Category: Religion

Origins of Hinduism and Its Influence on Federalism

The formation of Hindu India was created by the Indus Valley civilization of Harappa and Mohenjodaro (2000 to 1500 BC); many of the traditions of Indian society and Hinduism were developed from the Indus Valley. A major part of Hinduism is the caste system, which is basically a social structure. Hinduism established the idea that everyone is a part of the cycle of birth and death. It is taught that one is born into their caste, and their karma (a person’s actions in life) will ultimately determine the caste and power of the person’s next life. However, a person can escape the cycle of reincarnation through salvation with the union of his/her soul (atman) and the Supreme Reality (parma man). The four Varna (classifications) in the caste system are Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and then Sudras (manual laborers).

The higher castes, Brahmins and Kshatriyas, have the greatest social status and power compared to the middle caste, Vaishyas, and then finally, the lowest caste, the Sudras, have the least power in society. One of the main beliefs behind Hinduism is the idea of a hierarchical social order in which each class has its own tasks that need to be performed in order to establish social functions in society. Each of the four Varna is expected to fulfill its role in society to establish social order. However, the status and function of castes (jatis) will be different in each region in India. Hinduism also calls for tolerance of other humans, honesty, and piety.

Hindu Nationalism vs. Indian Nationalism: Federal Impacts

It’s important to note how Hinduism impacted the Indian political system. The caste system has played an important role in Indian politics. Even though untouchability was legally abolished, it is still recognized in some parts of India. Some Dalits (formerly untouchables) have been denied acceptance into political jobs because of their social status. However, more Dalits have gained social mobility by serving as important government officials. For example, in 1997, K. R. Narayanan became the first Dalit to become president of India.

The BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party) also represents a view of nationalism originating from Hinduism. The ideology behind the BJP is that India’s national identity comes from Hindu culture; therefore, that is why there is a Hindu majority in India. The party also calls for the idea that nations are built on the grounds of common culture and traditions, and India should incorporate Hindu beliefs and practices into statehood. The BJP continues to be a strong party and challenger to the Congress Party to this day.

Even though there are different cultures and religions that are in existence in India, Hinduism continues to be the dominant cultural identity in society. Hindus are known for their belief in being powerless to change one’s destiny because of the idea of reincarnation and their cycle of birth and death. It is also widely known that the desire for wealth and power is inevitable. Hindus should put the spiritual salvation of Supreme Reality before all desires and goals. However, Hindus often put emphasis on material wants rather than on spiritual values in everyday life.

Flexibility in Hinduism: A Catalyst for Federalism in Diversity

The Hinduism worldview is especially known for its flexibility when it comes to rules within the religion. Since there is no one authority over the Hindus, there is then no enforcement of rules. God can be worshiped in many different ways; one can choose different paths in life to reach spiritual salvation, and Hindus are allowed to worship any deity that they want to.

There are not many religions around the world that also have this flexibility. With this flexibility, it lets Hindus live peacefully with the followers of other religions that are located in India (Buddhism, Jainism, and Christianity). However, it is universally known that Hindus and Muslims have not been so peaceful living next to each other. Indian nationalism describes the elements in which India was founded, where it recognizes the diversity throughout India and rejects the idea of eliminating the diversity that India has acquired over the years, which is evident with the many religions and cultures throughout India. The founders of Indian nationalism understand that each person in India belongs to various communities, caste systems, religions, occupations, and many more elements that make up their lives.

Despite having a Hindu majority in India, the founders were also knowledgeable that Hindus have a tradition of tolerance and respect for all religions and are able to take in other ideas, values, and customs. Therefore, with this idea in mind, the founders believed that minority religions and cultures would be able to contribute to the diversity in India. A major thought behind Indian nationalism is the structure and organization in India, where higher authority can be a factor used to transform traditional ideas to make society more efficient.

According to Oberst, Middle-class elites, exponents of Indian nationalism, were wedded to the ideals of modern science, industrialization of the country, distributive justice, protection of the rights and cultures of ethnic and religious minorities, and development of a secular democratic polity based on the British system of parliamentary government.

Hindu nationalists, however, started to challenge the idea of Indian nationalism starting in the 1980s. Hindu nationalism calls for a single, unified national identity throughout India, rejecting the idea that India is full of diversity. Followers believe that “Hindu” does not have a religious connection to the term; rather, it is connected to a mass identity. Hindu nationalists believe that there is no nationalism without Hindu culture, and therefore, the nation as a whole is unable to maintain unity.

Followers argue nationalism comes from common traditions and culture, meaning that India is not just their homeland but rather their motherland. Hindu nationalists were influenced by the British ideas of equality over the law, a uniform civil code, democracy, universal suffrage, and a representative government. However, they do not like giving special rights and/or protection to the minorities in India.

Federalism and Indian Nationalist Ideals: Nehru’s Vision

Both Indian nationalism and Hindu nationalism shaped what the Indian political system is today, but Indian nationalism played a bigger role. Even though India does practice some of the Hindu nationalists’ ideology of democracy, universal suffrage, and a system of representative government, India incorporates more ideologies coming from the Indian nationalists. Jawaharlal Nehru was a big advocate for many of the Indians.

Nationalists ideals. Nehru pushed for new science and technology along with industrialization of India to create a stable nation, just like the Indian nationalists pushed for. India also adopted many fundamental rights for all people, including the minorities in India. Some of the rights India had created for its people were freedom of religion, freedom of exploitation, freedom to form associations, freedom of movement, and freedom to assemble peacefully without arms. Along with this, India’s government is based on the British system of parliamentary government, an element that Indian nationalism called for.

The Structure of Indian Federalism: Power Dynamics

India’s government is a parliamentary democracy, which was adopted by the British. The Indian constitution outlines a federal system that separates the powers of the national government from the state government. This system is efficient in allowing institutions to grant self-government to the people. According to Oberst et al., Despite the existence of a powerful central government, the state governments have control over such important subjects as public order, police, administration of justice, agriculture, water supply and irrigation, education, public health, land righting, industries, and mineral development. They have the right to levy taxes to raise revenue for their administrations and to determine policies related to land use and land distribution, as well as agricultural and industrial development within their states.

In short, the state governments control the distribution of goods and services for their specific area, direct the people towards satisfactory means of living, and promote the interests of weaker parts of societies. State governments have no control over the law, and therefore, they are not enforced by the courts. Many times, officeholders on the state level have upgraded their positions to national office positions. State politicians also have close relations with community leaders and power local interests, which helps them to stay in power.

The state politicians also stay in power by appealing to issues concerning caste, ethnicity, religion, women, tribal and landless people, the environment, rural development, mining and industrial development, and socioeconomic reforms. India’s central government is headed by the president, the Chief of State, the prime minister, and the Head of Government, who holds the executive powers, and the Supreme Court, which holds judiciary powers.

Parliament holds the legislative powers. National leaders tend to stay in power by decreasing the outlook of traditional divisions that exist in India. The constitution outlines the national government’s powers concerning matters of creating states from existing states as well as creating and abolishing the second chambers of the state legislature, which can be done by a majority in parliament, creating fundamental rights that need a two-thirds majority vote in parliament, and deals with the offices and powers of the president, prime minister, and Supreme Court, which also need a two-thirds vote majority and ratification by the majority of the state legislative assembly.

Indira Gandhi’s Reign: Federalism’s Tensions Amplified

There have been lots of conflicts between the center and state governments that can be traced back to India’s first woman prime minister, Indira Gandhi. Under her control, Indira Gandhi reduced state party organizations; therefore, they wouldn’t play an important part in the regions they represented. She also undermined the authority of the state governments, which in turn impacted federalism in a negative way. The first authoritarian rule that Indira Gandhi administered was the declaration of a national emergency in 1975 due to the widespread discontent over her failed economic policies. Her policies were unable to reduce unemployment, control inflation, and cut widespread corruption.

However, with this declaration, she was able to arrest all her political opponents and other opposition leaders and party workers. She also enforced rigid press censorship; numerous organizations were banned, and parliamentary and police organizations became arbitrary. She also successfully amended the constitution so that the prime minister was free from judicial control. Then, in 1977, she tried to get the parliamentary elections to legitimize the state of emergency and her authority and constitutional changes during that time. However, her party lost the election, and therefore she was never elected to parliament.

Indira Gandhi was able to increase the power of the federal government while decreasing the power of the state governments. When she was reelected in 1980, she frequently appointed discredited state politicians and her loyalists as governors of the opposition-run state governments and then moved those governors who did not follow her orders. Under Indira Gandhi, the fall of state governments by the federal government, with the encouragement of defection from the opposition parties, became popular. She believed that the state opposition was directed towards her and, because of this, used the president’s rule to dismiss elected state leaders.

This has caused lots of tension between the center and state governments over the years. The national government also has greater financial resources than the states do, which also contributes to the tensions between central and state governments. The center has been making many grants – in – aids, budgetary provisions, and financial institutions that have been interfering with the state government’s projects. With the center–state tussle, the center normally prevails because it ultimately has the power from the judiciary branch to enforce checks and balances on leaders who are abusing their power, and the federal government also has the opportunity to not vote someone into office with a two-thirds majority vote. A vote of no confidence can also be issued by parliament to remove someone from office.

Diverse Views on Federalism: India’s Party Perspectives

Since there is this prevailing Center – State tussle in Indian politics, many different groups have formed, and these groups have different opinions about the federal versus state government and its powers. The Akali Dal of Punjab, a Sikh party, believes that the state should have all the power except the powers concerning defense, foreign affairs, communications, railway, and currency. Another group led by moderate regional leaders believes that there should be a distance maintained from the political control of New Delhi and a reassertion of federalism that is outlined in the constitution. Another group led by M. Karunanidhi of Tamil Nadu and Jyoti Basu of West Bengal advocated for a revision of the center-state relations.

Mughal Empire’s Influence on Indian Federalism and Unity

The Mughal Empire established control over most of India starting in the sixteenth century. The Mughals were western and central Asians. The Mughal Empire was successful in establishing control over much of India, but many southern Hindu kingdoms refused the empire’s control. The Mughals were able to rule from the Khyber Pass to Bengal. Along with this, the empire was able to secure a stable and centralized rule over India directed from Lahore, Agra, and Delhi.

The Mughal Empire’s founder was named Babur, who was able to take control over Delhi in 1562. However, it was Babur’s grandson, Akbar, who was successful in laying a politically stable rule in India. Akbar was opposed to Islamic traditions and tried to create an Indian culture with both Hindu and Muslim values. Akbar was able to incorporate the Hindus in the civil and military administrations, and he also tried to end the religious divide by creating a more unified society by making alliances with the Hindu princely house of Rajasthan.

The Mughals had allowed numerous Hindu kingdoms to have autonomy as long as the Hindus had complete support for the Mughal authority. There was a lots of criticism that came along with the Bhakti (devotional) movement concerning Hindu Brahmins and Muslim ulema (religious scholars). Saint poets like Nanak and Kabir advocated for a personal relationship with one’s god and, in the process, tried to bring together the teachings of both Hinduism and Islam.

Muslims Sufis were influenced by Hindi mysticism and also tried similar teachings. Akbar had some success in unifying the Hindus and Muslims into a coherent society. Many places of worship were then created, and Hindus and Muslims visited them. Despite this small positive effect on the Indian people, there was still a division and sense of hostility among the Hindus and Muslims throughout India.

