guide believers to live harmoniously with others, do what is righteous, and be ready to stand before God. Those who consider the discipleship journey should get rid of material possessions and earthly pursuits. This decision is in accordance with Christs expectations.

It is also agreeable that Christ left everything behind and focused on a journey of righteousness. He did so in an attempt to redeem mankind. Similarly, those how want to complete this journey should emulate Gods actions while at the same time maintaining the most appropriate relationships with the things and people of the world. Christians should also allow Christ to become the only mediator who can guide them to establish a new form of fellowship. Although the discipleship road might be dangerous and scary, it is appropriate for Christians to embrace it and be in a position to achieve their spiritual goals.

Inferences

According to the above discussion, the secularization of the Church is a development that has encouraged many Christians to engage in sinful acts while at the same time proclaiming to be Gods children. This problem is attributable to the lessons and ideas propagated by the pioneers of the Reformation Movement. The author of the selected book has managed to present evidence-based ideas and guidelines that all believers who are planning to pursue their discipleship goals should take seriously.

The first outstanding lesson is that of grace. What every believer should understand is that grace is something expensive that can only be available to believers who are willing to commit themselves to Gods teachings (Bonhoeffer 49). This is a clear indication that Christians who want to receive Gods grace should follow His teachings and commandments. They should also get rid of sin, repent, and engage in practices that are pleasing in the eyes of God. It is also appropriate for all believers to focus on the costly grace.

The call to discipleship is a journey that all Christians should be ready to complete. Those who receive Christs calling should leave everything behind and do so without having secondary thoughts. They should also ignore material possessions. The case of Peter is a good example that Christians should take into consideration. Christians should get rid of sin, obey Gods commandments, and be aware of the challenges that might affect their objectives (Bonhoeffer 55). The text goes further to encourage believers to take Christs calling with the seriousness it deserves. This process will bring them closer to Gods kingdom. Such individuals will develop appropriate religious philosophies that will always guide them whenever interacting with other people and preaching the message of Christ to them.

The studied section or chapter encourages Christian believers who have been saved by Gods grace to follow the journey of discipleship. Such individuals should also understand that they cannot achieve their potential without allowing God to take over and guide them. Throughout the sanctification process, believers should become resolute and use Christs teachings as evidence-based guidelines to meet their needs. They should also use the example of the cross.

This approach will empower them to accept suffering and engage in actions that are pleasing in Gods eyes (Bonhoeffer 93). The pain Jesus Christ experienced on the cross should encourage Christians to become courageous even if they may not be aware of the predicaments that they might face. It is necessary for such believers to become selfless and focus on actions that will fulfill Gods expectations on earth. Those who surrender themselves to Christ will become empowered and courageous.

The issue of personality is also critical since it guides those who plan to become Gods disciples to relate positively with other people. They should make Christ their mediator in order to develop the most appropriate relationship with their colleagues. Those who emulate Gods teachings will no longer pursue material possessions. Instead, they will establish a new covenant with Christ and work hard to achieve Gods mission on earth (Bonhoeffer 95). These actions mean that every individual who has taken up the discipleship journey will have Gods grace because it is the only thing that can give mankind true life.

Conclusion

The above discussion has revealed that Dietrich Bonhoeffer presents appropriate ideas and insights that can guide Christians to achieve their religious objectives. The author identifies a new form of grace that is costly as a powerful model that can guide believers to have a sense of civic duty. They should also consider Christs suffering on the cross in order to become true disciples who understand their relationship with the surrounding world and Gods kingdom. This approach will ensure that more Christians are protected from the dangers of this world.

Work Cited

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. The Cost of Discipleship. Simon and Schuster, 1995.

A ritual is an activity performed by a person or persons with a belief in supernatural effects. This activity symbolizes faith in supernatural strength. The activity becomes symbolic when the spirit and physicality are abstract. The object of belief may be terrestrial or physical. Terrestrial objects are invisible but exist. Physical objects are touchable. The essay seeks to study rituals in religion.

The ritual is either in secret or in open depending on the observer of the ritual. Rituals performed in secret are not necessarily anti-social. Performance of some rituals follows certain rules, which may dictate time, place, and manner in which to do it. A religion is a system of beliefs usually involving worship of supernatural forces of beings, (Kessler 109).In religion, rituals are held for various reasons e.g. as a religious obligation, to demonstrate submission or respect, to show affiliation, to obtain social acceptance, to satisfy self-emotional needs, or sometimes for pleasure.

Ritualistic activities in religion may range from simple activities like greetings to a more socially unacceptable one like offering human sacrifice, which may be termed as murder in other societies. For instance, in the Roman Catholic, before the pope addresses a gathering, he starts with sprinkling water to the masses using a whisk. This is a ritual to symbolize that he is at peace with them and has blessed them. The Bible talks of Jeptha who sacrificed his only daughter to the Lord, being a vow he had made to the Lord that on winning the battle, he will sacrifice anything that will meet him first on return from victory. His daughter was the first. In Islam, washing of legs before entering a mosque, bowing down as they pray, and praying facing mecca are rituals held to demonstrate submission to their god Allah and as a religious obligation.

Mormon temples close doors to the public and to some members who are not sufficiently worthy to be Mormons. Consequently, members who have taken an oath of secrecy hold matters that concern the religion in confidence. A member who wishes to participate in any of the temple rituals must first consult with the pastor of their local congregation. One notable ritual is Baptism for the Dead, (Eisenstein 3). In front of the temple is a large font for baptism placed on the backs of twelve life-sized sculpted oxen, (Eisenstein 3). A group of teenage boys acts on behalf of the dead. Dressed in white, they line up in front of the font and the officiators immerse them in water and say the words Having authority given me of Jesus Christ, I baptize you for and in behalf of N. N., who is dead, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen, (Kessler 122). The dead persons name is just before immersion.

