In ethical studies, philosophers have always been argumentative and separated by the deep conflicting perceptions and objectives regarding virtues. However, there appears to be one shared positioning shared by diverse accounts contained by an orthodox methodology in morals concerning the appropriateness of acts. That is, they agree that morals are rule-focused. The principal orientation is on resolving some static moral rules that allegedly define the appropriateness of acts.
Some of these interpretations ruminates the static moral principles as ordered from without. To demonstrate this, in divine command theory, the moral rule follows that whatever God permits is right, whatever He prohibits is wrong and whatever He commands is obligatory. In ethical egoism, the rule follows that one must always maximize ones own private good as an end.
In utilitarianism, the rule follows that an action is correct if and only if it generates at least as much equilibrium of good over bad in its repercussions for all individuals impacted as any other action presented to the agent. This essay seeks to explore reasonable relationship between superior virtue as advocated by Lao Zi and disciplined morality advocated by Confucius.
Superior and inferior virtue
During the early development of a human being, there exist differences of conditions, phase, and bodily constitution. The actions taken hence vary in accordance to each individual. In this regard, superior virtue denotes childhood and young age. On the other hand, inferior virtue denotes adulthood and aging.
In reference to the values of transformation, in early human physical and psychological development, the body develops like a new bud. In putting this in the context of the Daode jing, this is known as superior virtue. Daode jing is the Book of the Way and its Virtue. Upon the development and adulthood, Principle, Breath and Soul are expended and ought to be restocked. In the pseudoscience practice, the restocking is inferior virtue. An individual require restocking what is lacking (Mu, 2011).
In essence, superior and inferior virtues emerged from the legendary Lao Zi; the supreme divinity admired in Daoism religion. According to Lao Zi, a person of superior virtue is not righteous. That is the reason why he has virtue. On the other hand, an individual of inferior virtue can never lose virtue. Consequently, he lacks virtue. An individual with superior virtue does not act consciously. Therefore, he acts out of nothing. On the contrary, an individual of inferior virtue acts out of something since he makes sentient action.
An individual of superior compassion acts out of nothing when he takes action. When an individual of superior morality takes action, he acts out of something. When an individual of superior politeness takes action and nobody reacts, he rolls his sleeves and show them the way to it. Consequently, an individual achieves virtue only after dropping the Dao.
He achieves compassion after dropping virtue. He achieves morality after dropping compassion. Finally, he achieves politeness upon dropping morality. Politeness entails the artificial features of allegiance and conviction. It is therefore the foundation of disorder (Lao, 1999).
Prudence entails the flower of the Dao. It is therefore the foundation of deceit. This is the reason truly great men involve themselves with the substance. They do not involve in duplicitys superficial features. They involve themselves in its fruits as opposed to its flower. They reject one and accept the other. Virtue entails attainment (de). It means continuous attainment devoid of losing and benefit devoid of harm. The name virtue is hence used to refer to this cycle.
It is attained from the Dao. An individual achieves it by operating out of nothing. In that regard, everyone is upheld (Zai). Consequently, as far as other people are concerned, when nothing is applied to them, there will be order. However, if something is applied to them by another person, they will lose the means to get away with their lives (Lao, 1999).
Why Lao Zi criticize inferior virtue
The person of inferior virtue is viewed as one who seeks virtue in order to attain it. He achieves it through conscious effort. Lao Zi reckons that the attainment of virtue should not be compelled by any external force. It should just happen. The person of inferior virtue creates goodness as a way to maintain people in order hence is deceitful. He acquires a reputation for virtue.
He consciously pursues it to fulfill it. He will hence lose it. When the term goodness emerges, it means that initially, there was a not good facet corresponding to goodness. To eliminate the not bad facet, he acts out of something, the not good pressure.
Lao Zi teaches that an individual requires contemplating the eternal Dao devoid of the supremacy of the static formulation of Dao in order to reach the vantage-point from where one can attain owns complete comprehension of the eternal Dao. In this regard, pursuing virtue in the short-term through fixed moral principles is rather limited and cannot exhaust the eternal Dao.
As per the Confucians principle of virtue, every great man should be sensitive to the wellbeing of others. This is achieved through ren which helps in the maintenance of peace. Lao Zi views this as deceit that negate that the fundamental unifying force runs across the universe and things pursue their own course without any effort.
How a Confucian would respond to Lao Zis criticism
The morality of Confucianist ethics is founded on compassion and loyalty. It is about good and evil of mankind. It is about denying the self and returning to politeness. Lao Zi observes politeness as one of the routes in the pursuit of virtue. A Confucian would reflect on the inner self to see if they have done enough to help others out of compassion.
While Lao Zi would not be concerned about being honest with others because that would mean that one was not initially honest hence seek to act to attain honesty, a Confucian would be troubled wondering whether or not they have been honest and sincere in dealing with others. A Confucian would not take it well when Lao Zi does not do anything to be faithful and compassionate to others (Yang, 2014).
The concept of Ren is one that Confucius seems to dwell on in order to achieve virtue. Ren is composed of gravity, reticent, modesty, tolerance, generosity, diligence and trustworthiness. Lao Zi criticizes these as aspects that have been pursued to achieve virtue. Lao Zi holds that the display of these means that the opposite was initially there and thats why a person pursuing virtue will practice ren to account for the void hence lacks virtue irrespective of pleasing others (Mou, 2001).
Accounting for Lao Zis and Confucius teachings
The paradox that exists between Lao Zi and Confucians view of virtue emerges from how a man of superior virtue comes to be. Both perspectives relates to virtue. However, according to Lao Zi, virtue is not pursued. There should be neither external nor internal coercion for one to be virtuous.
It should be there from the beginning as it exists across the universe and cannot be changed since it is eternal. On the other hand, Confucian observes that virtue is pursued by one acting to be benevolent and loyal. Loa Zi would see loyalty as deceit in the pursuit to create order in terms of peace and harmony. This means that initially there was disorder for one to strive to attain order.
The interpretation of both theories suggests that virtue is an essential part of human excellence that enables us to flourish. When one takes a superficial perspective, one may end up focusing on something else (ones own flourishing) as opposed to particular people. Consequently, when one attempts to be virtuous under such a perspective, one may actually become less virtuous. This will present a situation of paradox of virtue (Mou, 2001).
Conclusion
In account of virtue, the humanistic virtuousness is founded on naturalistic metaphysical basis. Lao Zi holds that virtue ethics that place emphasis on the virtues as opposed to general principles is not superior to the dimension of moral motivation. Lao Zi also holds that man of superior virtue acts out of nothing to attain virtue while man of inferior virtue acts out of something to fulfill it.
Confucians hold that every great man of virtue should be persuaded by the urge to forfeit their self-interest for the betterment of others. By so doing, there will be peace as each seeks to live in benevolence. Confucius sought to drive the idea of morality into leadership to demonstrate the role they can play in ensuring peaceful co-existence of mankind.
References
Lao, Z. (1999).The classic of the way and virtue: A new translation of the tao-te ching of Lao Zi as interpreted by Wang bi. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Mou, B. (2001). Moral rules and moral experience: A comparative analysis of Dewey and Lao Zi on morality. Asian Philosophy 11(3): 161-178.
Mu, W. (2011). Superior virtue and inferior virtue. Web.