The Roots of Federalism: Language and Culture

The division was furthered by the Urdu language. The Mughal rulers spoke Urdu, which is a very popular language in literary traditions and written in Persian script, spoken widely around Delhi. Both Hindus and Muslims, over time, have helped create what the Urdu language is today, along with Urdu literature, but many Hindus believe that Urdu is a Muslim culture. Hindu nationalists to this day have discarded the Urdu language and literature, and they consider Hindi to be the real language of North India. Along with creating a stable and centralized control in India, the Mughal Empire had other positive effects on the Indian people.

The Mughal Empire was also able to build forts and some beautiful mausoleums in India. Akbar also practiced religious tolerance that his succors did not follow. The Islamic orthodoxy prohibited interreligious marriages, destroyed Hindu temples, and enforced a poll tax (jizya) on the Hindus.

And even though Urdu did create some tension between the Hindus and the Muslims, it did bring new literary traditions to India. The Mughal Empire, in short, had many positive effects on India: agricultural achievements, political stability, educational accomplishments, and new literary traditions that all contributed to India’s heritage. However, a negative effect of the empire was the creation of a stronger division between the Hindus and the Muslims.

British East India Company’s Reign and its Implications

In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I created a chart that created the British East India Company. The British East India Company was given a monopoly over all British trade with India, and as the company grew, it became evident that more government and military functions were needed in India. The company had established the city of Calcutta in East India, and that is where its headquarters were located until the British Crown took over direct control of India in 1862.

After the decline of the Mughals starting after 1750, the British East India Company had taken over most of the Mughal control and even applied the Mughal’s rule over the Indians. Some of this territory was ruled by the British East India Company, while other territory was controlled directly by the British governor-general and was called British India. Other territories were controlled by local rulers; these areas were called princely states. The British created different agreements with each of the princely states, and the British even gave most of them autonomy while remaining in control of the foreign affairs and defense. A similarity between the Mughal rule and the British East India Company was the fact that both of them granted some autonomy to the Indians.

The Power Dynamics: Mughal vs. British Intentions

However, they differ because the Mughal Empire was just looking for a place to settle down, while the British only wanted to exploit India’s resources to make a profit. The intentions of the British East India Company were to increase the economy in Britain while controlling the Indians and their resources, while the Mughal’s intention was to find a good location to settle down and establish rule. The Mughal Empire was also relatively peaceful to the Indians, while the British East India Company was oppressive and caused a war to erupt in India.

India refers to the 1857 Indian or Sepoy Mutiny as their first war of independence. In short, this war was started due to the British East Indian Company not paying close attention to the Indian princely states and the people living there. The uprising was coordinated and led by the sepoys, British East India Company’s army soldiers located in India. The Indians had a good start to the revolt, but the British did prevail and were able to win back control of India. Many people, British and Indians, were killed because of this revolt. The British Crown dissolved the British East India Company’s control over India in 1858.

The Rise of Indian National Congress and Challenges Faced

The Indian National Congress was formed in 1885 to be the representative of the Indian people, advocating for greater representation. The Congress Party held dominance in Indian politics during the Nehru years of 1947 – 1964. Under his administration, he was credited for building India’s modern political institutions as well as India’s economic and foreign policies. Nehru was willing to accommodate the Congress Party chief ministers even if they did not agree with his ideas and policies. Along with this, he rarely intervened in the chief ministers’ affairs as long as they followed the party platform somewhat. Nehru was also able to withstand the right wing of the Congress Party, which was no longer as willing to accommodate the Indian Muslims equally to the Hindu majority. The right-wing wanted to favor the Hindu majority, but Nehru succeeded by granting the Muslims and other minorities equal rights.

The Congress Party, under Nehru, was able to assist diverse interests. Nehru took the position of a national referee, especially for economic and social policy. However, after Nehru’s administration, the Congress Party started to decline and would not take dominance again until the 2004 and 2009 general elections with Sonia Gandhi as party chief. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerged as the second largest party in Lok Sabha with their victories in 1991, 1996-1997 and 1999.

The BJP ideology advocates that the Indian national identity comes from Hindu culture. The BJP also shows support for centralized and state-directed economic planning. The party also stressed the industrialization of India, therefore granting India great economic and military power. The BJP is unwilling to grant political or economic demands of religious and ethnic minorities. The BJP has also shown greater nationalistic and militant actions when dealing with foreign or security policies. The party has also failed to show responsible leadership after winning elections.

Under the BJP, there were economic reforms that were put in place in 1991, and by the end of 1996, India’s economy had a 6.5 percent growth rate. India’s foreign exchange reserve also grew to $35 billion from 1991 to 2000 under the BJP. However, the Congress Party had more success in economic growth than the BJP. In 2006, under the Congress Party, India’s GDP grew by 9.2 percent, and foreign direct investment grew by 44 percent.

The Two Approaches to India’s Progress: Traditionalists vs. Modernists

After India’s independence from Britain, it was up to the elites of India to figure out how to rule the country. There were two distinctive approaches: the traditionalists and the modernists. The traditionalists’ viewpoint came from Gandhi and his moral and religious perspectives. He did not approve of the profit motive, the tyranny of machines, and the competition of the market economy. He instead agreed with the strict limits on private property and the development of agricultural and consumer cooperatives. He was a big advocate for maintaining an agricultural-based economy while expanding traditional small industries, which he thought would lead the villages to self–sufficiency.

He also saw the need for a low consumption of resources and the use of machinery and technology that was suitable for the small, local societies. His approaches would have led India to a higher investment of resources in India; however, Gandhi’s traditionalist ways would not have competed with the modern industrial growth that was inevitable in India. Jawaharlal Nehru represented the modernist approach. Nehru was inspired by socialist thought and looked to science and technology and investment in capital goods in order to bring India to success.

He also advocated for centralized planning and increased output of technically skilled labor as technological-based thought. The state would then be in charge of setting the development standards and priorities for India. In the end, Nehru’s ideas prevailed, and India was on track to become a scientific and technological country.

Pakistan’s Birth and Ideological Struggles

When the partition happened in 1947, Pakistan came into existence. Before partition, the Muslims were looking for a homeland where they wouldn’t be dominated by a Hindu majority. That being said, Pakistan’s political ideas and values have been centered on the meaning of Muslim nationalism. Muslim nationalism represents the people who live in Pakistan and their push for a stable democratic policy, which, therefore, means that Muslim nationalism is the same thing as Pakistani nationalism.

However, there are also Islamists who reside in Pakistan who believe that Muslim nationalism has a different meaning. The Islamists believe that there should be Islamic law throughout Pakistan, especially shown in punishments and justice, how to train judges and legislation. They also favor Islamic traditions like the prohibition of alcohol and gender segregation. Overall, their goal is to transform Pakistan into having a greater emphasis on Islamic ideals. The five major ethnic groups or nations that reside in Pakistan are the Punjabis, Singhis, Pakhtuns, muhajirs (they are the Indian Muslims who chose to come to Pakistan during partition), and the Baloch.

Pakistan’s national language is Urdu, and a majority of the people of Pakistan speak and/or understand the language. However, English tends to be the language spoken in higher education, courts, and government, but only five percent of the population can either speak or understand English. Islam is also Pakistan’s predominant religion. Islam is based on teachings from the Prophet Muhammad and found in the Quran. However, in the beginning, Pakistan’s record as an independent nation was not a successful one. Pakistan has had five constitutions. The Government of India Act of 1935, modified by the Indian Independence Act of 1973, was Pakistan’s first constitution that was in place at independence, and then four other constitutions were made in 1956, 1962, 1972, and 1973. Also, during 1958-1962 and 1969-1971, Pakistan functioned under no written constitution.

Challenges and Struggles Impacting Federalism in Pakistan

Pakistan also underwent four military coups and three wars with India, with one being a major defeat for Pakistan. Pakistan also had failure to formulate a stable democratic policy along with a stable economic policy. The country was also unable to resolve the regional and sectarian issues. Pakistan also had trouble with stopping the internal terrorism that was evident. The problem concerning Kashmir was also something Pakistan was unable to resolve. The average quality of life has risen in Pakistan over the last few decades.

According to Oberst et al., the four indicators that constitute the basis for the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) Human Development Index (HDI) since 1980 (1980-2011). Pakistan’s mean life expectancy has risen 7.5 years from 57.9 to 65.4; the expected mean years of schooling (for those under twenty-five) has risen 1.2 years from 5.7 to 6.9; the mean years of schooling for adults (older than twenty-five) had risen 3.1 years from 1.8 to 4.9; and Pakistan’s gross national income per capita in real terms has more than doubled from $1.228 to $2,550.

However, despite the growth of Pakistan over the last few years, when comparing Pakistan’s performance in HDI to other South Asian countries, Pakistan is not doing very well. In 2011, Pakistan ranked 145th out of 187 when comparing HDI. The cause of Pakistan’s lower quality of life is found to be because of demographic and political challenges. Pakistan has experienced rapid population growth, with a two percent increase each year. In 2011, Pakistan’s population was estimated to be 176.4 million, and Pakistan’s population is expected to be around 220 million in 2025.

With such a high population, this can do some damage to Pakistan’s services in health, education, and transportation, and this can also cause the unemployment rate to rise. The two Afghanistan wars and the unfriendly feelings toward India have also strained Pakistan politically. Pakistan also has lots of troubles concerning security and having effective governments and military rule, which also can contribute to the lower HDI in Pakistan.

Constitutional Journey of Pakistan: Challenges and Delays

The Constituent Assembly (CA) was created in 1946 and would serve as a parliament. After partition, Pakistan was governed under the CA, which would double as a National Assembly until Pakistan came up with a written constitution by the CA under the Government of India Act 1935 and amended by the Indian Independence Act. The CA had to define the basic principles for Pakistan. During this time, the CA would have the power to enact legislation. However, there was a major controversy over the CA and this power; it was uncertain if the CA could pass legislation without the govern-general’s consent. Another major concern was whether or not the governor-general would hold the power to disband the CA.

Ghulam Muhammad, the governor-general in 1954, decided to disband the CA, arguing that the CA was unable to present a constitution to Pakistan, and the Supreme Court of Pakistan upheld this decision. The Supreme Court also said that the governor-general had the right to disband the CA and also the power to veto legislation that the CA had passed. Therefore, a second Constituent Assembly was created, but with far less power; the second CA could only do as much as the governor-general had allowed them to.

Pakistan took a long nine years to finally come up with a constitution. A major reason why Pakistan took so long to create a constitution was the fact that Pakistan was trying to govern both East Pakistan and West Pakistan. It’s hard to make an effective constitution that is effective when another nation, India, separates Pakistan in two. Another reason for the lack of a constitution is that there are five major ethnic groups living in Pakistan, all of which have different cultures and ideas. This caused lots of sectarian and regional differences. Another reason for this was due to the religious indifferences. The Objectives Resolution was passed under the CA, which outlined the Islamic details that would be incorporated into the constitution.

Federalism and Constitutional Challenges in Pakistan

According to Oberst et al., “Wherein the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance, and social justice, as enunciated by Islam with the teachings and requirements of Islam, as set put by the Holy Quran and Sunnah.” Even though these provisions are located in Pakistan’s constitution, it took the Basic Principles Committee almost three years to file a report about the Objectives Resolution. Some were hesitant about having Islam as part of the constitution. Another problem was the fact that Pakistan was a new nation, and coming up with a constitution all on their own took a while to complete and agreements with the majority. Another reason for the delay is the fact that Pakistan went through five different constitutions in the process; Pakistan had a very difficult time coming up with efficient ways of control and development. Finally, Pakistan has had many leaders. However, not very many have been effective at their job, and many of them tend to abuse their power, which in turn then led to new ideas about how the country should be run.