Regarding secret rituals performed in various religions, a question of the legality of the rituals and oaths that pertain to them arises. An apprentice in freemasonry take an oath:

I do solemnly and sincerely promise and swear&.my throat cut across, my tongue torn out, and with my body buried in the sands of the sea at low-water mark, where the tide ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours, should I ever knowingly or willfully violate this, my solemn Obligation of an Entered Apprentice, (Kessler 122).

As Charles Einstein notes in his article on religion and ritual, in the early times, rituals held no meaning as they mainly emanated from observation of activities like animal mating. The symbol arose from the meditation of human and divine realms, which are separately conceived. The divine realm is a disharmony of natural activities from nature itself. E.g., lack of rain and failure of agriculture. To harmonize these two disjoint phenomena, the early people believed that holding an activity to please what or whom they thought was responsible for such shortcomings would solve the problem. This in essence was a ritual and in such a way, rituals developed.

The observance of rituals is still rife since people still believe that that which is unexplainable must be divine and that for a favorable outcome, the divine must be appeased.

Works Cited

Kessler, Gary E. Studying Religion: An Introduction through Cases. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. Print.

Eisenstein, Charles. The Ascent of Humanity, The Origin of Separation Religion and Ritual. Sacred Action 005, 1-7. PDF file.

Introduction

In the second half of the twentieth century, various new forms of religiosity and types of religious identity appeared in many countries of the world. They, in particular, caused the formation of different, sometimes mutually exclusive concepts describing the state of religion in the modern world. These are secularization and desecularization, privatization and deprivation of religion, indefinite religiosity, faith without affiliation, and others.

Historical Perspective Discussing the First Megachurch

A megachurch is a church that gathers at least 2 thousand people for Sunday worship. The largest megachurches in the United States attract more than 20 thousand to Sunday services. For example, the North Point Community Church also belongs to such supergiants: its main campus and satellite campuses gather 30 thousand parishioners every Sunday (Gaitho, 2019). It is the largest in Georgia and the third-largest congregation in the United States.

The emergence of megachurches can also be considered a manifestation of a new form of religiosity and new challenges for leaders. These churches have united people from different Protestant (and sometimes not only Protestant) denominations. The first megachurch was formed in the USA due to the growth of individual Protestant evangelical congregations, primarily Baptist and Pentecostal (Northouse, 2018). Its phenomenon was peculiar and multifactorial, as it significantly differed from other modern Protestant churches. It was not just about the prefix mega, reflecting the number, and not only about the unification of immigrants from different churches.

This megachurch had a number of qualitative characteristics; it had a different type of connection with its religious organization. It was an adaptation of religiosity to the conditions of a modern metropolis. The megachurch was trying to bring religious life closer to the daily social and cultural life of the inhabitants of the metropolis, to take into account their cultural needs and habits. In fact, new forms of religious culture are being constructed. Considering this phenomenon s from a historical perspective, the first megachurch can be regarded as an incentive for constructing new forms of religious culture.

Business of Megachurches in the Twenty-First Century

In general, the role of a charismatic leader is very significant in the megachurch. As a rule, this is the senior pastor of the church, often its founder. The most dynamic growth in the number of parishioners is observed in churches where their founders still serve. The arrival of a new pastor to replace the founder is often accompanied by a slowdown in the number of followers (Northouse, 2018). It is the senior pastor who controls all the activities of the church. A megachurch is guided by a confident leader who contributes to transforming it into a successful business. Thus, members of the church who are attached to the leader must attend Sunday services. They make regular large donations to church-run programs, which makes such churches a form of business.

Most modern megachurches are arranged on the principle of a shopping and entertainment complex or a business center. From the outside, the megachurch looks like a business center, a shopping mall, or a university campus. By the way, in the megachurch, it is customary to call its church complex a campus. The modern megachurch complex includes huge halls for worship with a stage, a parterre, an amphitheater, and a balcony. As a rule, there is more than one such hall. When a service is held live in one hall, this service is broadcast on huge screens in other halls. Worship services are often accompanied by performances of their own rock bands or jazz ensembles.

The similarity with a shopping and entertainment complex is also evident in the fact that the church usually has cafes, shops of church literature, libraries, and specially equipped rooms for children, where, depending on their age, they play with them or conduct Bible lessons while their parents attend church services. In a megachurch complex, there may be household services (for example, dry cleaning), fitness centers, gyms, etc. Often megachurches have their own sports teams. Various programs are offered (joint Bible study, discussion of difficult life situations and ways to resolve them, classes on child-parent relations, and many others), in which parishioners can participate during the out-of-service time.

Every Sunday, three services are held in megachurches: in the morning, in the afternoon, and in the evening  so that people can choose a convenient time according to their plans or daily routine. Each service takes place in parallel in two halls. In one hall, the service is conducted by the senior pastor (in case of his absence, the service is conducted by another pastor of the church); in the second half, the same thing is broadcast on the screen (Crowther, 2017). However, huge television screens are installed in the first hall so that what is happening on the stage can be clearly seen by everyone gathered, regardless of where they are sitting. The room for worship is almost like a concert hall. There are no religious paraphernalia on the stage, not even a cross.