The relationship between the European Union and the United States of America that had extended over six decades plays an immeasurably significant role both for involved countries and international communities across the globe. As a matter of fact, the EU-USA partnership was constructed on the basis of shared values that include freedom, legality, democracy, free enterprise, endeavors to alleviate poverty, and respect for human rights. These values, in combination with the interconnected and interdependent transatlantic economy and the long-lasting collaboration in the sphere of security and defense, create a solid union that may confront multiple global challenges. The United States and the members of the European Union share global responsibilities to provide peace, the stability of global trade, monetary and financial systems, and create appropriate conditions for economic development worldwide. In addition, the EU-USA partnership provides official development assistance to strengthen the developing countries economies all over the world. The purpose of this paper is to examine and evaluate EU-USA relations in various spheres of governmental activity.
Trade and Investment
In the present day, the United States and the European Union have the most integrated interrelation in the sphere of economy and the largest bilateral investment and trade relationship worldwide. The total investment of all involved countries is regarded as the key factor of the development of transatlantic relationships that substantively contributes to business growth and employment on both sides of the Atlantic (European Commission, 2019, para. 2). In addition, the investment of the United States in the economy of the European Union is three times higher in comparison with total American investment in Asian countries (European Commission, 2019). In turn, the EU investment for the United States is eight times higher than the Unions investment in China and India (European Commission, 2019). EU-USA relationships define the general shape of the global economy, as the European Union and the United States are the most essential trade and investment partners for the majority of counties across the globe (European Commission, 2019). The main import and export categories include machinery, pharmaceuticals, medical instruments, aircraft, mineral fuel, vehicles, and electrical machinery.
The United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Netherlands, and Belgium are the countries involved in EU-USA trade and investment relationships to a greater extent in comparison with other countries. In 2007, the Transatlantic Economic Council was established in order to provide transatlantic economic growth and guide the work on transatlantic economic convergence (European Commission, 2019, para. 5). It may be defined as the unique high-level forum that implies the discussion of economic issues between the United States and the members of the European Union in a coordinated and coherent manner. The Transatlantic Economic Council integrates a range of ongoing economic cooperation activities and creates a specific platform for political guidance for economic solutions (European Commission, 2019, para. 5). In addition, the council unites the US Cabinet and the European Commission that have certain political responsibilities to strengthen economic ties.
Despite the number of inevitable trade disputes, the relationship between the European Union and the United States continues to develop. In 2018, European Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker and US President Donald Trump accepted a joint statement dedicated to the formation of an Executive Working Group. This group aims to reduce transatlantic trade barriers and eliminate non-tariff barriers and non-auto industrial tariffs (Office of the United States Trade Representative, n.d.). According to Robert Lighthizer, US Trade Representative, the Trump Administration started negotiations and intended to complete necessary domestic procedures (Office of the United States Trade Representative, n.d.). In addition, the representatives of both sides organize regular meetings to expand transatlantic cooperation
Security and Defense
The European Union and the United States may be regarded as highly significant strategic partners in promoting stability and peace across the globe. The involved countries work together in order to confront global security issues such as transnational crime, cybercrime, terrorism, and nuclear weapon proliferation ( The United States and the EU, 2017). The 9/11 terrorist attacks had a substantial impact on the security policies of the United States and all members of the European Union that worked as a catalyst for EU-US counter-terrorism relations (Anagnostakis, 2017, p. 1). In recent years, the partners have concluded a crucial number of international agreements related to customs security, the transfer of air travelers data, the transfer of financial data, mutual legal assistance and extradition, and security research (Anagnostakis, 2017, p. 1). Moreover, according to these agreements, the countries judicial information, operational information, and criminal intelligence may be shared with the European Police Office and Eurojust (Anagnostakis, 2017). In addition, the cooperation between the European Union and the United States affects various areas of policy related to internal security, such as the standards of travel documents, stolen passports, money counterfeiting, human trafficking, cybercrime, and child pornography.
In the present day, the United States and the European Union are equal members of several international organizations as well. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) may be regarded as an example of these international groups. Founded in 1949, it currently consists of Canada, the United States, and the majority of European countries (Sonny, 2012). The main purpose of NATO is mutual defense and help in case if one of its members will be attacked.
Energy Consumption and Environment
In general, the United States and the European Union share common approaches to the global issues of climate change and increased energy consumption. All involved states cooperate in the energy industry in order to promote open, competitive, sustainable, and transparent global energy markets ( The United States and the EU, 2017). However, there are certain disagreements between countries that occurred when the United States attracted criticism from the members of the European Union after George Bushs withdrawal of governmental support for the Kyoto Protocol (Sonny, 2012). This international agreement was created to reduce the carbon emissions that have a highly negative impact on the planets environment. However, in 2009, the situation began to change when Barack Obama refused to continue the policy of his antecedent and stated that the United States was ready to lead on climate change (Sonny, 2012, p. 1). The Energy Council was subsequently established by the partners to increase cooperation in the sphere of environment protection to reduce climate change.
Concerning the cooperation of the United States and the European Union in the energy area, the examination of the countries relationship demonstrates the contrasting energy pictures across the Atlantic (Conley, Ladislaw, & Hudson, 2016, p. 159). The partners previously shared a common energy paradigm of decreasing supply, increasing demand, and energy dependence on imports (Conley, Ladislaw, & Hudson, 2016). Although the United States has currently reversed that trajectory, the European Union still faces rising energy costs and growing energy dependence.
Conclusion
It goes without saying that the cooperation between the European Union and the United States of America has a substantively long history. There are no other regions all over the world that are connected more closely to politics, economics, and security. In the present day, the United States and the European Union have the most integrated interrelation in the sphere of economy and the largest bilateral investment and trade relationship worldwide. They may be regarded as highly significant strategic partners that work together in order to promote stability and peace across the globe confronting global security issues such as transnational crime, terrorism, and nuclear weapon proliferation. In addition, the European Union and the United States share common approaches to the global issues of the environmental crisis and increased energy consumption. They cooperate in the energy industry in order to promote open, competitive, sustainable, and transparent global energy markets
From a personal perspective, disagreements between countries with different cultures, visions, and standards of living are inevitable. Vague and unpredictable contemporary policies and global challenges substantially influence the partners relations in a negative way. However, despite the existence of tense and divergent issues, the cooperation of European countries with the United States is irreversible and solid in multiple aspects. A strong partnership between all involved countries is crucial for the establishment of a more prosperous, democratic, and secure world. In general, the United States and the European Union currently need a positive relationship and will require it in the future as well. The strengthening of ties between countries and effective cooperation is more beneficial than disagreements and conflicts.
References
Anagnostakis, D. (2017). EU-US cooperation on internal security: Building a transatlantic regime. Routledge.
Conley, H., Ladislaw, S., & Hudson, A. (2016). The US-EU energy relationship. In J. M. Godzimirski (Ed.). EU leadership in energy and environmental governance: International political economy series (pp. 159-180). Palgrave Macmillan
Over the last few decades, the influence of comedy on power has increased (Martin 2001, p. 507). On a regular basis, social media, YouTube videos, and other online platforms confront political subjects and satirise political candidates. Political comedy shows are associated with power because they convey amusing perspectives with respect to the current political events (Weitz 2009, p. 56).
Humorous political shows have become sources of updates and information. The essay below argues that comedy acts as a political communication tool, prompts political viewpoints, and triggers political engagements. As such, the essay will begin by illustrating how political comedy plays a role in communication. Following this, it will illustrate how political humour has fostered democracy.
Thereafter, it will indicate how humour encourages the public to pay greater consideration to political information. Exposure to political comedy encourages audience to base its political reviews on behaviours made more noticeable through comical shows. By illustrating how informed citizens exhibit a certain political advantage against other people who are politically unenthusiastic, the essay finally focuses on factors that determine the effects of comedy on power.