Early Constitutional Frameworks

Pakistan’s first constitution was publicized on March 23, 1956. Under this constitution, Pakistan was established as an Islamic republic, and instead of there being a governor-general, there would be a president. In an attempt to find a solution to East Pakistan, now Bangladesh, Iskander Mirza (governor-general from 1955-1956 and president from 1956-1958) amalgamated West Pakistan into one unit in 1955, which only made further issues finding a solution to govern East Pakistan and West Pakistan both effectively. Also, the Muslim League lacked support in East Pakistan; the Awami League was really the only party that had support in East Pakistan. Due to the unstable political parties, there was no general elections to the National Assembly were held, which further weakened the government. Iskander Mirza was then forced to decide to suspend political activity, disband the legislative assembly, and declare martial law.

Transformation through the Eighteenth Amendment

Asif Ali Zardari, the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), and the Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML (N)) came to an agreement, which then resulted in the Eighteenth Amendment. The Amendment was passed on April 8, 2010, and changed Pakistan’s constitution. It eliminated the president’s power to dissolve the National Assembly, only chief ministers were able to dissolve their provincial governments, and finally, it made the president and governor advisory to the prime minister and chief ministers. The Amendment overall reduced the power of the president and governor while making the prime minister and chief ministers heads of their governments. Before the passage of the Amendment, Pakistan’s federal system was very weak.

The federal and provincial powers were governed by a federal legislative list, which showed the powers that were specific to the federal government, and a concurrent legislative list, which showed the powers that were shared between the federal and provincial governments. If any disagreements occurred between the two, then the federal government would win.

However, the Eighteenth Amendment eliminated the concurrent list, therefore creating only provincial authority to criminal law, criminal procedure, family law, newspapers, curricula, and standards of education and welfare of labor, to name a few. Under the Amendment, Parliament would be able to veto appointments to the superior judiciary. The Supreme Court, though, decided that the Amendment was extra-constitutional and suggested revising the power of parliamentary authority to transfer the power to the judges.

Then, on December 20, 2010, the Amendment was passed, which did take the Supreme Court’s ideas into consideration. After the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment, Pakistan returned to a civilian–led prime ministerial system, but the government was weakened tremendously. 8. Pakistan borders India and Afghanistan. This causes lots of external threats to Pakistan. Pakistan and India have gone to war three times (1948, 1965, and 1971) and were close to another war in 1999 and 2008.

Both countries also have access to nuclear weapons since 1998. Then, in 2001-2002, after the attack on the Lok Sabha in Delhi, which India claims was Pakistani, the two countries were again close to war, but it was avoided because an intervention was made by both India and Pakistan. The India – Pakistan conflict has died down somewhat. However, the issues concerning Kashmir, the Indian claim against Pakistani terrorism, and the Pakistani claims that India still has ideas for furthering the conflict are still prevalent.

Afghanistan Conflict and Security Measures

Ever since the Soviets occupied Afghanistan from 1971-1989, Pakistan has been having trouble with the Afghanis. Many Afghani refugees came to Pakistan to escape the Soviets, and because of this, Pakistan’s unemployment has increased, and Pakistan has continued its involvement in the Afghani civil war. The Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), the Pakistani military, has become drawn into Afghan politics. The ISI has been known to have involvement with the training and arming of the Taliban, the Islamic Afghan military regime. Pakistani men with the Afghani youth from the refugee camps have fought with the mujahedeen groups fighting against the Soviets and with the Taliban when the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan.

In response to all the violence that Pakistan has endured with both India and Afghanistan, it’s not surprising that Pakistan is trying to create better security for their country. One way Pakistan has tried to create a better-secured country is through its military. In 2011, Pakistan had a standing army of 1.5 million, and Pakistan’s military spending was almost $5.7 billion.

After India’s experiments with nuclear weapons, Pakistan felt the need to do the same, and in 1974, Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto started a nuclear development program. In 1976, France had an agreement to supply Pakistan with nuclear weapons to further its development. The United States was in great opposition to this and had France stop supplying nuclear weapons to Pakistan.

Federalism and Global Challenges

The U.S. also cut all foreign assistance, all but food and aid, to Pakistan under the Foreign Assistance Act in 1977. Under the George H. W. Bush administration, the United States once again stopped supplying aid to Pakistan, specifically military and economic aid, in 1990. It was uncertain whether Pakistan was involved with nuclear weaponry until 1998 when Pakistan tested five nuclear developments; Pakistan went against the nuclear nonproliferation regime. International military and economic sanctions met over this violation, and the violation was lifted on the grounds that Pakistan joined the international coalition against the Taliban in 2001. In 2004, there was lots of discomfort when Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, who was the architect of the nuclear program in Pakistan, announced that he had sold nuclear secrets to Libya, Iran, and North Korea.

Bonus: There are many positive and negative effects both India and Pakistan have endured from the British occupation. However, there’s no doubt that the British helped shape India’s and Pakistan’s political system. The Indians use the Westminster model of government. The Westminster system is modeled after the United Kingdom and its parliamentary system and is a democratic form of government. However, even though the Indians did base their government on the British, it was not an exact copy of the British.

Under the British Parliament, there was a queen to serve the country. However, the Indians modified their system and decided not to have a queen or king. However, the queen in the United Kingdom is like the president in India, both of which are chiefs of state. Both India and the United Kingdom have a prime minister who holds the executive powers and is head of the government. Also, just like the British, India has a bicameral parliament in the legislative branch.

Something that the Indians really were pushing for and believed would strengthen the nation was having the people participate in the political process; thus, after independence, India became a Republic. The Indians adopted the British merit-based system of recruitment to the bureaucracy as well as an effective administrative system that the Indians use to this day. Recruitment is also a very long and thorough process, once again inherited by the British.

The Union Public Service Committee holds the power to examine the applications for the Indian bureaucracy. The Indian bureaucracy, while under British control, really only had the power to raise revenue, maintain law and order, and follow orders for the interests of the British rulers. After the British left India, the Indians did keep the bureaucracy, but they became more involved in the social and economic systems in India. Indians have set up a central government, provincial government, state government, and local government that all hold different degrees of power.

The Indians also practice federalism, meaning there is a separation between state government and federal government. The British also introduced uniformity in the civil and judicial system to the Indians and the rule of law, personal liberty, and equality. In 1949, India’s constitution was finally established, and it was based on Western legal tradition and liberal democratic ideas. The fundamental rights are found in the constitution to protect the civil rights and freedoms of the people.

The constitution, with its impressive list of rights, seeks to alter the traditional Indian system of social stratification based on birth and occupation. Its various articles abolish untouchability, provide equal opportunity for jobs, and ensure equality of individuals in the eyes of the law. Recognizing that a democratic polity cannot operate without freedoms, its articles provide such basic rights as freedom of speech and expression, freedom to form associations, freedom of movement, and freedom to assemble peacefully without arms.

These rights were created for the safety, equality, and freedom of the Indian people, all of which are protected by the Indian courts. After independence, the Indians could no longer depend on the British to get them resources, and soon enough, India started to lack important capital goods. Therefore, India used the British primarily agricultural economy; most of India is heavily dependent on agriculture. The British also introduced a network of highways, railroads, and post and telegraph systems, which helped give the Indians a means of traveling through their own country.

Trade also grew within India, and even after the British left, India was well on its way to developing a national economy that would be unified throughout India’s different regions. Pakistan’s first constitution was publicized on March 23, 1956. Under this constitution, Pakistan was established as an Islamic Republic, and instead of there being a governor-general, there would be a president.

Just like India, Pakistan is also based on the Westminster system. All powers of the government are held in the constitution. The president has the power to appoint a committee that would be in charge of making sure that the law is in respect of the Quran and Sunnah. Just like India, the president is the chief of state, and the prime minister is the head of government. Pakistan also has a bicameral parliament. Unlike India, Pakistan no longer has a vice president. Pakistan’s and India’s government is very similar to the British form of government. During 1999-2010, Pakistan was ruled under the military, something the Pakistanis took from the oppressive and violent British. The Pakistanis have found that throughout their time as an independent nation, the use of force was effective in gaining authority.

References

1. Oberst, Robert C., et al. Government and Politics in South Asia: Fifth Edition. Westview Press, 2013.
2. Brass, Paul R. “Elite groups, symbol manipulation, and ethnic identity among the Muslims of South Asia.” Comparative Studies in Society and History.
3. Nayar, Baldev Raj. Federalism in India: Origin and Development. Deep & Deep Publications, 1977.
4. Roy, Ramashray. “Hinduism in India’s Political Space: The Hindutva Movement and the Indian State.” The Politics of the Independence of India, edited by Rabindra Ray and Henry Schwarz, Routledge, 2013.
5. Breman, Jan. Of Peasants, Migrants and Paupers: Rural Labour Circulation and Capitalist Production in West India. Oxford University Press, 1996.
6. Raman, A. S. “Hinduism and Economic Development in India.” Social Scientist.
7. Ganguly, Sumit. “Hindu Nationalism and Indian Politics: The Origins and Development of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh.” Asian Survey, 1988.
8. Kohli, Atul. “Indian Democracy: Contradictions and Reconciliations.” Daedalus,1995.
9. Jalal, Ayesha. The Struggle for Pakistan: A Muslim Homeland and Global Politics. Harvard University Press, 2014.
10. Raghavan, Srinath. The Most Dangerous Place: A History of the United States in South Asia. Penguin Books, 2018.

Comparing Clifford and James: Belief, Evidence, and the Question of Justification

Carefully contrast and compare the positions of Clifford and James concerning the question of believing when we have inadequate evidence. Be careful to distinguish the precise area of disagreement between the two–it may not be as global as it at first seems. Is James right that in certain determinate questions or areas of life, belief without perfectly adequate evidence is justified? Or is Clifford right about such cases that the most we can do then is withhold judgment? Again, both thinkers give reasons for their position. Your job is to do the same as you compare the two positions.

Clifford captures his view, evidentialist, with the stark pronouncement that “it is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence.” Clifford, thus, stands as the paragon of intellectual honesty; he follows the arguments where they lead and spurns comforting fiction.

In contrast, James’s doctrine of the will-to-believe is summarized by his claim that “our passional nature not only lawfully may, but must, decide an option between propositions, whenever it is a genuine option that cannot by its nature be decided on intellectual grounds.” James offers a defense of the role of sentiments in intellectual life; he stands as the Romantic resistance to the demands of cold-blooded reason; he defends belief in the face of withering skepticism. Clifford and James are ironically opposed.

Approaches to Religious Belief: Contrasting Clifford’s Evidentialist View and James’s Will-to-Believe Doctrine

Clifford’s case against religious belief proceeds along two lines. First, Clifford argues that because the evidence is not sufficient to show that belief in God is true, one should not believe. That’s just evidentialist. Second, Clifford argues that the evidence also shows that belief in God encourages other intellectual and moral failures. According to Clifford, religious belief is not an isolated phenomenon but a one-off case of epistemic irresponsibility. On the contrary, Clifford holds that religious belief brings with it a host of other intellectual vices of credulity.

Alternately, James’s will-to-believe doctrine is committed to the proposition that religious belief may be responsibly held. Yet he does not give the religious believer carte blanche to believe at will whatever proposition that favors. Rather, James contends that religious belief is only a very specific kind of allowable. To be more specific, James argues that the most one is justified in adopting is what he calls the “religious hypothesis.”

James holds that because the arguments for the existence of the traditional God fail, the traditional conception of God fails as well. Accordingly, in James’s hands, religious belief is reconstructed. The religious hypothesis is less a view about God’s nature and existence and more a view about the place of hope in our lives. That is, James’s strategy for defending religious belief is simply to transform it into something else, something less theological. And so, according to James, religious belief is not about God, Jesus, Heaven, Hell, angels, immortality, souls, or miracles. It rather is simply the belief that “the more eternal things are best.” This is the belief that the will-to-believe doctrine aspires to defend.