The service is accompanied by singing and instrumental music, but this is not the usual choir and organ, but a rock ensemble. Light and smoke effects are used. In the megachurch, instead of the word hymns, which is customary for the traditional Protestant church, the secular songs is used. In his sermon, the pastor gives numerous examples from everyday life and pop culture. Communion is not celebrated every Sunday. When it is performed, baskets with the elements of communion  bread and wine (and for those who wish  grape juice)  are launched along the rows.

Values Aligned with Biblical Lessons

The Church of Christ lived both in conditions of religious pluralism and in a religiously homogeneous environment. The megachurch phenomenon demonstrates the harmonious coexistence and dialogue between the followers of the church of different religions (Gumusay, 2019). At the same time, the leader promotes the preservation of respect for the freedom of every person and any minority, which are values aligned with biblical lessons.

The megachurch forms a non-burdensome religiosity, and one of its tasks is to attract the non-church, which also corresponds to biblical values. The church strives to be understandable and attractive to the modern non-religious citizen. This applies both to external attributes (a spacious lobby with signs, printed materials about the church, information stands, comfortable chairs, screens in the worship hall, and the opportunity to purchase soft drinks) and to the content of the service (referring to everyday subjects in the sermon).

The megachurch is characterized by active missionary activity, which also coincides with biblical values. Many megachurches are involved in missionary activities in foreign countries. But first of all, the missionary activity of the megachurch is aimed at the residents of the metropolis in which it is located. The constant and steady growth of parishioners is part of the concept of the megachurch; this is its constant goal. The megachurch seeks to attract new people to its community, to bring non-believers and non-believers to the faith. Members of the church tell friends, neighbors, and colleagues about it and invite them to Sunday services. The task of each member of the church is to bring at least one new parishioner. To a certain extent, the very emergence of the megachurch can be associated with the pronounced missionary orientation of evangelical Protestant denominations, with their desire to attract as many people as possible to the church and help them to know God.

Since the megachurch is visited by people from different Christian denominations, it is at the same time characterized by a certain indifference to dogmatic standards. The main importance is attached to personal faith and personal contact with God. From dogmatic positions, the belief in the salvation of people by the martyrdom and resurrection of Jesus Christ comes to the fore. It is this provision that is most often mentioned in Sunday sermons and in liturgical hymns. The rest of the general Christian and general Protestant provisions seem to be implied, while dogmatic differences between different Protestant denominations are not given much importance; they are, as it were, taken out of brackets. Since there are several Sunday services in the megachurch, they are often focused on different age categories, music of different styles can be used in them, the rhetoric of the sermon may differ, and sometimes even theological approaches differ somewhat.

Conclusion

The emergence of a megachurch is an attempt to bring religious and everyday life closer together. The megachurch strives to involve new parishioners in its ranks, seeing them primarily as a consumer and, accordingly, making them an exciting offer. From this fact comes the need for any, not only religious, leaders to adapt spiritual life to the conditions of the metropolis. To successfully carry Christian values to the masses, the leader should respond promptly to the consolidation of social, cultural, and leisure institutions in the urban environment.

References

Crowther, S. S. (2017). The fruit of the spirit in the context of leadership. Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership, 7(1), 24-34.

Gaitho, P. R. (2019). Influence of religion on leadership styles and leadership. Microeconomics and Macroeconomics, 7(1), 8-11.

Gumusay, A. A. (2019). Embracing religions in moral theories of leadership. Academy of Management Perspectives, 33(3), 292-306.

Holy Bible: New living translation. (2006). Tyndale House.

Northouse, P. G. (2018). Leadership: Theory and practice. SAGE Publications.

Introduction

The term Abrahamic Religions refers to Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, which derive their spiritual source from common ancestry. According to Lovat and Crotty (2015), the cultural, geographical, ethnic, and historical backgrounds of these belief systems emanates from the Near East. The three are monotheistic and rely on some discrete sacred texts claimed to be the word of God. Additionally, they all have established mediators such as prophets who help connect the congregants to the deity (Lovat & Crotty, 2015). Lastly, their teachings predict an eschatological end to the current world. However, there are many contentious issues between these faiths, on textual interpretation, the role of Jesus/Issa, founder, holy scripture, and Gods nature. The objective of this paper is to differentiate between the three religions.

Islam

The Muslims believe that Abraham was a friend of God and one of the significant prophets in the early years. Lovat and Crotty (2015) state he was willing to sacrifice his first son Ishmael. The etymological origin for this organization is Salaam, which means peace (Vitkovic, 2018). The other point of contention is that Islam believes Mohammed to be the last and greatest prophet, unlike the other two. According to Vitkovic (2018), this semantic group upholds Quran (written in Arabic) as the sacred book and derives all the sharia (law from it). The Muslims regard the Christians and the Judaists as the people of the book.

Judaism

Among the Judaists, Abraham is considered their ancestral father, who was willing to sacrifice his legitimate son Isaac. They derive their name from Hebraic Yehudim, meaning Judah (Vitkovic, 2018). The prominent prophet was Moses, who was called by God to take the Israelites out of their bondage in Egypt. For the Judaists, the Torah is considered the sacred book which offers the law of Halakaha (Vitkovic, 2018). The perception of the other Abrahamic beliefs is that they expanded Judaism in error.