Comedy as a communication tool
Political comedy plays a powerful role in communication. The creativity that makes people laugh has been viewed as an important tool for political communication (Martin 2001, p. 510). The entertainers are reaping from the art as the investors pay them while advertising their commodities (Weitz 2009, p. 56). The art has grown to be a powerful item that is important in every aspect of our lives. The above and more evidences give the connection between comedy and power (Becker 2010, p. 235).
The significance of comedy, as a tool of political communication, is extensively accepted. As such, the relationship between exposure to political comedy and power has been well documented. Exposure to political comedy boosts learning and impacts outlooks. Political humour is not just an alternate bulletin source, but also an exceptional communicative platform that increases effortful dispensation and intellectual engagement (Weitz 2009, p. 57).
Through this, it enhances knowledge and attitude restraint. In addition, the strongest impacts are foreseen not among uninterested populaces incidentally exposed to facts, but among reasonably cultured viewers with the ability to understand and acknowledge comical messages (Deveau 2012, p. 408). In the absence of political humour, such individuals normally lack enthusiasm to think intensely about politics.
Becker (2010, p. 237) asserts that information is best delivered by press releases, which are enlightening and appealing. However, the decrease in the number of audiences illustrates that the customary media firms power to influence the public is dwindling. In this regard, an understanding of the relationship between power and politics is essential. Currently, more individuals are progressively deserting customary hard news media and shifting their attention to other substitute sources for info (Becker 2010, p. 238).
The above shift illustrates that political comedy is increasingly becoming a basis of political information. Humour reduces the political knowledge fissure by decreasing motivational and source obstacles to knowledge acquisition (OShannon 2012, p.179). Comedy inspires audiences to search for additional evidence from the media they perceive to be prejudiced and unreliable. Humour attracts attention to pertinent politically prompts. Based on the above illustrations, it is apparent that comedy offers not only more prospects to stay conversant about politics, but also diverse platforms, through which political information can be conveyed.
How comedy has fostered democracy
Hypothetically, comedy and sarcasm can undertake a very vital role in the political culture. As such, if democracy is to thrive, it requires the public to be attentively sceptical with their politicians, administrations, and governments (Calmus & Caillies 2014, p. 48). According to comedy theories, evils in society are supposed to be highlighted through mockery.
The vices are mocked with the aim of embarrassing persons and the public into improvement. In this respect, comedy acts as a political weapon. Comedy can also illustrate more about politics than news reports or scholars can do (Calmus & Caillies 2014, p. 50). The above is true because comedy is not restricted by reference to sources and the necessity to be factual to their evidences (Calmus & Caillies 2014, p. 48). Similarly, comedy attracts a larger audience than correspondents or academics do.
Generally, comedians encourage the members of the public to make fun of politics (Miles 2014, p.101). More habitually, comedy is perceived to be anti-political. Comedians inspire spectators to laugh at political figures and scorn them as an end in itself. Politicians are portrayed as being financially crooked, ethically crooked, and liars. Undeniably, few politicians are liars and double-dealers. Nevertheless, the overall picture illustrated by the comedians with respect to our political figures is wrong (OShannon 2012, p.178). However, the perception is convenient because it implies that the voters are not accountable for the reason that they are all the victims of erroneous politics.
How political comedy encourages the public to pay greater consideration to political information
Researches focusing on the effects of comedy on power indicate that exposure to political humour can result in constructive and modest results (Calmus & Caillies 2014, p. 48). Exposure to political humour programs results in higher levels of acknowledgment, which necessitates a peripheral attention in politics over the more considerate and intricate process of remembrance. Additionally, a current examination of up to 30 political information items presented in the National Annenberg Election Study established that exposure to comedy among the citizens resulted in knowledge gain (Calmus & Caillies 2014, p. 49).
The same research found that exposure to political humour aroused concentration to news broadcasting content amongst individuals who were less interested in politics (Calmus & Caillies 2014, p. 49). Data collected by the Pew Research Centre during the year 2004 elections illustrates that political humour has a huge effect on knowledge gain among the voters (Miles 2014, p.101).
In this regard, it is apparent that exposure to political humour during political campaign periods enhances an understanding about the politicians among the voters. The illustrations also suggest that political comedy encourages the public to pay greater consideration to party information offered to them by the political agents.
Another relationship that exists between comedy and power illustrates that exposure to political humour makes the public to pay more prominence on politicians characters instead of their policies. The above fact implies that consistent exposure to political comedy can influence related attitudes toward leaders by making specific personalities more significant. However, it should be noted that prejudice and prior levels of political acquaintance moderate the effect of exposure.
Similarly, exposure to political comedy inspires audiences to base their appraisals of political contenders on personality behaviours made more noticeable through comical shows. Because relations exist between comedy and power, it is apparent that humour influences citizens political behaviours. In this regard, politicians can be able to utilise comical programs in persuading the public to vote for them during election campaigns.
While political comedy audience predominantly labels the humour programs as amusing rather than educational, viewers still recommend that the shows are both convincing and opinionated in orientation. A research on the effects of exposure to political comedy broadcasted before the 2008 election suggests that both Republican and Democratic audiences assessed the comical targets (Miles 2014, p. 100). Most viewers negatively rated John McCain. Another relation between comedy and power suggest that political humour enhances cynicism and engagement.
Exposure to political comedy promotes a more cynical viewpoint towards organizations and politicians. On the contrary, exposure to political comedy can help politicians enhance their personal attributes. Through this, comedy shapes political processes. A study by Deveau indicates how political comedy influences political processes by analysing the relations between comedy and political dissatisfaction.
The study suggests that exposure to shows, such as The Daily Show, endorses more pessimistic outlooks and a lack of confidence in government organizations among some viewers (Deveau 2012, p. 408). On the contrary, the same study indicates that exposure to The Daily Show has a constructive influence on rulings of internal political effectiveness.
Factors that determine the effects of comedy on power
A few factors determine the effects of comedy on power. The factors are the aggregate capacity of evidence one has and nature of the approaches resulting from these attentions (Weitz 2010, p. 34). The above factors form significant building blocks of citizen proficiency. Consequently, assessing the impacts of political comedy on learning and conceptual restraint tolerates the democratic costs of this non-customary method of political communication to be better comprehended. Well-informed individuals are obviously superior citizens.
They are in a better position to appreciate political addresses, distinguish the cost of political disagreements, establish and articulate rational outlooks that are expressive replications of individual welfares and beliefs, and come up with coherent political choices to progress goals (Martin 2001, p. 507). Because of this, informed citizens exhibit a certain political advantage against those citizens who are unenthusiastic and uninformed about public affairs and politics.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it should be noted that the above essay has emphasised that there is a close link between comedy and power. The paper has discussed that comedy acts as a tool of political communication. Exposure to political comedy boosts learning and impact outlooks. Political humour is not just an alternate bulletin source, but also an exceptional communicative platform that boosts effortful dispensation and intellectual engagement. Through this, it enhances knowledge and attitude restraint. It was also discussed that comedy reduces the political knowledge gap by decreasing motivational and source obstacles to knowledge acquisition.
In addition, the essay has illustrated that comedy inspires audiences to search for supplementary evidence from the media they perceive to be prejudiced and unreliable and attracts attention to pertinent politically prompts. The above also implies that constant exposure to political comedy can sway related attitudes toward leaders by making specific personalities more noteworthy.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that prejudice and prior levels of political acquaintance moderate the effect of exposure. Correspondingly, exposure to political comedy encourages audiences to base their appraisals of political contenders on personality behaviours made more noticeable through comical shows. Based on the above, it is apparent that comedy influences power in a number of ways.