Morality of Belief: A Clash of Perspectives between Clifford and James

I stated back in the discussion question that I believed that James’s theory was different; he believed that if you had evidence, you would have to support people’s abilities to apportion beliefs to evidence. But at the same time, Clifford argues that believing something upon insufficient evidence is like stealing from society, almost as if you are not allowed to grow in society.

In other words, Clifford holds that believing is always morally impermissible unless one has sufficient evidence. James holds that there are conditions under which it is morally permissible to believe a proposition that is not supported by sufficient evidence. Clifford holds that believing is always morally impermissible unless one has sufficient evidence. James holds that there are conditions under which it is morally permissible to believe a proposition that is not supported by sufficient evidence. These conditions are satisfied, according to James, by some religious propositions.

Clifford holds that believing is always morally impermissible unless one has sufficient evidence. James holds that there are conditions under which it is morally permissible to believe a proposition that is not supported by sufficient evidence. These conditions are satisfied, according to James, by some religious propositions.

References

1. Clifford, W.K. (1877). The Ethics of Belief. London: Watts & Co.
2. James, W. (1896). The Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy. Longmans, Green.
3. Plantinga, A. (1983). Warrant: The Current Debate. Oxford University Press.
4. Audi, R. (1994). Dispositional Beliefs and Dispositions to Believe. Noûs, 28(4), 419-434.
5. Kvanvig, J. L. (2003). The Value of Knowledge and the Pursuit of Understanding. Cambridge University Press.

Language and Perception: The Intricacies of Color Terminology Across Cultures

There are many different associations that color can bring up in people around the world. Some colors have universal associations, while others can completely contradict the associations of another region of the world. The different colors are used to represent emotions, people, seasons, religion, beauty, etc. It is important to remember that certain colors might have different meanings and associations in different areas of the world, depending on context.

When thinking about what associations colors have around the world, it is also important to consider how these different areas talk about color. Some languages don’t have words to describe the same colors that other areas might. For example, before the year 1500, there was no word to describe the color “orange” in the English language. It was simply referred to as “yellow-red.” This would make it a bit more difficult for this color to have any solid associations on a large cultural level. In a similar vein, the Boas and Shona languages in African don’t have a word to distinguish between orange and red.

Some languages have words only to describe black or dark, white or bright, and occasionally red. It would be a lot harder to talk about color the way we do in the United States if we only had three words to describe them. There are many languages around the world that only have one word to describe both green and blue. This is similar to the way that the English language would describe different shades of colors. For example, the way we would describe light blue and dark blue, but we still have the same term, “blue,” as an umbrella descriptor for both. It is also interesting to note that while English might have an extensive vocabulary for describing things like emotions or colors, other languages have more words to talk about odors and smells.

The Color Purple’s Counterpart: The Multifaceted Meanings of Red Across Cultures

There are interesting and different associations that are made with every color around the world. These associations can either vary drastically from location to location or share a very similar connotation among multiple different cultures. Because of this, many large companies, such as McDonald’s, review the colors that they use for branding differently in each region. In general, women are usually able to identify more colors than men, which makes their associations with color a bit deeper. There are also generalizations made about people’s color preferences. For instance, people who live in warmer, sunny climates tend to prefer warm colors, whereas those who live in colder, less sunny climates tend to prefer cooler-toned colors. Also, children tend to identify with brighter primary colors, and as people get older, they gravitate toward more muted, subdued colors.

Red is one of the most prominent colors all around the world. Because of this, there are many different associations that come along with it. One of the primary associations that cultures make with the color red is that of passion. This possibly stems from the fact that in China and India, red is used as a wedding color because it is said to bring luck and is traditionally the color that brides wear on their wedding day, as opposed to white, like in the United States. Red is also used and worn during mourning periods in South Africa. Both of these situations, marriage and death, are huge life events that bring out a lot of passion in many people. There was a study done on the associations made with red in The United Kingdom and China.

The findings showed that many participants associated red with healthiness, intersexual attraction, dominance, and aggressiveness. The study showed that while women tended to perceive men who were wearing red or in a red environment as more sexually attractive, men in red had no effect on other men’s perceptions of them. This study indicates some universality of the color red, as most people would agree that the UK and China are culturally quite different. As stated previously, red represents passion and love in Western cultures, but it can also represent danger, excitement, and communism.

In Indian culture, red is the color to represent love, beauty, purity, and fertility. Red also has associations with multiple religions. For example, it is associated with the crucifixion in Catholicism and Christianity and represents sacrifice and sin in Judaism. Red can also be a color of high status, as it is reserved for chiefs to wear in Nigeria. However, in the Middle East, red can be associated with evil, as it evokes feelings of caution or danger.

From Harvest to Royalty: The Diverse Connotations of Orange and Yellow

Orange is another color that has different ways of being red. For example, in the United States and Europe, orange is associated with the harvest and autumn, likely because of the changing color of the leaves. It is also associated with warmth and citrus fruits, like oranges. Orange is the national color of the Netherlands, so it is most commonly associated with royalty there. In India, a more golden orange color is typically associated with saffron. Saffron is sacred in India, so this color is seen with sacred associations. In Japan, orange is typically associated with courage and love. This is contrasted with the fact that the Middle East uses orange as the color for times of mourning. Interestingly, orange has religious connotations in Christianity with gluttony.

Yellow has some very interesting and varying associations around the world. Yellow is primarily seen as bright and cheery in Western cultures. It is associated with warmth from the sun and summer. It is also used for a lot of the transportation we have here, such as street signs, school buses, and taxis. Germany sees yellow as an envious color, whereas the United States sees green as an envious color. In Asia and Africa, yellow is typically reserved for people of high rank or members of the royal class. It is considered imperial and sacred, which could possibly explain why it is the color that represents commerce in India. In Egypt and Latin American countries, however, yellow is used as a mourning color.

Blue and Green: A Tapestry of Trust, Spirituality, and Contrasting Cultural Connotations

Blue is the color that holds the most universal associations. Most advertisers and people in branding or marketing tend to use blue for companies that are going to be used globally, such as Skype, Facebook, Twitter, etc. In Western cultures, blue is seen as representing authority and trust, which is why it is used for bank logos and government officials. There are also strong connections between blue and masculinity in the Western world, which is why blue signifies the birth of a baby boy. It can be seen as peaceful, soothing, and calming while also being associated with depression and sadness. This goes to show that color can have a variety of meanings and associations, even within the same culture. Asian countries, specifically India, see blue as a color of strength, as it relates to Krishna. In contrast to the Western views of blue, it is seen as a feminine color in China. Blue has one of the strongest religious associations in Latin America and Catholicism with the Virgin Mary. Latin America also makes associations between trust and serenity with blue, which is similar to the Middle Eastern read of heaven, immortality, and spirituality.

Green most commonly has associations with nature, life, and fertility, but that is not always the case. In the West, green refers to being eco-conscious and represents the environment. However, it also represents money and greed or envy. Asia has an interesting contrast in its association with the color green. In some contexts, it is seen to represent fertility and youth, but in others, it represents exorcism and infidelity. This is shown in the tradition in China of wearing a green hat if you have cheated on your spouse. In Latin America or other regions that are close to dense jungles, green represents death. The jungles can be dangerous and house the unknown. The Middle East has its strongest associations with green and Islam, as green is the color to represent Islam. It also represents wealth, luck, fertility, and strength. Interestingly, almost every active military in the world uses the color olive green for their uniforms.

Purple: A Palette of Royalty, Religion, and Cultural Reverberations

Lastly, the color purple is one that has many associations across cultures. In Western cultures, purple is associated with wealth and fame. Purple commonly depicts royalty in artworks and pop culture. This color symbolizes progress and modernism. It is also associated with honor, as the Purple Heart is given as the highest military honor in the United States. In most Asian countries, purple also signifies wealth and nobility; however, in Thailand, it is the color of mourning. This mirrors the associations that many Latin American countries have with this color. They associate it with sorrow, and it is the color of death in Brazil. The Middle East has associations with purple and wealth and virtue. In a more religious vein, purple can be associated with the crucifixion in Catholicism and with the Buddha in Tibet and Thailand. Buddha statues and rosaries are both often made out of amethyst.

In conclusion, colors have a wide variety of meanings throughout the world. Some cultures can connect and communicate through their similar associations with different colors, while others are divided on the meanings. Also, depending on context, some regions can have different associations with colors, even within the same culture. It just goes to show that not everybody in the world sees things the same way you do.

References

1. Gage, J. (1999). Color and Culture: Practice and Meaning from Antiquity to Abstraction. University of California Press.
2. Zollinger, H. (2010). Color: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Wiley-VCH.
3. Pastoureau, M. (2001). Blue: The History of a Color. Princeton University Press.
4. Eiseman, L. (2000). Pantone Guide to Communicating with Color. Grafix Press.
5. Whitfield, T. W. A., & Wiltshire, T. J. (1990). Color psychology: A critical review. Genetic, social, and general psychology monographs.
6. Biggam, C. P. (2012). The Semantics of Colour: A Historical Approach. Cambridge University Press.
7. Walker, J. (2012). Color in the Western World: An Illustrated History. Shire Publications.
8. Gladstone, V. (2017). Drunk Tank Pink: The Unexpected Forces that Shape How We Think, Feel, and Behave. Penguin Press.

Throughout the course of history, some individuals have actively engaged in doing things that have made a huge impact to our collective human history. From Jesus Christ to Adolf Hitler, these individuals have inspired the thoughts of many, leaving an indelible mark on the world stage.

Undoubtedly, these individuals have utilized all kinds of means – good or bad – in their pursuit to influence the masses and transform their way of thinking (Farrell, 2001 p. 32). It is the purpose of this essay to critically analyze Sayyid Qutb, Mohammed ibn Abd al Wahhab and John Wesley in the context of reformers, revolutionaries and reactionaries.

Sayyid Qutb represent the most mistaken and evil position. Due to his fundamentalism, Qutb can easily pass as “the ideological grandfather of Osama bin Laden and other extremists who surround him” (Cline, 2009 p. 1). Indeed, many analysts believe that Qutb’s works and teachings as a poet, author and educator helped shape terrorist organizations such as the Taliban and Al Qaeda. These networks have continued to destabilize the world peace to date.

Although Sayyid’s political views seems rather mature, his philosophy and radicalism is largely responsible for espousing the concept of Jihad and the enactment of Sharia law that is viewed as dictatorial. Indeed, he is to blame for contemporary offensive jihad. He wanted to revolutionalize Islam by incorporating every aspect of life into the religion (Cline, 2009 p. 2).

Each of the three men cherished different hopes for the future. Clearly a fundamentalist, Sayyid Qutb would have cherished to see a world where there were no governments or secular laws since they interfered with the sovereignty of God (Cline, 2009 p. 2). In short, he cherished a world where Sharia law will guide every single aspect of life of Muslims. He was anti-modernist and anti-reformist, and detested democracy despite its mention and practice in the Quranic institution.

Mohammed ibn Abd al Wahhab, considered by many as the chief architect of Wahhabism, would have cherished to purify Islam by leading the Muslim faithful towards the original principles and doctrines of Islam (HIF, n.d. para. 12). He propagated reformist ideas, but disliked Muslims who practiced innovation in Islam. In short, Abd al Wahhab would have cherished to see a Muslim society that is free of corrupt beliefs, and that engages in practices which reflects the true fundamentals of Islam.