Christianity

For this religion, Abraham is their father in faith whose intention to sacrifice Isaac and Gods offering a sheep as an alternative was a foreshadow of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Etymologically, Christo is derived from Greek and connate anointed (Vitkovic, 2018). The religious book used is the Bible, which provides cannon regulations. Jesus Christ is the primary mediator and one in the trinity of God (Lovat & Crotty, 2015). They deny the prophethood of Mohammed and perceive the Judaist as having an incomplete revelation.

References

Lovat, T., & Crotty, R. B. (2015). Reconciling Islam, Christianity and Judaism: Islams special role in restoring convivencia. Springer

Vitkovic, S. (2018). The similarities and differences between Abrahamic religions. International E-Journal of Advances in Social Sciences, 4(11), 455  462.

Today, monotheistic religions prevail globally, but people were inclined to honor many gods in ancient times. For example, in ancient Egypt, much of the time, religion was polytheistic. The emergence of monotheism, in turn, is associated with the development of Judaism and later Christianity and Islam. However, such a source as The Great Hymn to Aten is related to religious reform in ancient Egypt, which favored one god  Aten. Although the facts about the influence of Atenism on the emergence of other monotheistic religions are contradictory, this religion is still the first example of monotheism.

Atenism  the religion dedicated to Aten has a short history associated mainly with one pharaoh, and the primary source of information about it is the studied hymn. It is believed that the author of the poem is the pharaoh Amenhotep IV, mainly known as Akhenaten, who introduced this religion (Wade 3). Amenhotep IV was a representative of the 18th dynasty and allegedly took the throne in 1358 BCE (Wade 1). This dynasty mainly relied on the sun as some eternal and constant phenomenon, on which the whole world depended and which destructed the darkness associated with danger (Wade 2). This theme is reflected in the hymn  the suns daily appearance is worshiped, and darkness is represented as a threat.

The theme of the victory of light Aten brings to destroy the darkness is revealed through opposite images of night and day. For example, the nights image is described in this way:  Whenever you [Aten] set on the Western horizon, / the land is in darkness in the manner of death (Simpson 290). Then the hymn creates contrast and represents the day image, the time of Aten:

But when day breaks you are risen upon the horizon,
and you shine as the Aten in the daytime.
When you dispel darkness and you give forth your rays
the two lands are in festival,
alert and standing on their feet,
now that you have raised them up (Simpson 291).

Considering only the religious reform of Akhenaten, one can imagine him as a prophet. Nevertheless, Laboury (239) emphasizes that it is necessary to consider Akhenaten primarily as a politician. The power and activity of rulers in the time of the pharaohs were not separated from religion. Therefore, it is essential to consider what the situation was during his reign. Amenhotep IV came to power in time of prosperity and peace instead of his older deceased brother, replacing their father, Amenhotep III (Wade 10). The father devoted a significant part of his reign to deification as Aten, the material manifestation of the sun god  Amun Re, and the suns visible part  the solar disk (Laboury 239). Atens image and form also had some significance for the new religion.

Appearance is another feature, giving uniqueness to Akhenatens religious changes and the pharaoh himself. Unlike other gods, Aten was not depicted anthropomorphically  with the human body, but as a solar disk, the rays of which end in hands (Wade 8). The solar disk was a more universal and perfect form than the human body and made god more unlimited. Damen (para. 26) also notes that gender division may not have been applied to Aten in the effort for universality. This desire could also affect the way Akhenaten was portrayed  often with feminine features and without genitals. In this way, images emphasized his proximity to Aten and his difference from other people.

After becoming a ruler, Amenhotep IV announced the construction of a new temple for the service of the only god Aten. Akhenaten established a monopoly on serving him and presenting his will to the people, declaring himself the first servant and Atens son. Such a measure was supposed to protect the pharaoh from potential criticism and support the legitimacy of any action. The hymn significantly represents the image of Akhenaten, named Nefer-kheperu-Re Wa-en-Re in the poem:

You are my desire,
and there is no other who knows you
except your son (Nefer-kheperu-Re Wa-en-Re)
for you have apprised him of your designs and your power (Simpson 294).
Moreover, the hymn also supports the image of Akhenaten as ruler, emphasizing that Aten created the world around for him:
When (you) rise, (everything) grows
for the King and (for) everyone who hastens on foot,
because you have founded the land
and you have raised them for your son
who has come forth from your body,
the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, the one Living on Maat,
Lord of the Two Lands (Nefer-kheperu-Re Wa-en-Re)
son of Re, the one Living on Maat, Master of Regalia,
(Akhenaten), the long lived,
and the Foremost Wife of the King, whom he loves,
the Mistress of the Two Lands,
(Nefer-nefru-Aten Nefertiti),
living and young, forever and ever (Simpson 295).

At first, only becoming the pharaoh, Akhenaten did not deny other gods. Such a form of religion as henotheism  worship of one of the gods recognizing others is not uncommon for ancient Egypt (Wade 2). However, the pharaoh decided to change the religion radically, and the studied hymn reflects the message that Aten is not just the main god but the only one. Moreover, the central theme in the poem is that Aten is the sole creator of life and the world:

How plentiful it is, what you have made,
although they are hidden from view,
sole god, without another beside you;
you created the earth as you wished,
when you were by yourself,
mankind, all cattle and kine,
all beings on land, who fare upon their feet,
and all beings in the air, who fly with their wings (Simpson 292).

Based on the lines presented, Akhenaten created a new cosmogony  the story of the beginning of the world. Various legends about the creation of the world appeared in all cultures. They helped people determine their place in the world and describe everything around them based on their position. The cosmogony of Akhenaten put him as the first servant of Aten in an exceptional place compared to other people, which again suggests his desire for power through a new religion.