References
Becker, A 2010. Political Humour as Democratic Relief? The Effects of Exposure to Comedy and Straight News on Trust and Efficacy. Atlantic Journal of Communication, vol.3, no.4, pp. 235-250.
Calmus, A, & Caillies, S 2014, Verbal irony processing: How do contrast and humour correlate?, International Journal Of Psychology, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 46-50.
Deveau, D 2012, The Aristocrats: Comedy, grotesqueries and political inversions of the masculine code, International Journal of Humour Research, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 401-415.
Martin, R 2001, Humour, laughter, and physical health: Methodological issues and research findings. Psychological Bulletin, vol. 127, no. 4, pp.504-519.
Miles, T 2014, The cultural set-up of comedy: Affective politics in the United States post 9/11, by Julie Webber. Comedy Studies. vol. 4, no 33, pp.100-101.
OShannon, D 2012. Common Comedy Theories. Continuum. New York.
Weitz, E 2009, Comedys Devices. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Weitz, E 2010, Introduction Thinking About Comedy. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
There are several theories that have been advanced to explain language development. They include behaviorist explanations, nativist explanation and interactionist explanation. This paper seeks to give an explanation of theories of language development.
Nativist theory This theory was proposed by Noam Chomsky, an American philosopher and scholar. This theory suggests that human beings biologically programmed to acquire knowledge. According to Shaffer et al (2009, p.47), LAD has grammatical knowledge present in all languages, and LAD is common to all human beings.
Behaviorist explanations This theory suggests that all kids obtain knowledge through operating conditioning principles that are simple. It was advanced by Skinner. Skinner (1984, p. 547) explained that anything that an organism can do should be described as a behavior. The theory further says that children often imitate sounds emitted by adults. (Cummings & Allen, 2000)
Interactionist theory This theory suggests that development and advancement of language is a combination of environmental and biological influences (Tripod, 2010, para.1). It was proposed by Jean Piaget. It is important to note that this approach is a compromise between behavioral and nativist theory (Lewis, 2010, para 9).
Meagan and Jennifer Case
As for Meagans case, it is true that parents do not spend much time teaching their kids grammar. Perhaps these parents are so engrossed in their careers that they hardly have time to bond with their growing children. When a child makes grammatical errors while constructing a sentence, parent would ignore, but if the child utters a grammatically correct sentence, the parent will reinforce it.
In Jennifers case, Nativity theory suggests that ability of a person to learn languages is separate from overall intelligence. Regarding interactions theory, parents do not talk same way to kids as they talk with mature people. Behaviorism theory relies on positive or negative experiences as tools for learning languages.
Relationship between Language and Thought
Language and thought are related because nature of thought is often shaped by language according to linguistic relativity theory (Carrol, 1997, p. 47).
Whorf concluded that Inut people in Canada have a perception that is not same as English. However this has been criticized by other scholars, for example Eleanor Rosch study on Dani people from Papua New Guinea revealed that they did not encounter problem differentiating colors (Rosch, 1978, pp. 328).
According to her, people do not rely much on abstract definitions of categories. Some studies suggest that language can be influenced by color processing such that there is tendency of generalization. For example when some cultures recognize few colors like other cultures (Roberson, Davidoff, Davies & Shapiro, 2004).
Tyler and Jennifer Case
As for Tyler, it is certain that theories have said that language and thought are similar, such that language is used to express thoughts of a person. Benjamin Whorf studied closely Native American languages when he was not at work and concluded that snow had different names however this was later disputed by other researcher.
For Jennifers case, It is evident that you disagree with Benjamin Whorf in his study that revealed that people had different names for snow. You have concluded that language and thought are related and you have given an example of Munduruku of Amazonia. I agree that most cultures have particular words for a particular taste for instance sweetness.
Reference List
Carroll, J.(1997). Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, Mass.: Technology Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Cummins, D., & Allen, A. (2000). The evolution of mind. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lewis, s. (2010). How Do Children Learn Language? Theories of language development attempt to explain. Web.
Roberson D., Davidoff J., Davies, I.R. &Shapiro, L.R. (2004).Color categories: evidence for the cultural relativity hypothesis. Cogn psychol. Vol. 50, issue 4.
Rosch, E. (1975).Cognitive representation of semantic categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Vol. 3, issue 4, pp. 573-605.
Shaffer, D.R., Kipp, K., Wood, E., & Willoughby, T. (2009). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence, Third Canadian Edition. Toronto: Nelson.
Skinner, F. 1984. The operational analysis of psychological terms. Behavioral and brain sciences. Volume 7, issue 4, pp. 547581.
The relationship between the United States of America and the United Kingdom goes a long way back, before the declaration of independence in America. The arrival of the British pilgrims in America heralded the beginning of a relationship that would last for hundreds of years. The two countries have collaborated on several fronts from war to commerce and international affairs.
This relationship can be seen as a love hate affair as it has been characterised by intense affection and rivalry between these two historic friends. Despite the rivalry, the two nations have found themselves mostly on the same side of a conflict. The term special relationship was coined during the World War Two to define the close ties between these two countries.
The special relationship between the United States of America and the United Kingdom is founded on the historical association between these two nations. The special relationship goes beyond politics to shared ideologies both in the government circle and amongst the citizens of these two nations.
Over and above the shared ideologies, the special relationship has also been shaped by the personal relationship between the British Prime Minister and the president of the United States of the America. The closer the personal affiliation between the two heads of states, the closer the ties. The opposite of this is also true.
This special kind of friendship has survived many challenges up to the present and continues to thrive even under the greatest pressure. The special relationship has always been skewed against the balance of power, yet still manages to survive the many challenges because of its mutual benefits to both countries.
The term special relationship describing the relations between the United States of America and United Kingdom was coined in 1949, by the then British Premier, Sir Winston Churchill. The term is a description of the very close and unrivalled relationship between any two countries in the history of across country affairs: United States and United Kingdom. The special relationship gained much significance during the Second World War.
Both the US and the UK were concerned by the increasing threat of the communist Russia and the Nazi Germany. Suffice to say that the special relationship between these two countries goes beyond the threat of communism and Nazism. Despite the many conflicts between them the two countries see each other as brothers; they have always been ready to support each other upon requests (Fichtner 3).
The relationship between the US and the UK goes way back into history. The relationship between these two countries effectively began by the arrival of the British pilgrims in the new world.
This was about 200 years before America declared her independence from the British (US Foreign Policy 2011). British pilgrims are known to have sojourned to the new world, the Americas, by the year 1620. Most of these pilgrims were Christian puritans who had sought to establish a purified Church of England far away from home.
It is estimated that by the end of 17th century, more than 350000 Briton had moved to America as permanent immigrants. During this time, the two countries were joined in war. The French and the Indian wars, fought in American soil, saw the saw the two counties fighting on the same side. During the America civil war, Britain was again involved.
The Britishmercantilist polices were introduced into the American law. However, Britain and America were not always on one side of the war. Their relationships between these two counties was alsocharacterise by sever conflicts pitting the two countries against each other.
Most of these wars were influenced by the need for the British to assert control over most of the American territories.The conflict arose because the British immigrants colonised and controlled most of the productive land in the new world. The British effectively became the settlers.
With time, the relationship between the settlers and the British government was effectively affected because of the effort of the government in England and the desire to control America. Some of the measures instigated by the British government such as new tax levies were strongly resisted by the British settlers. This led to the famous war of independence.