John Wesley, a Christian theologian and the founder of the Methodist movement, would have cherished to see a Christian society where all faithful possess Christian perfection, signifying the holiness of both heart and life (Tomkins, 2003 p. 32). He wanted to see a Christian community that held the love of God in high esteem. Wesley would also have cherished a just society judging by the fact that he fought for the rights of gays and prisoners.

Of the three men, only John Wesley contributed to the emergence of democracy. Sayyid Qutb propagated dictatorial orientations, and even advocated for the dissolution of governments (Cline, 2009 p. 1). He was a religious fundamentalist who wanted to tie every single aspect of life of individuals to religion through strict Sharia laws.

Indeed, he was finally executed by the Egyptian government due to his hard-line stance on religious and secular matters, and could not stand the secular lifestyle practiced in western countries. Although Abd al Wahhab was a reformist, his democratic orientation was not any different.

He could not stand the sight of his Muslim brothers who chose to practice an alternative form of Islam known as innovative Islam, preferring to call them infidels (HIF, n.d. para. 15). However, John Wesley clearly contributed to the emergence of democracy. First, he was viewed as controversial when he went public advocating for the rights of gay members of society (Tomkins, 2003 p. 34).

Although homosexual behavior is largely viewed as unchristian, the Anglican cleric went ahead to advocate for their rights in accordance to democratic principles.

He went further to advocate for prison reforms in the United Kingdom. John Wesley was a true champion of the rights and freedoms of the people as he went further to advocate for the rights of abolitionism movements (Tomkins, 2003 p. 39). Contextually, Wesley did not despise sinners or unbelievers the way Qutb and Abd al Wahhab did, but welcomed them into the kingdom of God with open arms.

John Wesley’s contribution to democracy was unintended in as far as the available literature seems to suggest. His was a spiritual vocation that was practiced in a democratic and open approach rather than a democratic calling practiced in a spiritual approach. Wesley greatly assisted in the formation and organization of Christian communities in the UK for evangelical and discipleship purposes (Tomkins, 2003 p. 23).

However, according to available literature, the Anglican cleric was a greatly gifted individual who advocated for equal rights of all people, including gays. Democratic principles advocates for the guaranteeing of the rights of majority while ensuring that the rights of the minority are safeguarded (Chalfant, 1997 p. 128). This is what the cleric did albeit unknowingly.

All in all, the three men had their personal and religious convictions, beliefs and philosophies that galvanized them to their followers. The impact of their religious teachings is still felt today, with Jihads and terrorist networks clearly following the teachings of Sayyid Qutb and contemporary Methodists following the teachings and religious doctrines of John Wesley. Wahabism is also a way of life for many Muslims around the world today. However, only John Wesley practiced and contributed to the emergence of democracy.

List of References

Chalfant, J. (1997) Abandonment Theology. Hartline Marketing. Web.

Cline, A. (2009) Sayyid Qutb: Father of Modern Islamic Extremism. Web.

Farrell, W. (2001) The Myth of Male Power. Berkley Trade. Web.

Hidaayah Islamic Foundation. (n.d.) Wahabism Exposed: Sheikh Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al Wahhab. Web.

Tomkins, S. (2003) John Wesley: A Biography. Michigan: WM. B. Eardmans Publishing. Web.

Interpretation Based On Secondary Sources

Abraham is a man who was patiently waiting for God’s promise. The promise of a son is given in genesis 12 and scholars indicate that he had to wait for 25 years before the promise was fulfilled by God. As argued by Brown, Fitzmyer and Murphy (21), the eighteenth chapter marks the beginning of a climax in Abraham’s narrative. Genesis 18: 1-5 is the first section of a broader picture presented in the whole of genesis 18. This first section focuses on Abraham and his encounter with two men while the rest of the chapter focuses Sara’s place in relation to the promise they had been given by God.

Although verses 1-5 of Genesis 18 seem to focus on Abraham’s generosity, they have a connection to the larger text. These verses seem to be mere introductions to the bigger story beginning from verse 9 onwards (Montgomery, 15). However, on further reflection on the text, interpreting them merely as stage setting or introductory verses proves limited. The generosity expressed by Abraham is typical of the hospitality norm that pervaded Middle East societies (Montgomery, 15). Although it was cultural to be hospitable, Abraham seems to go overboard in his welcome. The lavish attitude towards strangers portrays a man who is keen on not just being culturally right but a blessing to others. Scholars suggest that this has some touch of the promise by God that he would be a blessing to the nations.

The men are three which alludes to the trinity (Montgomery, 9). Whether they are all angels or God is represented in the person of one of them is not clear. What is more crucial to note is that Abraham and Sara do not initially connect the presence of the three men with the presence of God. It is only later that they are able to connect the words of the three men with God. This is a pointer to the larger theological fact that our encounter with God happens in the basic mundane things of daily living. It is in our daily events, activities and encounters that we experience or encounter God.

In the context of the promise they had been given by God, they challenge Abraham and Sara faced was how to continue believing and holding to it in their rather ordinary lives (Montgomery, 13). Nothing out of the ordinary was happening yet in the ordinary they had to recognize and acknowledge God’s sustaining presence and unfailing promise.

The final element worthy considering is the identity of the three men. It is only later that they are defined as angels (Brown, Fitzmyer and Murphy, 20). When Abraham sees them, they are ordinary men who in a way needed Abraham’s help. This is also a great pointer that others or fellow men are and should be God’s face to us and among us. Fellow men in essence can be rightly referred to as messengers of God.

Personal Interpretation

Following from my lectio divina exercise and the interpretation given above, it is clear that although the reading falls in the larger picture of the promise to Abraham and how it comes to be fulfilled, the Genesis 18: 1-5 has a lot to teach us about encounter with God.

We live in a socio-cultural atmosphere that questions the presence and promises of God. Personally I think Abraham also had such like a struggle. God had promised him a child. God had promised him that he was to be the father of nations, a blessing to many nations. However, the reality he was living was that of ordinariness.

The passage states that he was sitting outside on a hot sunny day. This gives a picture of a very rough day. Many people would not find a hot sunny day comfortable. This statement must have an allusion to conditions of living. It is an indicator to some rough conditions of life occasioned by the weather. This is an indicator that Abraham lived the ordinary conditions of living that were characterized by struggles and hardship. Abraham meets three ordinary men and treats them with reverence and honor. Although Abraham treats the men impeccably, this also was an ordinary happening based on generally accepted cultural norms.

What is critical is the fact that it is from these ordinary happenings that Abraham experiences an encounter with God. It is, therefore, valid to infer that God comes and has always come to his people in the ordinary happenings or order of daily living. However, to experience and discern God’s presence, one needs a given disposition. The approach of Abraham to the ordinary is characterized respect, humility and honor. He approached the men and with his face touching down welcomed them. Such an approach is only possible or enabled by a given disposition. From the foregoing analysis, it would appear valid to conclude that the major theme of Genesis 18: 1-5 is encountering the mystery of God’s presence in the ordinariness of our lives.

Works Cited

Brown Raymond Edward, Fitzmyer A. Joseph, Murphy, Roland, Edmund. The New Jerome biblical commentary. 3rd Ed. New York: Prentice Hall, 1999

Catholic Online Bible. New Jerusalem bible. Retrieved from https://www.catholic.org/bible/

Montgomery M. Robert. An introduction to source analysis of the Pentateuch. Montreal: Abingdon Press, 2008

Ch’an Master Lin-chi I-hsuan Hui-chao was a notable figure in the Buddhist religion, he founded one of the most famous schools that became a leading one among all Japanese schools. Moreover, he formed a new the Rinzai School of Buddhism. One of the best translations of this teaching is made by Burton Watson.

In his book, we can find the most detailed description of Lin-chi’s teaching, its principles and sermons. In this paper, I am going to discus some of Lin-chi’s principles and practices, such as the role of the hit and shout in Lin-chi’s style of teaching, Lin-chi’s exhortations not to be swayed by the environment, Lin-chi’s statement that doubt is the Buddha devil and such famous expression as “True Man with no rank” and the one who “has nothing to do” or who “just acts ordinary”.

So, the first issue under discussion is Lin-chi’s explanation of the “True Man with no rank”. The teacher assumes:

“O Followers of the Way, you have not yet attained the view whereby all kalpas are reduced to Emptiness. When this is not realized, there are all such hindrances. It is not so with the true man who has insight into Reality. He gives himself up to all manner of situations in which he finds himself in obedience to his past karma.

He appears in whatever garments re ready for him to put on. As it is desired of him either to move or to sit quietly, he moves or sits. He has not a thought of running after Buddhahood. He is free from such pinings. Why is it so with him? Says an ancient sage, “When the Buddha is sought after, he is the cause of transmigration.” (Watson 75).

The True Man or, in other words, a Real Person is someone who understands and, which is more important, follows the Way to enlightenment that is called “Tao”. This is the one who has a “Buddha nature” in all his/her actions and desires. It is a genenal concept of the book and teacher, who mentions it only ones, refers to it constantly when he speaks about “brightness without fixed shape or form” (Watson 24).

Lin-chi sees “True Man with no rank” is all his listeners. He encourages them to “turn and experience this man” (Watson 25) to feel a true enlightenment which will help them to overcome the barriers to the “realm of Emptiness”.

Thus, they will become persons with “nothing to do”. The concept does not mean that the person should be idle or not perform any daily activities and only pursue some goal. It means that the person will only accept the daily experience and will not be misled by the surroundings. In addition, the person who “has nothing to do” should “just act ordinary”. Lin-chi taught emptiness and an absolute freedom.

On the way to enlightenment, one can meet some environment and be misled by it. The teacher emphasized that no matter what environment one can meet, a person can be “free to do as he pleased” (Watson 33). One should not be swayed by the environment and not to be led astray by other people in using the teaching of Dharma, “If you want to use this thing, then use it and have no doubts or hesitations!” (Watson 23).

Thus, one must “just act ordinary” and not to be affected by the outside environment and try to do something special. Thus, the concepts the “True Man”, the one who “has nothing to do” and the one who “just acts ordinary” describe a person who has no obsession, self confident and has true understanding of the Way to enlightenment.

Furthermore, Lin-chi explained the concept “Buddha devil”, “Someone asked, “What is the Buddha devil?” The Master said, “If you have doubts in your mind for an instant, that’s the Buddha devil.” (Watson 33). Everyone who seeks Buddha is seized by Buddha devil just like the one who seeks knowledge is seized by doubts. Again, the one who is not affected by other people and environment and has no doubts in teaching and not preoccupied with the “externals of the religion”, will follow the true Way to brightness.

The teaching of Lin-chi included not only lectures and sermons, but hits and shouts. The teacher could shout at his pupils, hit them with stick or even leave them for a long time without warning. It is what Lich-chi called “to act with the whole essence”. He believed that only such tactic can bring his pupils to enlightenment.

So, the teaching of Lin-chi is “the oldest and the most authentic voice that has come down to us from the early traditions of Chinese Ch’an or Zen” (Watson 4). He had his own interpretation of the Dharma teaching and explanation of the concepts of belief and way to enlightenment.

Ten-Foot-Square Hut Discussion

Kamo no Comei was a very famous Japanese poet. His poetical education permitted him to take a governmental post. However, later he became a Buddhist monk and spent his life like a hermit living in a small hub. Usually, monks who turned their backs on society went to monasteries and Kamo was the first who isolated himself in the forest.

The author described his experience and his hut in the essay called An Account of My Hut where he described all the advantages of leaving in tranquility and isolation from the society. In his essay, he describes his hub and historical events that made him live in isolation and his Buddhist practices.