Other Atens images presented in the hymn are also interesting  they praise his power and emphasize that he is the only god and, in this way, support the theme of the sole creator. For example, the hymn, after the presentation of the pharaoh, begins with the statement about the magnificence of Aten, who created life. The translated poem includes words such as perfection, great, appealing, sparkling to describe the god of the sun (Simpson 290). Aten is also presented in the image of the power that begins life and cares about birth. In particular, the hymn claims that God placed the seed in a woman / and have made sperm into man (Simpson 291). The text also claims that Aten nourishes the children in the womb and helps them take their first breath (Simpson 292). Thus, the theme of the mighty and one god Aten is revealed through the images in which he appears.

Having included an extensive list of Atens accomplishments in the text, the author emphasizes his strength and control over all aspects of human life. Atens description of power correlates with another Egyptian work  Cannibal Spell for King Unis. Although the hymn is more glorifying and the spell more intimidating, they have common features. According to the spell, the deceased ruler Unis becomes a god, and destroying other gods becomes powerful and, at the same time, the only one (Puchner 27). Thus, both texts are aimed at the requirements of worship of sole powerful deities.

However, creating such a cult had negative consequences  defeats in wars, diseases and other problems were the pharaohs fault. Notably, due to the focus on religion, the pharaoh paid little attention to other aspects of government, for example, international relations (Wade 10). His children were forced to save the country, and Akhenaten was recognized as a failed ruler (Laboury 242). Thus, the introduction of Atenism and the pharaohs elevation did not have the supposedly expected effect of creating strong authority for Akhenaten.

Atenism and the hymn praising Aten have features that make it possible to claim that this religion is monotheistic confidently. With proclaiming the considered god as a single creator, Akhenaten deleted references to the multiplicity of gods of the past. Their names and the plural designation gods were erased in temples, obelisks, and other places (Hoffmeier 264). The fact that Aten is a single god is emphasized with such words as sole and alone, as well as the fact that only he is credited with creating and managing the world through the hymn. The author of the hymn lists multiple achievements except for the world creation  the creation of seasons, various languages, and other acts. Maintaining faith in one god makes Atenism the first historical example of monotheism.

There are contradictory facts on which one could judge the possibility of the influence of Atenism on the emergence of Judaism, the first official monotheistic religion. According to Damen (para. 46), two main factors must be evaluated  similarity and the possibility of religions representatives interactions to establish the possibility of influence. For example, considering contrasts  Atens form seeks universality, he has it and interacts with the pharaoh, and the Jewish god, in turn, is unlimited and often acts through intermediaries  angels, floodwaters, and other measures (Damen para. 47). Atenism and Judaism share some common monotheistic features, but religions also differ significantly among themselves.

The question of possible contact to influence the development of Judaism is broader. In particular, the Israeli nation could not yet form in the 14th century BC. However, the Bible has information about Wandering patriarchs that could borrow monotheistic ideas (Damen para. 48). The Bible also describes Egyptian Captivity  the several-century enslavement of Hebrews by the rulers of the New Kingdom (Damen para. 49). In turn, Hoffmeier (265) argues that although the monotheistic nature of Atenism is not evidence of its influence on Judaism, historians have no reason to deny the connection. However, with closer consideration, some of these arguments can be challenged. For example, the city in which the Jews were supposedly located is far from Achetaton, and after the reign of Akhenaten, people destroyed a lot of evidence of Atenism (Damen para. 50). Moreover, many phenomena in history arose simultaneously in several places independently of each other  writing, building, and similar things.

An exciting aspect of the study of Atenism as a potential source for other monotheistic religions is the similarity of The Great Hymn to Aten with the biblical psalm (see table 1). In particular, Psalm 104 praises god for grass and trees for animals and birds, for the sea in which fish and ships can swim (Damen para. 53-54). The text correlates significantly with the hymn, where trees and plants for cattle and birds, swimming barges, and fish in the water are also mentioned together (Simpson 291). The similarity of meaning and sequence is striking and is an argument for the possible connection between religions.

Table 1: Comparison of fragments of The Great Hymn to Aten and Psalm 104

Thus, The Great Hymn to Aten praises the god Aten, and he was worshipped in the first monotheistic religion in history. The central theme corresponds to this perspective  the text mainly describes the sun god Aten as the creator of the world and life. The hymn also raises the theme of how the sun drives away darkness and danger. The poem creates the image of the ruler Akhenaten, who introduced religion and presumably wrote the hymn as the son of Aten, exalting his personality. Hence, one can assume that the pharaohs goal in changing religion was to strengthen his authority. Other images addressed by the text include day and night, and various images of Aten glorifying him. The facts about whether Atenism influenced the emergence of another monotheistic religion of Judaism are controversial, but such a possibility cannot be denied.

Works Cited

Damen, Mark. Akhenaten and Monotheism. History and Civilization, Web.

Hoffmeier, James Karl. Akhenaten and the Origins of Monotheism. Oxford University Press, 2015.

Laboury, Dimitri. Aten vs Amun. Religious Politics and Political Religion under Tutankhamun and His Father, Akhenaten. Tutankhamun. Discovering the Forgotten Pharaoh, edited by Simon Connor and Dimitri Laboury, Presses Universitaires de Liège, 2020, pp. 238-243.

Puchner, Martin. Cannibal Spell for King Unis. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. W.W. Norton, 2012. 26-28.

Simpson, William Kelly, editor. Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. 3rd ed., Yell University Press, 2003. Web.