The war between England and America was not restricted to America alone. In 1812, America wage d a fierce war against England which was motivated by a number of factors such as business, politics and most importantly, the mistreatment of Americansolders by the Britishsoldiers into British ships in high seas.
Even though the war ended with the signing of a treaty in Ghent Belgium, there were to be other confrontations that involved these two countries in subsequent years (Fichtner 5 to 5).
The relationship between these two countries has not always been limited to politics and war. In 1895, the term was coined to describe the social political ideologies shared between the two countries.
The Great Rapprochement is the term used to describe the period that the relationships between these two countries improved tremendously. This period lasted from the 1890 up to and including the World War One.
What significantly indicated the improvement in its relationship is an event that happened during the Spanish-American war. Britain which was expected to support Spain instead opted to support America, unlike most of the European countries which supposed Spain. Britains decision to support America not only led to victory on the American side but also much stronger ties between the two countries.
The improved relationship was to continue during World War One when America was forced to side with Britain due to Americas own self-interests as well as her ambitions to contain the threat that Germany posed to Americas international influence. The feeling of mistrust for the Germans was not restricted to the high office as most of the Americans felt that Germany posed a threat to her sovereignty.
As such, they pressured America to join the war. America thus had no alternative but to support Britain and her allies who were realistically facing the reality of defeat. Again American and British were joinedtogether in war, like during the pre-independence time, against the common enemy. The relationship between the two countries in the period after the World War One was characterised by a lot of uncertainties due to a number of reasons.
Most significantly is a series of events that weakened Americas preoccupation in world affairs. Such events include the great American depression and Americas refusal to join the League of Nations. These two events especially led to America losing her niche on world affairs, which effectively led to her isolation in the world politics.
This weakened the relationship between Britain and America because Britain was chagrined by Americas refusal to join the League of Nations as well as other issues of which Britain accused America of being too self-interested. However, the relationship between these two countries was not irreparably damaged. At the advent of the Second World War, the friendship between America and USA was renewed, a period in which the term special relationship was coined (Perkins 59).
The term specialrelationship was first coined by the British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill in his address in his Sinews of Peace Address in Fulton, Missouri in the year 1946. As such the beginning of very close ties in politics, trade and socials cultural issues is credited to Sir Winston Churchill.
The British premier was extolling the need for a special kind of bond between the two countries, which he saw as the genesis of world peace and to check the rise of what was then considered devil power embodied in communism. He therefore called for a special relationship between the English speaking people referring to Britons and Americans.
This implies that Sir Churchill was calling for not just a political alliance, but also an ideological alliance to face out communism. It also implies that he was calling for the support and the involvement of the citizens of these two countriesbehind a unified force.
During the pre-American independence time, when much of the association between these two countries was based on war, the relationship between the two counties in 1940 had taken a special dimension, and was also motivated by among other factors, the threat and the need to join the World War Two as a unified force.
Sir Winston Churchill in a previous speech had thus urged the people of Britain to join the people of America and not abandon the special relationships between the two countries.
Britons were thus urged to help America in guarding the atomic bomb, a weapon that Sir Winston Churchill saw as the symbol of world peace. These statements were backed by the event that happened between 1890 and the World War Two, a situation christened as the Great Rapprochement. Just like during the Word War One, America joined the British side due to perceived insecurities against the Nazis.
As such, it was forced to join Britain and her allies to fight the increasing threat posed by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi forces. During the Word War Two America and Britain fought alongside each other in many battles against the Germans and the Japanese most of which ended in victory of the alliance between America andBritain.
This thus forged a very close relationship between these two countries. Some of these battles include the theatre Fortress, Battle of Monte Cassino, Battle of Overloon, Battle of the Bulge, and the Battle of Okinawa, amongst many others (Perkins 63).
The special relationship between these two countries has endured many twists and turns during and after the Word War Two. Actually, many critics argue that the special relationship is a victim of circumstances.
When closely monitored analysts argue that the special relationship is more of an effort to avoid conflict between two world super powers. Beneath the layer of polite diplomacy there is always an elaborate fight between the two countries on who is more powerful between the two superpowers. Analysts argue that the special relationship is more of an egg and a chicken scenario.
The questions of who comes first always dominate the politics of special relationship. Diplomats and technocrats engaged in managing this relationship are always in a dilemma as to whether policy issues should come first over friendship between the two countries. This is so especially when the foreign policies of the two seem to run into conflict.
The rivalries between the two countries have been well managed over the years with each of the two countries doing the best to maintain good public image. However, the differences of who controls this relationship have at times come to the fore.
At such times, most of the critics have been quick to point fingers at Washington for treatingBritain as the smaller brother. So much is the domination of America over Britain that Britain has always been called the Americas poodle due to its tendency to play into American game plans.
The tendency of the British government to always fall prey to Americas schemes has always angered Britons who have at times called for the severance of the ties between London and Washington. These beliefs are not far-fetched and have been shared amongst the higher authorities in London who at times have felt the weight being dragged too deep into matters that were not of interest to it.
A classic example of the domination of the special relationship is the decision by the two countries to go into the Iraq war in the early 2000s. Britain has been accused of not prevailing upon its partner into making special predationsform the war, a war that was too costly for both countries.
Tony Blair, the then prime minister of Britain was accused of expending too much political capital in, what analyst argues as unconditional agreement to go into the war with Iraq. This was a move that would cost Blair too much on the political level. Despite the fact the Blair publicly supported the war, those at close quarters argued that he was pressurised by George Bush, a move that he regretted (Freedman para 3 to 5).
The nature of the special relationship between the two countries has been determined by the personal relationship between the US president and the British premier. The relationship was coined during the time when the Britains Sir Winston Churchill and the then US President Franklin D. Roosevelt enjoyed a very close and personal relationship (Gardiner para 1).
Sir Winston Churchill used the very close relationship between the two leaders to woo President Roosevelt to engage in the World War Two for a period of two years. Churchill was able to write to Roosevelt asking for among other things arms and financial support. Churchill was also able to secure the engagement of more than a million US soldiers to support the British army in the battle against the German Nazis.
At this moment in the history of the special relationship, Britain had the upper hand and this was reflected in the words of Churchill who remarked that no lover ever studied every whim of his mistress as I did those of President Roosevelt (Shipman para 4).
Britains domination of the relationship would be severely affected in the 1960s in an ironical twist of events. Prime Minister Anthony Eden and President Dwight D. Eisenhower did not enjoy a close personal relationship leading to Britain joining forces with France to prevent Egypt from seizing the Suez Canal.
Instead of America joining British, it chose to attack the British force in Eden, leading to the disgraceful defeat of Britain and her allies. But instead of severing the relationship, Britains defeat strengthened the relationship as it reinforced the fact that America was always an equal partner in world affairs (para 5).
The relationship between Blair and Bush also heighted the personality influences on the special relationship. While the two enjoyed something akin to a comical relationship, their close personal relationship did little to hide the cracks that exist in this relationship. Blair willingly supported Bush in his Iraq misadventure, Bush publicly refused to give in to Britains requests (para9).
The special relationship almost took an intimate perspective during the reign of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and President Ronald Reagan. So close was their personal relationship that the pair was popularly referred to as Ronnie and Maggie. Analysts referred this relationship as the true transatlantic marriage, characterised by more affections than tensions.
The then British premier, Thatcher, is reported to have claimed that Ronald Reagan was the second most important man in her life (para 8). The two were able to use their close personal relationship to prevail upon each other against maters of international policies. Such matters include Thatchers ability to gain Reagans support in the matter over the Falklands.