So, the historical events that made poet turn his back to society were related to the battle between two ruling clans Taira and Minamoto. Those events “resulted in the fires of the capital” (Lawall 215) and big destructions. The author compares this period with the arrival of the “mappo” which is associated in the Buddhist philosophy with the end of time and end of dharma. According to the author, the world became pessimistic and it entered in its “final era” and there is no any hope to rebuild the world.

The author describes his final dwelling as a place for his Buddhist practices and a perfect place for isolation: “Knowing myself and the world, I have no ambitions and do not mix in the world. I seek only tranquility; I rejoice in the absence of grief” (Addiss and Watson 49).

He admired nature and practiced self-reflection. His hut was small, ten feet square with roughly roof and, “Along the west wall he built a shelf for holy water and installed an image of the Buddha. The light of the setting sun shines between its eyebrows…” (Addiss and Watson 40).

As it has already been mention, the author’s dwelling was his place for solitude and Buddhism practices. But, according to the Buddhism teaching, one should not be obsessed with any form of mental gasping. Chomei loved his dwelling and described it with admiration:

“Outside the hut is a fenced garden to the north and a rock pool to the south with a bamboo pipe draining water. The woods are close, providing plenty of brush-wood, and only to the west is a clearing beyond vines and overgrown valleys”. (Addiss and Watson 58).

It may seem to be contradictory to the ideals of Buddhism. However, the poet has his solution to this problem. He went to awakening practicing nembutsu that means “buddha in mind”. The main means of this practice is the meditation. Nembutsu is interpreted in the Buddhism practice as a living incarnation of Amida, “you come to a shrine of the god Hachiman.

The object of worship is a statue of the Buddha Amida… All I could do was call upon my tongue to utter two or three recitations of Amida Buddha’s name” (Addiss and Watson 78, 89). This is how the author found a solution to the problem of his grasping. These days, it is a common spiritual practice in Buddhism and it is accepted in monasteries.

So, Kamo no Chomei lived in times when Japan survived chaotic and era. He became a witness of historical events that made him turn his back to society and live in isolation in a lonely hub. The descriptions of this hub and the author’s life in it became one of the most famous masterpieces of the world literature.

Works Cited

Addiss, Stephen, and Burton Watson. Four Huts: Asian Writings on the Simple Life. Boston and London: Shambhala, 2002.

Lawall, Sarah. Reading World Literature: Theory, History, Practice. Austine: University of Texas Press, 2010.

Watson, Burton. The Zen teachings of Master Lin-chi: a Translation of the Lin-chi lu. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.

As far as the idea of “chosen people” is concerned, people have welcomed it with mixed reactions over years following the suspicions as to whether the whole notion holds or it is a mere fabrication by some cultures to enhance their esteem or rather to satisfy their grandiosities.

Whenever one utters the words “chosen people”, the first group that clicks into the minds of many is the Jews. According to Scader, there is a significant change concerning the issue of who really fits in the category of the chosen people with some groups or individuals justifying the case based on the superiority factor (432).

Therefore, whether the perspective has changed or not, the idea of chosen people still holds in the contemporary society. Biblically, the theme of ‘chosen people’ stands out in both the Old and the New Testament extending further to the contemporary society despite the evident changes in meaning as the paper points out.

Chosen people in the Old Testament

The Old Testament successfully presents the theme of ‘chosen people’ through the way God refers to the Israelites as his chosen nation. For instance, during the call of Moses, God tells him to tell the children of Israel “I am the Lord; I will bring you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians…I will take you as my people, and I will be your God” (NIV, Ex. 6.6-7).

Despite the many nations existing then with some even better than Israel, God isolates the Israelites from them informing them how he views them as a priest’s kingdom and a holy nation.

Addressing further the theme, God bestows up on the Israelites some obligations and conditions as emphasized by Amos when he tells the Israelites that, “You only have I singled out of all the families of the earth: therefore will I visit upon you all your iniquities” (Am. 3.2).

God highlights the conditions for his chosen people through the Ten Commandments and every time they would violate them, he would neglect them to the level of taking them into captivity. If they were not his chosen people, he would not expose them to the punishment. The choosing of Moses too contributes towards the theme of ‘chosen people’.

There are still other incidences in the Old Testament when God chooses some people like Moses from their simplicity elevating them into greatness.

To restore His relationship with the Israelites for instance, God singles out Moses elevating him above all the respected people in Israel at the time of their captivity in Egypt. There is a debate concerning the criterion God uses in choosing Moses, considering his admittance as a stutterer.

However, other out-spoken people are available but God considers not the speech but the speaker and thus appoints Moses as he is, bestowing upon him the responsibility of freeing the Israelites from the hands of the wicked Egyptians. The account of David further develops the theme under study.

God chooses David, as young as he is, as the king of Israel succeeding King Saul. When the prophet of God goes to the house of Jesse to anoint the new king, no one expects David to qualify as a candidate as the case turns out. David grows up as a chosen one of God considering the events surrounding his life. At a tender age, he kills Goliath, the Palestinian giant, with a sling to the surprise of many.

The fact that a simple boy, using a sling, can kill a feared soldier killing enemy soldiers in their thousands is clear evidence that God favors and chooses him as vessel through which God can reveal his mighty wonders. The many times that Israel forces emerges winners in battles even when their enemies outnumber them elevates them as the chosen people of God. The story of Noah and his children in the ark develops the theme of chosen people.

In the times of Noah, when God is about to destroy the world with water, he chooses Noah to build the ark which is the only transition to the new world. Noah faces many challenges when building the ark ranging from ridicules to people despising him. Still in the same story, God further chooses the family of Noah saving it from the floods.

Whenever God intends to destroy the world or people, he chooses others as Noah based on their righteousness, a prerequisite of being a chosen one of God.

The fact that most people think that the Jews represent Israel is a serious misconception since the nation of Israel had twelve tribes at the time when God chose them.

The Jews are only a representative of a single tribe: the tribe of Judah. The first covenant that qualifies the children of Israel as the chosen people of God is the one between the biblical patriarch Abraham and God. God promises Abraham that his descendants will be great and will conquer the world. Behind the promises comes the condition that the Jews should remain faithful to God.

There arises a quite interesting question at this point, as to whether the Jews will permanently enjoy the status as chosen people. There are times when the Israelites disappoint God who as a result turns his back against them resulting into their captivity in and by other nations.

Upon realizing their falling into problems because of their bad relationship with God, they repent to God who delivers them from the hands of their enemies since he has chosen them as his children. However, the theme is not restricted to the Israelites only. Jonah is a non-Israelite and a chosen of God.

There are instances when God shows favor to people of other nations who are not Israelites (Nitzan 202). For instance, in the case of Jonah, God chooses the people of Nineveh and wants to spare them from destruction following their wickedness.

God has a clear purpose in saving these people considering his insistence that Jonah should go and announce his wrath over them. Jonah instead escapes in a ship where the people throw him out following threats of the ship sinking. Revealing how much he has chosen to save them, God miraculously prepares a fish that swallows Jonah only to vomit him in Nineveh where he does as per God’s instructions.

The people of Nineveh confess, after which God spares them, a clear indication that he knows that they change upon hearing prophesy of their doom. In a related case, when God is about to destroy the immoral cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, he chooses the family of Lot to spare them from the destruction.

He indeed sends angels to the city to warn Lot, a sign of his concern for the people. In Lot’s requests to God, he enquires whether God will still destroy the city if fifty people turn out righteous, but God responds that he cannot. As the events unfold, it is only Lot and his wife who God saves from the doom. The New Testament too has a good deal of instances that contribute significantly towards the theme of chosen people.

Chosen people in the New Testament

The New Testament too allocates a good share of episodes that purely point out the issue of chosen people. Christ the son of God is to be born in the chosen tribe of Judah, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. Despite the many women in Israel, God miraculously sends his spirit to one to conceive and bear the child.

Christ is born to a virgin named Mary, betrothed to a man from the lineage of David (Core 45). In the announcement of the birth of Jesus by the angel Gabriel, the angel tells Mary, “Greetings, you who are highly favored! The Lord is with you…Do not be afraid, Mary, you have found favor with God.

You will be with child and give birth to a son, and you are to give him the name Jesus” (Lk. 1.26-30). The Virgin Mary and her cousin Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist are considered the people to whom God manifests his favor. They are holy people but not prominent in the society though God chooses them. Jesus’ disciples are no more than a chosen people.

Jesus chooses the twelve disciples among the countless men and women and uses them as his representatives in spreading the gospel after his ascension to heaven. In the book of John, Jesus tells them “you did not choose me, I have chosen you” (Jn. 15.12). He goes further to distinguish between being “chosen” and being “called” by saying that “many are called but few are chosen” (Matt. 20.16).

Therefore, the chosen twelve have to leave their families and be with Jesus always whenever he is in his mission. The sons of Zebedee change their professions upon their choice to follow their chooser: they no longer fishers of fish but of men. God, upon choosing Paul develops further the theme in the New Testament.

There are instances in the New Testament where God chooses people like Saul regardless of their character to serve him. For instance, he chooses Saul, the persecutor of Christians, to become a very important figure and vessel in the spreading of the Christian faith.

When God chooses him, he changes his name to Paul to indicate the difference that exists between a man chosen of people and the one chosen of God. Paul meets the amazing miracle on his way to Damascus; a journey aimed at laying ambush on a group of believers.

According to Fisher, a conversion came as a surprise to many who knew him and in fact, he faced rejection from the Christians who thought he was spying them to carry out his plan (102). God sees the potential in Paul upon whose conversion will boost Christianity largely. However, there is a notable change in the meaning of chosen people especially in the contemporary society.

Changes in the Meaning

Although what the paper has exposed so far restricts the choosing to a group of people or an individual, as then interpreted, the meaning of ‘chosen people’ is significantly different nowadays.

The phrase includes all people considering what God say through Jeremiah. “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born, I set you apart and appointed you as my prophet to the nations” (Jer. 1.15).

The words reveal that all people are chosen since the choosing happens before one is born. Considering the earlier expositions, the choosing happens only people have grown up, which is not the case. It includes the gentiles and the Jews as well as the born and the unborn. However, there is an ongoing dispute concerning the understanding of chosen people.

Disputed understanding

In the contemporary society, many people define the phrase ‘chosen people’ differently following the fact no one wants to be left out from the category. Paul in his epistles indicates that by repentance, gentiles become “spiritual Jews”, truth altered by many, who attach spirituality to the phrase despising its relevance to the traditional Israeli tribes as the chosen nation.

As far as Christianity is concerned, this is the biblical truth since God Himself emphasizes this by sending Jesus to save the world and not only the Israelites.

Some nations equate their prosperity and ability to conquer others as a sign of favor by God (Brown 345) declaring themselves chosen based possessions rather than their character’s content. With a close examination of the rates of immorality that goes on in some of the nations, it turns out clear that they are flourishing like those nations that worship idols did in the bible.

For instance, Egypt and Babylon are more civilized and powerful than Israel yet revelations declare Israel the chosen nation meaning that ‘being chosen’ has nothing to do with flourishing politically, economically or otherwise.

Conclusion

The idea of the biblical “Chosen people” should not be trivialized since both theologians and historians have proved it. It also gives explanations as to why those individuals who live righteously tend to receive more natural gifts than others do, who lead wicked lives. No matter what, one’s tribe may become God’s chosen through repentance reigning with Christ eternally in the kingdom of heaven. However, for one to be a partisan, he/she must consider his/her character composition rather than material possessions.

Works Cited

Brown, Davis. “God’s Chosen People.” Masses and Mainstream 1.3 (1948): 257–363.