Wade, Sabrina. Atenism and Pharaoh Akhenatens Attempt to Deify Himself. Armstrong Undergraduate Journal of History, vol. 11, no. 2, 2021, pp. 1-15.

After reading Jim Van Yperens book Making Peace: A Guide to Overcoming Church Conflict, I am convinced that the church is not always a place of reassurance and comfort. Sometimes, this community of believers is a battleground of evil  both literally and figuratively. While most people know that conflicts sometimes rock the church, they may not understand the extent of this issue if they are outsiders. Christians are somewhat successful in hiding their conflicts from the public unless these differences become too significant and unavoidable. Jim Van Yperen and similar others provide guidance that Christians can use to solve issues and maintain the image of the church as the representation of God through the Lordship of Jesus Christ to win more people to His Kingdom.

As the author rightfully contends, there are many possible causes of conflict in the church. But the most prominent of them is the serious disagreements among groups or individuals within the church (Van Yperen, 2008, p. 212). These differences may be superficial or border the real issues about what it means to be a Christian. I agree with the author that the best and only way to resolve these problems is to identify their root causes and deal with them effectively. Indeed, one of the reasons conflicts still abound in churches today is that believers only deal with symptoms  the superficial issues relating to conflicts.

Since the major cause of conflict in the church is individual and group disagreement, the best remedy is reconciliation. As the Bible in Jeremiah 6:16 says, Stand at the crossroads and look; ask for the ancient paths, ask where the good way is, and walk in it, and you will find rest for your souls. Our problem is that while we know where the solutions to our problems lie, we refuse to pursue it with diligence and a genuine heart as Born-Again-Christians. Yperen does a good job explaining how Christians can find answers to their problems, integrating the scriptures. As true believers, the only source of our truth and our guidance is the Bible  Gods living word. Reading the Bible and sharing scriptures is a sure way of enhancing knowledge about the Bible and the Lords expectation of His people. For this reason, individuals must never give up the habit of meeting and fellowshipping together, even when difficult conflicts rock the chuck.

I find the book informative and practical despite its focus on religion. In the chapter about leading and forming Biblical community, the author reminds us of the importance of continuing with the spirit, as instructed in Galatians 3:3, where the Bible says, after beginning with the Spirit, are you now trying to attain your goals by human effort? Conflicts in the church emerge and persist when leaders do things out of their knowledge and skills rather than depending on God (Smith, 2019, p. 313). The churchs identity led by those who believe in their strength is tied to the ego and self-esteem of those leaders and are likely to fail because they shift from being places of spiritual nourishments to performance-based institutions where leaders judge others based on their achievement of specific goals.

Before reading this book, I did not know that most Christians hold false notions about conflict. These ideas follow the extreme right and left-handed views of God and the church. While left-handed believers see God as all-loving and all-caring, right-handed believers see God as omnipotent (Van Yperen, 2008, p. 91). Both views are problematic because the first discourages any thought or talk about conflict in the church, while the second views conflict as necessary to separate the sheep from the goat. Both positions have Biblical bucking, as conflict can be God-purposed. Peace is God-given, and Christians should be struggling against the powers of darkness, not against each other. We can eliminate conflict by dealing with our need-based self-absorbed attitudes and actions.

The author also raises important points when talking about the different responders in a conflict situation. When conflict occurs in churches, congregants may respond passively, evasively, defensively, and aggressively. As the author distinguishes peacekeeping and peacemaking, it becomes apparent that passive responders endure conflict inwardly. They submit to or remain silent about a disagreement or offense. Passive responders tend to believe that all conflict is wrong and avoid it by remaining silent about it.

It is better to be assertive, resistant, and non-compliant to sort out some differences in the church. When people talk about the problems they experience, they create an avenue for communication to address these issues and prevent them from occurring again in the future. Passive responses to conflict prolong conflicts because users cover up the truth to protect themselves or others from being hurt. Being fearful is also one of the reasons people keep quiet or silent during a conflict. As an obstacle to attaining peace, fear affects all church members, including the senior leadership. Leaders called by God should not be afraid because the Lord our God will be with them in everything they do and everywhere they go (Joshua 1:9). The leaders must be trusting, faithful, and capable of showing others direction.

It is also possible to find evasive responders in church. Given the churchs position in the community, it is common. Many people believe that since the church is the model of the truth and the only guidance to reality and better living, participating in a conflict is setting a bad example. The Lord commands every Christian to be the light of the world in Mathew 5:14. Christians take this command seriously, but they forget that evading conflicts is worse than solving them. It causes the person to lose touch with their feelings, forcing them to accept the lie rather than acknowledge the hurt. Some evasive responders cannot express or accept love and affection due to the hurt caused by conflicts they do not address (Van Yperen, 2008, p.126). By highlighting this issue, the author does a good job of informing the readers about the importance of remaining committed and loyal to a given cause. It shows the significance of creating an avenue for critical negotiations and an environment that allows each party to express itself openly without fear. Through negotiations, evasive responders will realize and appreciate the importance of building all relationships rather than only those that support them.

I also agree with the author that some conflicting parties are defensive while addressing issues of concern. They do not admit that they are wrong and worsen the situation. A defensive responder believes he or she is right and is unwilling and unable to accept divergent views and opinions. Whatever the course of a conflict is in society, it is important to ensure that the conflicting parties desist from being defensive, evasive, and passive. They should approach the problem the way it is and create an environment that allows for a critical and objective analysis of the situation, using the Bible as the guide. Christians must live under the Lordship of Jesus Christ, which calls for submitting totally to Him. Jesus has the answers for all the problems we may have, and we only need to call on Him and listen to his Commands. The goal is to forget what is behind, aim for what is ahead (Philippians 3:13), and build trusting and lasting relationships.