In present times however, the special relationship has come under heavy criticism especially from the British MPs who claim that the relationship was always blown out of proportions and as such should be abolished.
The MPs have reacted to a situation in which the relationship has left Britain weakened in global affairs, which creates the impression that Britain is a subservient poodle. The MPs argue that even though the special relationships have served the two countries well in the past, recent events and occurrences render the term invalid.
This is a reflection of the very distant relations between the current US President Barrack Obama and the former British premier Gordon Brown (BBC para.3). Furthermore, President Barrack Obama has been accused of treating Britain as a distant friend. This statement can be reflected in Obamas recent bashing of British Petroleum (BP), following its oil spill (Gardiner para 7).
The departure of Gordon Brown and the arrival of James Cameron into the picture brought with it a lot of optimism. Cameron and Obama enjoy a much closer personal relationship than Obama did with Brown.
Coincidentally, the relationship between London and Washington has slightly thawed after the arrival of Cameron. However, analysts are quick to warn against the rising optimist, blaming it on Obamas indifference to the role of Britain in world affairs. Obama is reported to have mentioned Britains name on very few occasions.
The Obama administration is also criticised for treating Britain as any other country that does not deserve any special treatment. Political analysts have advised Cameron to bypass Obama and reach to the Republican controlled US House of Representatives for support. Another key factor in that indicates the strain that affects the special relationship is the decision by the UK government to cut on defence spending, a move criticized at the White House as a unilateral disarmament.
This move leaves Britain as a very weak partner on the military front and should there ever be a need for the two countries to engage in war together, America will be left with a bigger burden. Furthermore, the ambition and the rise of the European Union does not help the special relationship.
Suffice to say that despite the current challenges, claiming that the special relationship is on its death bed is a gross misinterpretation. This is because the relationship between the two countries has come from far and is deeper than the personal relationship between the US president and the British premier. As such, the relationship will continue to grow amidst the challenges (Gardiner para. 14).
The relationship between the United States of America goes deeper historically, politically and ideologically. For a long time, the two nations have been involved in many joint ventures, most of them involving war. Events have conspired to make these two nations victims of fate as most of the times they are forced to fight on the same side of a war.
So intense and deep is the relationship that the term special relationship has been coined to describe the relations between American and the United Kingdom. This relationship has gone through a lot of challenges but it does not crumble. This is due to its complexity. The two countries espouse the special relationship due to the mutual benefits that it portends for each of the country.
Currently, the special relationship is facing significant challenges such as the rise of the European Union, disinterest of the Obama administration in having closer ties with Britain and Britains efforts to cut her defence spending. Despite all the challenges analysts say that the relationship is under no threat of extinction and that it is here to stay.
Hippolytus (428 B.C) is a tragic prince who likes hunting and chaste. He worships the goddess of hunting and chastity, Artemis and ignores Aphrodite, the goddess of love (Halleran 2001). Aphrodite is furious with this act of exclusion and plans to revenge. Aphrodite causes Phaedra (stepmother to Hippolytus) to fall in love with Hippolytus (Halleran 2001).
However, Hippolytus does not agree. As a result, Phaedra hangs herself and leaves a note behind accusing Hippolytus of rape. Theseus (Hippolytus father) reads the letter and curses Hippolytus. Consequently, Hippolytus dies. Artemis comes and tells the truth. However, the goddess promises to revenge the death of Hippolytus on Aphrodites next favorite mortal before she disappears (Halleran 2001). Revenge drives plots of this tragedy.
Aphrodite
This is the goddess of love. The tragic play presents Aphrodite as feared and revengeful goddess of power. Aphrodite appearance in the prologue influences the whole play. Hippolytus refuses to worship Aphrodite, an act that infuriates the goddess. She plots a revenge on Hippolytus by making Phaedra fall in love with his step son.
This leads to a shameful death of Phaedra and a curse upon Hippolytus leading to his death too (Carson 2006). In this case, the goddess makes humans err by blinding them through irrational actions, It is natural for men to err when gods blind them (Halleran 2001, 29).
Artemis
This is the goddess of chastity and hunt. Hippolytus is the favorite of this goddess as he prefers hunting and staying chaste and rejects worshipping the goddess of love. However, the vengeful goddess of love destroys Hippolytus.
As a result, Artemis promises a revenge of the death of Hippolytus through the next favorite of Aphrodite by asserting Ill wait till she loves a mortal next time, and with this hand, with these unerring arrows Ill punish him (Halleran 2001, 67). Artemis changes the play when she appears in the epilogue in order to tell the truth to Theseus (Halleran 2001, 66).
The Relationship between the deities
Euripides portrayed the relationship between deities as opposing and responsible for human tragedies. Aphrodite is revengeful and infuriated goddess who punishes mortal Hippolytus for refusing to worship her. The goddesses are similar because both have vengeful nature. However, they also show differences, as one is love and sexual oriented whereas the other prefers hunting and staying chaste (Barret 5).
These goddesses oppose each other and are in fierce competition in order to control human destiny. Aphrodite is furious when Hippolytus fails to worship. Hippolytus is the Artemis favorite mortal. She cannot stop Aphrodite from taking her revenge on Hippolytus. This depicts that goddesses do not interfere with works of each other.
However, Artemis promises to avenge the death of Hippolytus through the next favorite mortal of Aphrodite (Halleran 2001, 67). This shows a fierce competition between goddesses. The goddesses are tolerant but also hostile. These goddesses also experience human emotions like anger, jealously, and desire to avenge. Such emotions create little differences between human who worship them, and goddesses (Carson 2006). Such goddesses have almost same characteristics as humans.
The relationship between humans and the divine
We can see how goddesses influence actions of mortal characters who worship them and those who fail to worship them. Goddesses and human relationships seem to be that of give-and-take. Human give goddesses through prayers and sacrifices and expect goddesses to protect them in return. We can notice this relationship between Hippolytus and Artemis, and Theseus prayers for his father, Poseidon. However, goddesses had no obligation to return any favor to human as Artemis fails to protect Hippolytus.
Phaedras acts of falling in love with Hippolytus and subsequent suicide and the note are acts of the goddess, Aphrodite. Aphrodite influences the mental process of Phaedra as she looks crazy and makes her hid love she feels for her stepson. Upon the realization that truth about her love is out, Phaedra decides to kill herself due to shame. Aphrodite makes the death of Phaedra looks like Hippolytus mistake through the letter.
Hippolytus prayer for death after his banishment shows his relations to goddess. We can link this prayer as an act of asking help from Artemis. However, the goddess does nothing until Hippolytus faces death.
Some characters show concerns about relationships with goddesses. Hippolytus cares about his relationship with Artemis but does not care about Aphrodite. Theseus expresses concern why Hippolytus does not worship Aphrodite. However, Hippolytus does not care about Aphrodite reactions to his behavior (Carson 2006). This behavior angers Aphrodite.
Theseus expects god to send a bull that will kill Hippolytus. He also shows concerns for Artemis message. This message changes Theseus mind as he now believes he should die. However, Artemis must convince Theseus that Aphrodite blinded him (Carson 2006, 3).
When Aphrodite takes control of Phaedra, Phaedra has no control over her actions (Carson 2006). Hippolytus also tells Artemis that his death should be in exile because of the accusation. Goddesses use humans for revenge despite the worship. However, goddesses fail to help humans when they are in great need. This may show that goddesses do not care about their subjects. Goddesses may react negatively due to some human behavior and subject them to suffering through revenge.