Core, Catherine. A Voyage through the New Testament. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2007.

Fisher, Paul. The chosen of God: Minnesota History. Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society, 1998.

Nitzan, Bilhah. The concept of the Covenant. Tel Aviv: Tel-Aviv University Press, 2000.

Scader, Jo-Mari. Patronage between God, Israel and the Nations. London: Oxford publishers, 2007.

The New International Version Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments with Apocrypha. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.

Criticisms of religious beliefs and concepts have been in existence since religion started. However, several philosophers trace the roots of religious criticisms to the 5^th century In Greece while others claim criticisms to religious beliefs were in existence during the 1^st century in ancient Rome (Beckford, 2003).

Often, these criticisms have been developed as philosophies which question or attack the concepts, validity and practices taught in religious circles. To affirm their arguments, critics who challenge the dominance of religion say that, religion is misleading because it seeks to brainwash children; cheats people that they can be healed, just by having faith, among other events.

Some critics do not also shy away from attributing the source of certain ills in the society to religious dominance. For example, the increase of religious wars (such as jihad), discrimination against certain individuals (like women and gays), have been attributed to the dominance of religion in the society (Beckford, 2003, p. 2).

Among the pioneers of anti-religious views are personalities such as Dennet Harris, Hitchens, Dawkins (and the likes) who note that religious doctrines were not divinely inspired, as is believed, but rather, the authors of religious scripts were ordinary people who sought to fulfill a religious, social or political void that existed in the society (Dennett, 2006).

More works developed by anti-religious crusaders have often bombarded the public and they have so far managed to influence our morality and knowledge on the subject. This study seeks to further explain this point, but to do so, we will analyze how antireligious doctrines are effected and reflected in a major historic event – September 11^th attacks in New York.

Conceptual Understanding

The September 11^th attack in New York City is largely seen as an extreme religious attack orchestrated by the Al-Qaida terrorist group (Muslims) against America, which is largely a Christian country (Buzzle, 2011). The event has been perceived to be an example of the effects of extreme religious activities, especially on the side of the Muslim terrorist group, Al Qaida.

Some philosophers who have criticized the dominance of religion in the society have equated the September 11^th attacks to similar religious wars such as the Middle East conflict between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, the Sudan civil war, the 2008 London terrorist attacks among others (Buzzle, 2011).

One major ground identified in the argument against religious dominance is that religious leaders normally use war and violence to uphold or propel their religious ambitions and goals (Hitchens, 2007, p. 4). An example is Osama bin Laden who has been termed the leader of Al-Qaida terrorist group and a typical example of a religious leader who has successes at using violence to promote religious goals.

From this analysis, we can see that religious leaders are capable of promoting secular wars through their support of religious doctrines (such as jihad in Islam).

Morality

Morality is a controversial issue, not only in religious circles but also in social circles. Philosophies that challenge religious dominance have often been directed at this very basic concept of humanity because they have been developed to show that religion has no place in morality (Dennett, 2006, p. 5).

Instead, such philosophies suggest that morality should be based on a man’s education, sympathy and social ties. The reason behind this argument is based on the fact that, many philosophers who have criticized religion have studied man’s behavior and determined that they are usually affected by fear, the hope to be rewarded and death (Dawkins, 1991).

All these factors are attributed to faith because religion teaches that man is bound to be punished or rewarded for the wrong or good deeds that he or she has done while on earth. This fear of punishment or hope for reward influences the behaviors of people and ultimately affects their morals.

The September 11^th attacks in America provide the best ground for the understanding of this fact because the violence can be largely perceived as an act by an extremist religious group which recruits and undertakes its activities, based on religious teachings which assure its followers of rewards if they carry out extreme religious pursuits.

In other words, the participation of these offenders in religious conflict is motivated by the goal of achieving eternal peace if they take part in these wars. From this understanding, we are able to see how religion redefines morality because what is a wrong act is justified under the doctrines of religion.

When analyzed in the context of the September 11^th attacks, we can see that the Al-Qaida terrorist group justified their terrorist activities on religious principles because it is in their belief that they are fighting a religious war (Buzzle, 2011, p. 3).

The same can also be said of America because after the attack, it launched a revenge war in several Muslim states such as Afghanistan and Pakistan where it believed was the home to such terrorist groups. The attack eventually led to a lot of civilian casualties in the affected regions, but the action by the US was largely seen as justifiable because they were victims to religious extremism.

Both scenarios (attacks on America and Muslim states) therefore redefine the concept of morality because without the inclusion of religious doctrines, both attacks would obviously be immoral because they lead to death and violence which is morally wrong.

Religion has therefore been widely used in the society to draw the line on what is moral and what is not. This is the same case depicted in the painting, done by Michael Angelo titled: the last judgment.

In the painting, the open inclusion of naked human bodies caused a lot of controversy because when analyzed from a religious point of view, it was immoral to show human genitalia in public. More condemnation was observed from the painting because it was housed in the Vatican, which is considered one of the holiest Christian places on earth.

The controversy took a different twist when the “holy painting” was later to be compared to Angelo’s nude paintings. This controversy later forced the then pontiff to extricate himself in light of such an argument, saying that in his defense, he was in no place to judge hell’s artifacts. As a result, critics were concerned over the fact that immorality was being condoned in a holy place (the Vatican).

In close relation to the moral lines drawn by Christianity, the Islamic faith has also been criticized by philosophers who teach against religious domination because it has over the years taught dogmatic principles which were only meant to promote matters like hygiene, political stability or other ancient issues which do not apply today (Dennett, 2006).

From this analysis, we can see that the society has been conditioned by the teachings of religion to perceive what is moral and what is not. An example could be the fact that Islam teaches that, women who fail to entirely cover themselves in religious clothing, are immoral and are subject to sexual assault.

Religion has therefore been known to trample over human compassion and morality because it advocates for a strict adherence to the scriptures’ teachings, at the expense of one’s individuality.

This can also be seen from the painting, the last judgment because the painting was a representation of the artist’s ideas (nudity), but he was not allowed to express himself because of the teachings of Christianity. In other words, his depiction of the naked human form as a part of his creative work could not be accepted because of what was morally perceived in the eyes of Christianity.

This critical analysis of morality from a religious point of view definitely tramples over human individuality and what an individual perceives as moral or not.

This prevents the growth of human personality because everyone has to conform to certain principles articulated in the scriptures and therefore one cannot be true to him or herself in the process. Religion therefore twists humanity to be a systematic relationship between man and God; beating the whole sense of being human in the first place.

This is the ground which religious institutions command power over the people because they assume they are bestowed with special knowledge of interpreting or redefining what is moral and what is not. From the same grounds, they have also successfully managed to curtail further debate on real issues that affect humanity today, such as same sex marriages, stem cell research and other morally sensitive issues.

Knowledge

The September 11^th attacks in America show just how much acts of terrorism are perceived as a small battle which is consumed in a larger global religious pursuit (Buzzle, 2011, p. 3).

Though terrorism may be largely perceived as a sophisticated art, it is apparently clear that most of the offensive is undertaken under the surety of religious doctrines which affirm to its subjects that God is with them, and they would be heavily rewarded for their acts (because they are justified to do what they do under the religious doctrines they believe in).

Often, it is usually difficult to convince either side of the religious divide that they are doing a wrong thing, especially if they believe that they are undertaking a religious pursuit, or fighting a religious cause.

Probably, an example of a misguided religious fanaticism is the Siege of the Beziers in 1209, where it was affirmed by one leader on the offensive that: “Kill them all, God will recognize his” (Locks, 2011, p. 13).

From this understanding, the September 11^th attacks in the US significantly changes the knowledge assumed to constitute religion because to a large extent, religion seeks to unite the people under a major cause of humanity and the love for God.

However, the attacks significantly change the knowledge that makes up Christianity and Islam because both religions speak of peace and the love for every human being. More importantly, religion speaks against revenge because it assures its believers that revenge should only rest in the hands of God.

All these teachings are breached by the protagonists because the US launched an offensive against several Islamic nations, under a conglomerate of other Christian allies such as Britain and Canada while Islamic unity became more apparent, across the globe, as a victimized religious group out on revenge.

This is a true departure from the teachings of religion and its aim of upholding social cohesion and peace across the world. To a large extent, the September 11^th attacks reinforce criticism against religion that its doctrines are based on irrational actions, unscientific fallacies and unreasonable actions which are clearly portrayed by the actions of the US and extreme terrorist groups.

The knowledge believed to encompass Christianity and Islam are therefore completely tarnished by the actions that followed the September 11^th attacks

The movie, the deep impact, also represents a departure from the usual beliefs associated with religion, based on how the world ends.

This is true because the movie proposes a scientific way of how the world would end but on the contrary, it is firmly rooted in the beliefs of Christianity that Christ will come back to take his people and separate evil from good. This manner of representation of how the world will end is written in the book of revelations and it is in sharp contrast to what the movie, deep impact, represents.

In religion, there is no inclusion of scientific concepts regarding how the world would end. In fact, most of the events preceding the end of the world are largely religious and have nothing to do with science, or that a comet will come crashing into earth and virtually mark the end of humanity.

The biggest distinction in the movie is that, there is no separation of evil or good in the deep impact, because a large part of the film suggests that the comet would indiscriminately kill all humanity. This is a departure from religious doctrines because the separation of evil and good is at the centre of the end of the world belief.

It is also important to note that religion provides no manner of redemption for humanity against God’s wrath but deep impact assumes that humanity could redeem itself in the wake of destruction by simply digging a deep hole underneath the earth’s surface and accommodate a million people who will survive the disaster.

The redemption of humanity is also skewed along the lines of wealth and power where the people to be redeemed are largely sourced from the United States and Russia, representing the wealth divide that exists in the world today.

Religion actually preaches the contrary because it is believed that the poor, weak and the humble will be redeemed by God during the last day.

The September 11 attacks also seek to reaffirm the argument proposed by certain critics of religion that religion is delusional and causes normal human beings to act in an irrational manner (Dawkins, 1991). In other words, such critics note that religion causes normal human beings to do “mad” acts and still consider them holy in the eyes of God. One such act is killing fellow human beings and expecting rewards from God.

These claims have set forth a series of studies done under research on mysticism and its possible connection to child abuse which set forth a series of other studies investigating the effects of religious possession and its effects on humanity (such as epilepsy).

As a result, literatures such as Carl Sagan’s The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark have developed and suggested that extreme religious beliefs may have a possible connection with mental disorders (Dawkins, 1991, p. 11).

From this point of view, it is firmly believed by proponents of this school of thought that, what many religious believers perceive as vision, episodes and other mystical experiences may be nothing more than the stimulation of temporal lobe seizures.

From this argument, it is not exceptional to assume that the September 11 attacks on American soil may have been caused by a delusional motive among the offenders because their actions cannot be possibly justifiable under normal human state of mind. In other words, their actions and mindsets were obviously poisoned by religious doctrines, such as that affirmed by Bradshaw (2006) who suggests that:

“Some forms of temporal lobe tumors or epilepsy are associated with extreme religiosity. Recent brain imaging of devotees engaging in prayer or transcendental meditation has more precisely identified activation in such sites — God-spots, as Vilayanur Ramachandran calls them.

Psilocybin from mushrooms contacts the serotonergic system, with terminals in these and other brain regions, generating a sense of cosmic unity, transcendental meaning and religious ecstasy. Certain physical rituals can generate both these feelings and corresponding serotonergic activity” (p. 8).