Once Christians have resolved conflicts, it is important to focus on peacekeeping. Although peacemaking is good, peacekeeping is more important because it ensures a lasting positive relationship between believers. The Bible says in Psalms 133:1, behold, how good and pleasant it is when brothers dwell in unity. Christians should live like brothers and sisters at all times, which means solving problems when they occur and creating effective strategies for maintaining peace. It also involves addressing sin and using the Bible as the absolute guide for everything the Christian does. It is possible to live harmoniously and leave the heavy burden to Jesus, and He will make it light. Jesus knows our hearts and judges us fairly according to our deeds. Our only hope is in him because he never fails; he died for us.

Van Yperens book provides great advice on how to handle conflicts in the church and maintain harmony and unity for the sake of the Kingdom of Heaven. This work results from more than ten years of knowledge, experience, and work in resolving conflicts in churches. Being the representation of Jesus Christ, the church must lead by example to attract more people to the Kingdom. The author gives many alternatives churches can use to achieve this objective. The author does a perfect job organizing the content for anyone to read and follow. It was thoughtful of the author to begin the book with a description of the mess we are in, the root causes of these conflicts, and strategies for leading and forming biblical communities.

I agree with the author that all conflict is about leadership. Conflict in the church means that the pastor, priest, bishop, or any other leader of that community of believers has failed to provide guidance and direction to the congregants. Churches, like business organizations, need and rely on effective leaders to survive, grow, and expand (Smith, 2019, p.218). Ineffective church leaders cause problems by mismanaging resources, showing bias, disrespecting and mistreating others. The biblical view of conflict provided in the book explains why Christians must lead by example and how they can do that. I agree with the author that we cannot run away from conflict or hide from it as Christians.

It is also impossible for us to leave vindication for God, take conflict as a personal matter, or run away from the responsibility of peacekeeping (which is distinct from peacemaking). The information provided in this part of the book encourages me to take an active role in church matters and ensure peace prevails because it is the collective responsibility of all believers. We must also appreciate what the LORD has done by distinguishing between church conflict and counterfeit peace. Although Churches can become unhealthy, they can receive healing from God and retain their position as prospering communities of believers.

References

Van Yperen, J. (2008). Making peace: A guide to overcoming church conflict. Moody Publishers.

Smith, C. C. (2019). How the body of Christ talks: Recovering the practice of conversation in the Church. Brazos Press.

The book under consideration is called al-Qushayris Epistle on Sufism. It can be considered as an original textbook that served as a guide for generations of Sufi beginners (Al-Qushayri 10). It introduces readers to the everyday lives of Sufism proponents as well as to ethical and moral dilemmas they are encountering to strike the balance between difficulties of life in a society ruled by wealth, rank, and military power and their ascetic convictions. This work is considered to be a model of representation of Sufism being also the most authoritative and consistent in Sufi tradition.

The book is composed of four major sections that are followed by an appendix. In the first section, the author briefly introduces readers to theological concepts. The second section consists of biographic narrations presented in chronological order. In the third section, the author offers definitions of Sufi terminology and, finally, the fourth part provides thematic chapters disclosing the theoretical and practical framework of Sufism. A structured organization of the book, thus, makes it easier for readers to explore the basics of Sufism through a skillful combination of experiences and concepts introduced.

The translated passages begin with the introduction of biography which connections the first biographies with the period of the prophet of Islam (Calder, Mojaddedi, and Rippin 243). All definitions of the terms are presented in a consistent manner where one term is logically linked to another.

In the Epistle, the author provides numerous anecdotes and parables revealing al-Qushayris fellow Sufi in different contexts. In particular, he describes them making a pilgrimage to Mecca, suffering from thirst and hunger in the desert, and participating in various spiritual rites. It is worth saying that the work contains notes of mysticism where the author provides the scenes of working miracles and praying. In the narrative, the Sufi, or friends of God are described as the true kinds of the worlds who cannot be compared with worldly rules whose power is nourished by the commonly established beliefs (Al-Qushayri 12). However, Sufis privilege to work magic does provide them with the right to salvation, which is the prerogative of God who tends to check the moral loyalty and integrity of his supporters.

The book provides a more classical approach to portraying the adherents of Sufism. Presented in the epistolary form, the work is an expressive exposition of religious themes, emphasizing the fall of religion and calling for the revival of true faith (Holt, Lambton, and Lewis 614). While summarizing the Sufis, Al-Qushayri pays special attention to the doctrine of Unitarianism (tawhid) and enumerates the movement leaders. Further in the work, the author provides explanations for terms related to Sufism, including maqam (station), Waqt (mystical moment), hal (state), bast (expansion), and qabd (contraction). While identifying the terms, al-Qushayri was following in al-Sarrajs footsteps. Distinguishing between state and stations enables the author to split the process of working magic into two parts. Hence, the station appears at the first stage that is headed by Tawba, or conversion. In such a way, al-Qushayri transfers from one station to another until a person comes to satisfaction, or ride. This stage is differently described in books, but the author makes a compromise by presenting this state as a transition between maqam and hal. It should be stressed that the book is closely intertwined with Quran while providing a parallel interpretation of Sufi terms. Additionally, it should be noted that the discussion of Rida is closely connected with the systematic method considered in the final section of the book. Though the sections are loosely connected, the author begins each chapter with relevant citations and quotes that connect it with previous sayings and assumptions.