Human suffering brings joy and sorrow to goddesses. Aphrodite derives joy from suffering and deaths of Phaedra, Hippolytus, and Theseus. On the other hand, Artemis may feel sorrow for deaths and suffering of these characters; thus, she says You and I are the chief sufferers Theseus (Halleran 2001, 66). This may explain why she wants revenge.
Human can forgive each other as the case between Hippolytus, and Theseus. However, Aphrodite demonstrates that goddesses cannot forgive human for their behaviors. Man can realize his mistakes, and goddesses can make them react irrationally and foolishly; thus, Artemis says It is natural for men to err when gods blind them (Halleran 29). This is why Artemis does not blame Theseus.
Occasionally, gods may show concern for human suffering. However, humans may also misuse the power of gods to assert revenge. Theseus prays for the bull to kill Hippolytus, a prayer that Poseidon answers.
Conclusion
The relationships are about care and revenge among characters and their gods (Barret 1964). Goddess desire for revenge also influences human prayers for revenge. Goddesses use humans as means of demonstrating their power and fulfill their competing interests. If Artemis avenges the death of Hippolytus, then it will be a continuous revenge whereby humans bear the greatest loss and suffering.
Humans show that they can forgive as opposed to gods they worship. Gods have the power to control and deceive humans, but fail to protect them when subjected to suffering and death. We may note that these characters live under the mercy of gods who can avenge and do not forgive. Thus, characters have to strive and live according to whishes of their gods.
Reference List
Barret, Spencer. Euripides, Hippolytos, edited with Introduction and Commentary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964.
Carson, Anne. Grief Lessons: Four Plays by Euripides. New York: Review Books Classics, 2006.
In his poem, The Flea John Donne describes the relationships between a man and a woman. The first-person narrator, who remains nameless, attempts to seduce his beloved (supposedly a virgin) into sexual intercourse. She is reluctant to yield to him. All of a sudden the main character notices a flea that has probably bitten both of them. He argues that this insect might have already mingled their blood and that there is no shame in making love to one another (Donne, unpaged). Later, when the girl kills the flea, the narrator points out that her fears about sex are groundless, and it will not deprive her of honor and dignity. John Donne ends the poem with these lines.
Just so much honor, when thou yieldst to me Will waste, as this fleas death took life from thee (Donne, unpaged)
Yet, it should be admitted that this summary is mostly based on subjective interpretation. In fact, the audience knows virtually nothing about the gender identity of the characters, because the author uses personal pronouns I and you which give no clue about gender. Secondly, it is not quite clear whether the speakers feelings toward the woman are deep. The tone of the poem is slightly humorous and it seems that he is more interested in sex rather than life-long relations. In addition, the audience does not know how long they are acquainted with one another. The only thing that we know almost for a fact is that they are in some private place; evidently they are on close terms with each other. However, there is still some barrier between them that prevents them from intimacy.
The writer employs various stylistic devices in order to make the poem more vivid and realistic. First, we need to speak about the symbolism of the flea, which represents different attitudes and opinions about sex. On the one hand, it is the unity of man and woman. The speaker says,
This flea is you and I, and this Our marriage bed, and marriage temple is (Donne, unpaged)
However, at the same time the image of the flea is intended to show that sex is not the most important part of the relations between people. It is very short-lived and can end in an instant. Apart from that, this metaphor is used to enhance humorous effect of the poem. The narrator chooses a very strange or even comic example to explain the essence of love and prove his argument. In this way he also tries to show how little he is asking for. John Donne creates a very strong image for defloration1. The phrase blood of innocence is both romantic and ironic. The thing is that innocence cannot be reduced only to physiology of a human being. The author employs this image to ridicule common prejudices against sex, which were deep-rooted in sixteenth century England.
The verses give rise to several questions and ideas. For instance, one may ask oneself what is the most significant constituent in love, spirituality, or sex. It appears that John Donne wants the audience to form their conclusion on this topic. Besides, this poem demonstrates how hollow peoples words and promises can be when they try to get what they desire. On the whole, the situation, portrayed by John Donne, is familiar to every man, at least to some degree. Nevertheless, only very few can present it in such humorous and thought-provoking manner.
The author divides the poem into three parts. It is rather difficult to determine why John Donne decided to organize the verses in this way as number three has several meanings in modern culture. It may embody the Holy Trinity and subsequently the church. It should be borne in mind that for a very long time the church regarded sex as a sinful act. The poet tells us that it could be considered as sin, shame and loss of maidenhead (Donne, unpaged). Moreover, in the vast majority of cases theologians treated it as a necessity for the continuation of life, though its pleasures were obviously ignored. We should say that number three repeats itself within the poem: three sins , three lives in one flea square and three is the number of stanzas2. This repetition aims to stress the Christian outlook of the author and underline the idea that love, as well as sex, can be sacred and sinful at the same time. Perhaps, this is the main message that John Donne wanted to convey.
Overall, The Flea is one of the brightest works in John Donnes legacy. It is humorous and didactic, comic and thought-provoking, realistic and fantastic. The poet describes a commonplace scenario, but he makes it vivid and appealing to the readers. This poem is full of paradoxes, especially if we are speaking about the interpretation of physical love which may be noble and ignoble at the same time. These are the reasons why The Flea remains popular for more than four centuries.
The relationship between men and women in both stories is dictated by patriarchal societal norms
Relationship between men and women where the former dominate the latter is the central theme in the two stories The Yellow Wallpaper and Hills like White Elephants. However, there is a slight difference in the portrayal of such relationship in both stories. In The Yellow Wallpaper, the relationship is not based on equality; men are not only considered superior to women, but the men, supported by patriarchal society, indulged in various forms of discrimination against women; on the other hand, in Hills like White Elephants, even though the woman is also ensnared in her gender role of those times (Siciles), there are several alleviating factors that make the equality between men and women not so lopsided in favor of males.
The relationship in Gilmans story is totally lopsided in favor of men
The central theme of Charlotte Perkins Gilmans The Yellow Wallpaper, published in 1892, is the subordination of women in marriage during the early 1900s in the U.S. Gilman uses her story to criticize Anglo-American male and societal attitudes toward married women in the U.S. She depicts the traditional nineteenth century male and societal view of marriage among middle class Anglo-American individuals that involved a clear-cut distinction between the responsibilities of a man and his wife. The man was engaged in active employment and provided for the family. The wife was expected to provide physical satisfaction to her husband, bear children, look after her husband and children and take care of all the household chores.
Gilman depicts total male domination over women by showing 4 typical discriminatory norm
The first discriminatory male and societal norm was that women were not expected to voice their opinion; if they did, the content was dismissed as trivial and inconsequential. At the beginning of the story, the narrator gives her opinion about the summer vacation house to which her husband brought her. She admires its grandeur, romantically calling it a colonial mansion and even a haunted house (Gilman 729), wondering why it was untenanted for so long, and comes to the conclusion that something is not right about it. When she questions John as to why such an elegant property is rented so cheaply, he dismisses her remarks as trivia, not allowing her to indulge in self-expression (Voth). While Johns overall aim is commendable , his failing is the self-awarded overwhelming authority that makes him convinced his diagnosis is correct. This causes him to turn a blind eye to his views on the subject. As an offshoot of this attitude, John does not take her seriously when she dares to voice her displeasure about the yellow wallpaper. On the contrary, he chides her by saying she is being paranoid about it. When she persists about her displeasure and requests him to repaper the room, he refuses, saying she was letting it get the better of her (Gilman 734).