In other words, it can be said that religion makes one conform to the beliefs and values of an unusual culture (which ordinary people would perceive as outrageous) because not even the actions pursued under these pretexts can be perceived justifiable under ordinary religious beliefs. When analyzed in the context of the September 11^th attacks, it therefore becomes apparently clear that these acts of terrorism depict delusional behavior among believers, which only seek to reinforce the idea among critics of religion that religion encompasses irrational beliefs and possibly, delusional acts.

From this analysis, there is a clear drift of the actions of believers and the teachings of religion. This belief has been depicted in several works of art such as the musical rock opera titled: Jesus Christ the superstar. In the rock opera, the composers omitted certain basic beliefs which are at the core of Christianity such as the resurrection of Christ.

This move by the musical composers was motivated by the fact that Christian believers normally held irrational beliefs about religion and particularly Jesus Christ. In other words, they tried to tone down the “supernatural” element attributed to Jesus Christ and rather focused on his human side.

To affirm their controversial stance on religion, the musical piece tore down on some of the most basic beliefs about the scriptures of Christianity by stating that some of the books in the New testament, like Mathew, Luke, Mark and John had several inconsistencies because they were in the first place not originally written in English, but rather, interpreted from Greek.

Moreover, because the musical piece focused less on the Jesus’ supernatural nature, it also focused on Judas, which was largely perceived by Christian fundamentalists as an abomination to Christianity. This work only seeks to reinforce the arguments purported in increasing volumes of philosophical works developed by several authors, concerning the negative dominance of religion in the society.

Conclusion

This study identifies that the September 11 attacks significantly change the manner we perceive morality and the knowledge associated with religion in the first place. The precursor events and the actions that followed the attacks seek to redefine the concept of morality in the society and seem a departure from the basic teachings of religion.

These events are perceived as irrational and not in conformance to the teachings of Christianity by any means possible. This is the ground pursued by philosophers criticizing the role of religion in the society because as evidenced from the September 11 attacks, religion seems to play a harmful role in the society.

References

Beckford, J. A. (2003). Social Theory and Religion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Bradshaw, J. (2006). Ockham’s Razor, A God of the Gaps? Web.

Buzzle. (2011). Full text: bin Laden’s ‘letter to America. Web.

Dawkins, R. (1991). Viruses of the Mind. Web.

Dennett, D. (2006). Breaking the Spell. New York: Allen Lane.

Hitchens, C. (2007). God is not Great. New York: Twelve.

Locks, S. (2011). Kill Them All; For The Lord Knoweth Them That Are His Steve Locks. Web.

Calvin believed that salvation of man is predetermined by God only. A human being does not receive salvation based on deeds or piousness. Calvin urged that even before God created the earth he had already elected people who would receive salvation. The people not elected can do nothing to escape the damnation (Robinson 1). On the contrary, Loyola believed that salvation required confession and atonement for sin. Salvation depends on one’s deeds. It can be achieved by practising the spiritual exercises for deliverance from sins.

Some were drawn to Calvin’s teaching because they felt it was comforting, as they did not have to do anything to earn salvation but hope that God had elected them. Thus, no need to work towards salvation as that is God’s choice (Clendenen and Waggoner 185). On the other hand, people were drawn to Loyola’s teachings because they did not feel hopeless about not having control of their future as they could choose salvation and go to heaven or decline and be damned (Matlak, Randall, McMullin and Royce 1).

The beliefs by Loyola seem fair in that one had a free will to choose either to accept salvation or not. It shows that God is fair to all and gives them an equal chance to receive salvation. However, Calvin’s teaching leave me more confused because I cannot understand how God can create some people, elect them for damnation, and give them no chance to escape and give salvation to others for deliverance despite their deeds.

Works Cited

Clendenen, Ray and Brad Waggoner. Calvinism: A Southern Baptist Dialogue. Nashville, Tennessee: B&H Publishing Group, 2008.

Matlak, Gabby, Lisa Randall, Stockton McMullin and Pierre Royce. Ignatius of Loyola and the Society of Jesuits. n.d. Web.

Robinson, Martha K. “Calvin, John.” In Mancall, Peter C., and Gary B. Nash, eds. Encyclopedia of American History: Three Worlds Meet, Beginnings to 1607, Revised Edition (Volume I). New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2010. American History Online. Web.

Cults differ in terms of the adopted belief systems and as a result, individuals who specialize in the study of cults have tried hard to find some of the characteristics common to cults so that they can use them as a basis for studying them.

These characteristics are then put to use at a time when the cult experts are about to identify how new cults now operate. As a result, it is now possible and easier to easily identify if an organization is a cult or not, regardless of their beliefs.

A cult can be defined as any religion whose teachings are not based on the God of the Bible. They manipulate scriptures and infringe on one’s decision making ability. Cult leaders can never admit that they are one and always justify their beliefs.

We cannot recognize cults by the mere use of common sense and the need to develop unbiased methods is important. Cults are based on two foundations; altering the bible and presenting alternative foundations that are separate from the Bible. Control and influence of lies is at the core of most cults’ activities, programs and relationships (Langone 17).

Manipulative characteristics of cults

Characteristics of cult include the pyramid power structure where the top figure head is at the apex. In ‘find it quick handbook on cults and new religions’, Rhodes states that authoritarianism is much prevalent in any cult (Rhodes, R. 12).

As long as they are alive, the authority of the leaders is usually absolute and although they deny that their followers should not submit their conscience to them, people find themselves submitting to their rules because of the pressure put on them.

Kaslow, F. & Sussman, M. (159) state that the authoritarian leader often makes absolute claims about his character, abilities or knowledge. The above authors suggest that those cult members who submit to the authority of their leader are never corrected. This shows the consent and acceptance to the unlawful activities involved.

Cult leaders are manipulative of their followers’ character and will always accuse one’s character if you raise questions that differ with their standard doctrine because they feel threatened.

The followers’ minds are controlled by men and not God’s spirit since the cult has distorted view of the Holy Spirit (Rhodes, R. 13). Information passed on to the flock is also tightly controlled and censured. A careful evaluation of their arguments shows that fairness does not prevail in its operations though they paint a persuasive outward picture.

This is contrary to the biblical teachings that say we should not appeal to one’s authority but God’s anointing: In (The Holy Bible New International Version 1113), the Bible says we have anointing from the Holy one and all human beings know the truth. Other human beings may lead us astray because their anointing is counterfeit, thus the need to remain in the Lord (The Holy Bible New International Version 1113).

Cult followers are usually isolated from close family members and close influences/friends to avoid potential critics over their activities. They sometimes create fortified boundaries and some of them require members to renounce and break off their associations with relatives (Rhodes, R. 13).

At initiation, a cult follower is normally instructed to minimize association with close allies and this is justified by the literature given to converts by the cult leaders so that they can read and familiarize themselves with the requirements of the movement. New members are usually given materials to read about the cult which they find captivating (Clark 181). Therefore, according to the above authors, isolation and fortification is a common characteristic of cults.

The bible says that we should grow up in all aspects into Him, who is the head, even Christ (The Holy Bible New International Version 1070). Christ is the way the truth and life but cult leaders make their followers believe that they are the way to the God and as such, no one can go directly to the father without first passing through them.

Due to monopoly of information, cult followers become dependent on their leaders who continue benefitting from the gifts given to them. The members fear asking questions because they will be excommunicated (Rhodes, R. 13). The leaders use trickery and deceitful scheming as they toss people about to retain their command. Thus, while the bible teaches that we should believe only in one God, Rhodes (13) confirms the contrary of this warning that happens in cults.

Cult doctrines are opposed to historical spiritual foundations and they always claim to restore New Testament Christianity. Thus, they redefine biblical terms such as God, Jesus, and sin to mean something totally different (Rhodes, R. 13).

They use restoration from spiritual slavery as a trick to prey on potential converts. Their reform initiatives are usually selective though they claim to be based on God’s law which is neglected in many aspects. Their leaders show no mercy whenever an offense is committed causing stigmatization among other members.

If we alienate God and oppress the Holy trinity we divide the body of Christ. People should learn to read between the lines on the teachings they receive since most cults will teach what the Bible says but act contrary to the teachings. Cults have both good and bad people and therefore Christians should always be their brother’s keeper so that they bring the brethren who have gone astray to Christ.

We are called to be united in the body of Christ by being completely humble, gentle, patient and bearing with one another in love (The Holy Bible New International Version 1070). Rhodes observes the distortion of God’s word that is contrary to what the bible says about misinterpretation of His word.

Concerns about Cults

A lot of confusion and disputes have been generated because of the psychological manipulation associated with cults that demands for total commitment. Some of these groups even harm people who defy their doctrines making it hard for its followers to leave. This creates a state of paranoia due to the fear caused by the leader (Deception Bytes 19).

Some of the cult members found guilty of destructive behavior also buy their way to justice causing their activities to prevail. Some cult leaders often lie about their spiritual inclination when approaching and recruiting new members making it unethical (Deception Bytes 3).

In family settings some of these unethical teachings are passed onto children. Some children are even abused because they are subjected to assertive parental authority. Cults raise social concerns in cases where they adapt unconventional practices and lifestyles. Their members devote a lot of time to the group, they change or modify their personal goals and they are also barred from socializing with outside members (ApologeticsIndex 2).

Cults also infiltrate into positions of power and force their subjects to participate in their educational programs. In societies where they are dominant, they engage in deceptive sales practices, fundraising activities and sponsorships to lure people to their side (ApologeticsIndex 2).

Theological concerns also arise from people’s beliefs and the foundations upon which these beliefs are formed. While deception bites (3) recognizes the aspect of paranoia and fear in cults, apologeticsindex (2) confirm this by noting how the members group themselves together so that they are not enlightened by what is going on outside their leader’s sphere of influence.

The Holy Bible New International Version (1050) tells us that our conflict is necessary and that if only we can rely on Jesus, he shall surely lead us to the truth and an eternal life. This is a truth that no cult has any knowledge about. There is no need for any one of us to remain as slaves of our fellow men because after all, when Jesus died on the cross, he died for our sins and redeemed us from our sins.

Every thought of Christians should be preoccupied with the need to remain captive obedience to Christ who strengthens us. In addition, exit counseling is important for people who leave cults because of the psychological trauma that comes with their teachings and practices (Galanter 984).

Conclusion

Cults differ in terms of the adopted belief systems and as a result, individuals who specialize in the study of cults have tried hard to find some of the characteristics common to cults so that they can use them as a basis for studying them. Characteristics of cult include the pyramid power structure where the top figure head is at the apex.

Cult leaders are manipulative of their followers’ character and will always accuse one’s character if you raise questions that differ with their standard doctrine because they feel threatened. Cult followers are usually isolated from close family members and close influences/friends to avoid potential critics over their activities.

They sometimes create fortified boundaries and some of them require members to renounce and break off their associations with relatives. Cults have both good and bad people and therefore Christians should always be their brother’s keeper so that they bring the brethren who have gone astray to Christ.

Works Cited

Apologetics index. Characteristics of cults. N.d. Web.

Clark, John. Cults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 242(1979): 181.1979.

Deception Bytes. Twenty characteristics of a cult. N. d. Web.

Galanter Mark. Unification Church (“Moonie”) dropouts: Psychological Re-adjustment after leaving a charismatic religious group. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140(1983): 984-989.

Kaslow, Florence and Sussman, Marvin. Cults and the family, Vol 4. Haworth Press, Inc. Binghamton, 1982. Print.

Langone, Joseph. Social influence: Ethical considerations. Cultic Studies Journal, 6. 1(1989):16-24.

Rhodes, Ron. Find it quick handbook on cults and new religions. Harvest House publishers. Oregon. 2005: 12-13.

The Holy Bible New International Version (1979, 1980, 1982).