In the books, the author presents an original approach to depicting the main concept of Sufism. Hence, this Epistle can be considered as a synthesis of orthodox theology and Sufism. In particular, the author provides the origins of Sufism philosophy whose supporters were striving to purify their minds and souls, to be isolated from routine, and to blur the boundaries between human races (Omri 110). At this point, al-Qushayri is closely connected with Christian visions of God.

A deep analysis of the structure and context of al-Qushayris work provides valuable and consistent information about the theory and practice of Sufism. Therefore, the book can be considered as a reliable and valid source for readers to consult the major terms and concepts. A special consideration deserves the authors unique approach to describing the main pillars of this science that provides links not only with Islam but with other world religions such as Christianity. At the same time, the author successfully manages to provide his unique outlook on science and the supporters of Sufism who are presented as the eternal bearer of divine virtues and loyal devotees to God. In this regard, the book will be of great value for those readers who want to cognate the basics of Islam religions that can be drawn from mystical narration about the life of Sufi masters.

Works Cited

Al-Qushayri, AbuL-Quasim. Al-Qushayri;s Epistle on Sufism: Al-risala Al-quashayriyya Fi ilm Al-tasawwuf. Trans. Alexandr Knysh. US: Garnet Publishing, 2007.

Calder, Norman, Mojaddedi, Jawid Ahmad, Rippin, Andrew. Classical Islam: a sourcebook of religious literature. NJ: Routledge, 2003.

Holt, Peter Malcolm, Lambton, Ann, K. S. and Lewis, Bernard. The Cambridge History of Islam. US: Cambridge University Press, 1977.

Omri, Mohammed Salah. Nationalism, Islam, and world literature: sites of confluence in the writing of Mahmud al-Masadi. US: Taylor & Francis, 2006.

Introduction

Buddhism consists of a set of religious practices predominant in Asia. Siddhartha Gautama, also referred to as the Buddha, founded the religion in ancient India. The focus of Buddhism is to achieve a state of enlightenment without the involving priests or gods. The way Buddha is represented in different Asian societies varies depending on local traditions and religious teachings within a particular community.

Buddhism in Asia

Buddhism has been dominant in Asia for centuries since Siddhartha Gautama began preaching the faith in the 4^th century B.C in India. The religious teachings explain that Gautama was the 28^th Buddha to live on earth (Sen, 2014). The previous Buddhas lived hundreds of thousands of years earlier. Buddhism spread to China during the Han dynasty after the Silk Road was opened, and the Chinese started building sculptures and temples associated with the deity (Stokstad & Cothren, 2018). The followers of the faith made statues that depicted Buddha in a seated position while meditating. However, the carvings differed in size in different geographical locations since individual artists conferred different tastes when creating the artwork. In China, Buddhists also incorporated features of the religion in architecture and paintings. Furthermore, Stokstad and Cothren (2018) claim that the Chinese made caves along the trade routes where travelers would rest and meditate. More so, monks and nuns built residence caves along the trade routes showing the significance of the religion in the country.

Representations of Buddha in Different Countries

The representation of Buddha in Asia differs based on the specific deity worshiped in a particular region. However, the dominant images of Buddha include sculptures of Gautama Buddha, Amitabha Buddha, and Vairocana Buddha (Sen, 2014). While most of the statues depict meditation, they vary in appearance, size, and location. In ancient China, many sculptures of the Amitabha Buddha, fourth most revered Buddha, were common (Sen, 2014). In addition, the Amitabha Buddhas sculptures are prevalent in Japan and China today, characterized by large figures that are displayed in public areas (Stokstad & Cothren, 2018). Moreover, one of the famous Chinese Buddhist artwork is the bronze altar for Amitabha Buddha (Stokstad & Cothren, 2018). On the other hand, the Japanese represent Vairocana Buddha inside temples, using smaller gold-plated statues in comparison to Amitabha Buddha. As Buddhism spread to Korea from China, the Koreans made various representations of Buddha using carvings and paintings including the bronze image of bodhisattva Maitreya, Seokguram, and a painting of Gwanseeum Bosal. Bosal is the revered bodhisattva of compassion (Stokstad & Cothren, 2018). Although the bodhisattvas are not Buddhas, they represent beings on the journey to the full enlightenment status of Buddha.

Buddhism is also dominant in Thailand where followers are strict adherents to the teachings of Gautama. The Buddha sculptures in the country are often gold-plated and adorable. In addition, Thai people incorporate Buddhist designs in their temples. However, Japan portrays a more significant variation in Buddha representation. The Japanese schools of Buddhism follow Amitabha Buddha, and Vairocana Buddha, which implies the presence of different Buddha statues. Similar to the other Asian nations, the Japanese have temples, festivals, and monasteries that represent Buddhism and its teachings. Other Southeast nations, such as Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, practice Theravada Buddhism and have sculptures of Buddha Gautama.

Conclusion

The representation of Buddha in the south and Southeast Asia vary depending on local traditions and religious teachings. Despite different communities subscribing to the ideologies of a particular Buddha, the most dominant depictions feature the Gautama Buddha. In that way, his philosophy defines most of religious practices, lifestyles, and instructions observed in Asia.

References

Sen, T. (Ed.). (2014). Buddhism across Asia: Networks of material, intellectual and cultural exchange, volume 1. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.

Stokstad, M., & Cothren, M. (2018). Art history volume 1. Pearson.