The second discriminatory male and societal norm were that husbands misjudged their wives. The misjudgment was based on the conviction that the women did not possess sufficient intellect to assess situations correctly. John brings his wife to the summer vacation house to help her recover from temporary nervous depression (Gilman 730). A doctor by profession, he diagnoses his wifes ailment as curable by rest. When she persists in claiming that the rest cure is not working, he becomes impatient and irritated, snapping that the worst thing she could do was to think about her condition (Gilman 730) and threatening to send her to see a specialist named Weir Mitchell. The poor woman is terrified of exacerbating her condition by visiting Mitchell because she has heard disparaging reports about him from a friend who said he was not extraordinary but just like any other doctor (Gilman 737). The narrators deteriorating condition manifests itself in her growing fixation and displeasure about the yellow wallpaper as she begins seeing imaginary patterns of a woman stooping down and creeping about behind that pattern, going on to add I dont like it one bit (Gilman 739). John totally misjudges his wife by not bothering to listen to her increasingly agitated remarks about the wallpaper, instead of telling her to snap out of it and not let any silly fancies run away with her (Gilman 739).
The third discriminatory male and the societal norm were to consider women incapable of being highly educated, and that literary concepts or creative writings taxed their delicate nature with excited fancies (Gilman, 6). Male and societal reactions tended to be particularly displeased if women tried to break this tradition and engage in writing. This discriminatory male and societal attitude are reflected in events where the writer hurries to hide her journal whenever John or his sister Jennie enters the room for fear that it will be snatched from her. She is particularly afraid of Johns disapproval if he finds out about her writing either directly I must put this away, he hates to have me write a word (Gilman 733) or if she is caught doing it by Jennie and she reports it to him I must not let her find me writing (Gilman 736). A side effect of this intellectual repression was to give women an inferiority complex, making them think their well-educated husbands were superior to them. In the story, the narrator tamely submits to the superiority of her husband, acknowledging she is inferior (Voth). Instead of being angry with John for not listening to the explanation of her medical problem, she makes excuses for him It is so hard to talk with John about my case because he is so wise (Gilman, 738) and belittles herself by saying she is a comparative burden to her husband (Gilman 734).
The fourth discriminatory male and the societal norm was the notion that women belonged within the boundaries of their houses and they belonged to their husbands. The narrator becomes stifled by her continuous confinement, trapped in this atrocious nursery (Gilman 734). She vows to herself that she would never allow a child of mine to live in such a room for worlds (Gilman 739). An intellectual in her own right, she struggles against societal perception. Personally, I disagree with their ideas. Personally, I believe that congenial work with excitement and change would do me good. But what is one to do (Gilman, 731). John displays the possessive trend by his patronizing attitude towards the narrator. He treats her like a small child { John gathered me up in his arms and just carried me upstairs and laid me on the bed } (Gilman, 739).
The effect of the four discriminatory male and societal norms on the narrator is to make her struggle to break free from its increasingly repressive hold on her. When she disintegrates into hallucinations even becoming quite fond of the room (Gilman 738) by the end and finally, into madness, she turns into the imaginary woman trapped in the wallpaper, a transposing of her self-image of one who is trying to break out of the restraining bars of discriminatory male and societal norms that are stifling her. She ultimately becomes a victim of her unfulfilled craving for self-expression, seeming to foreshadow her destiny by the words she uses to describe the patterns of the wallpaper: suddenly committing suicide [by] destroying themselves in unheard of contradictions (Voth), meaning her fate, a descent into madness, will mark a revolt against societal traditions that expected her to go on docilely submitting to the oppressive will of her husband.
The relationship in Hemingways story is significantly less lopsided in favor of men
Hemingway published Hills like White Elephants in 1920 in the third-person perspective that restricts the tale to the words and actions of the characters. The plot of the tale revolves around the relationship between the man and woman what is uncovered by the conversation between them. Hemingway does not reveal the ages of the man and woman. They are lovers. The man is an American who is apparently financially well-off , while the girls nationality is not known. The girl is pregnant as a result of their sexual relationship; the couple has traveled to Spain with the aim of having her undergo an abortion. Hemingway informs about Jig and the American without actually informing about them by ensuring overall brevity in a presentation that is exquisitely coupled appropriate adverbs and adjectives; apart from this, he powerfully uses two literary elements: setting and symbolism while he dwells on the relationship between the man and woman.
The tale covers a very brief time span, yet it succeeds in relating a story that has a much wider scope than itself (Stukas). Hemingway ensures brevity by using short sentences and paragraphs shorn of verbosity. He makes little use of adverbs and adjectives. In addition to descriptive adverbs like angrily, he uses perfectly simple and perfectly natural to describe the operation and afterward being the post-abortion period referred to by the man. He uses descriptive adjectives like lovely hills, nice and cool beer and warm wind. He uses descriptive verbs like amused, worry, happy, upset and afraid to describe the couples feelings that reflect on their relationship at various stages of the story.
The setting establishes an undercurrent of tension that prevails between the man and woman throughout the story. The conversation between them takes place while they are at a railway station in Spain (Stukas). The station was between two lines of rails (Hemingway) indicate the couple presently embroiled in the throes of a vital decision in their lives that involves two choices that are opposite in nature . The addition of the words: There was no shade and no trees (Hemingway) indicates that the pending decision is a drastic one; there is no way out and the couple has to deal with it immediately.
Hemingway uses 4 symbolisms to depict the relationship between men and women
The use of symbolism to emphasize the relationship between the man and woman starts soon after the waitress serves two glasses of beer. When Jig looks far off at the line of hills and remarks that they look like white elephants (Hemingway), she is delightedly foreseeing the birth of her child something extraordinary that is also steeped in divinity . In addition, white elephants are costly animals to own and very expensive to rear; as they are looked upon as holy animals, they are prevented from doing any work, and as a result, become financial burdens whereby possessing them may be a source of pride and pleasure, but also causes a disadvantage (Stukas).
The second symbolism involves absinthe and licorice. The girl remarks that the green, aphrodisiac liqueur tastes like licorice . It suggests their life pattern has become so casual and insignificant that even a bitter situation is trivialized and the sexual pleasure that was involved is forgotten. Jig stands up and walks to the end of the station, observing fields of grain and trees along the bank of the Ebro (Hemingway). The fields and trees stand for fertility and prolificacy that represent Jigs present pregnancy; river Ebro, which provides life-giving water for the fields and trees, symbolizes the life that the growing in Jigs womb.
But then the shadow of a cloud (Hemingway) that symbolizes the impending abortion, dispels Jigs happiness and optimism. She converses with the man and it is very apparent that he prefers the abortion, and everything he says is aimed at convincing her to undergo it. As she ponders his point of view, Jig looked across the hills on the dry side of the valley (Hemingway) which is dull and devoid of vegetation, representing her body in the aftermath of the abortion operation. When the man persists in talking about the abortion, she reveals her growing frustration by blurting: Would you please, please, please, please, please, please, please stop talking (Hemingway).
Hemingway next uses another adroit bit of symbolism to give readers an insight into the American. The man looked at the bags which had labels on them from all the hotels where they had spent nights (Hemingway). The American comes across as one who likes to travel extensively and enjoy female companionship without commitment. He favors abortion because he will not be forced to marry Jig and settle down thereby giving up his much cherished free lifestyle. He is so unscrupulous that he is ready to kill a human being to preserve his freedom.
Modern readers find it easier to identify with the relationship in Hemingways story
The story ends with the awaited train about to arrive at the station. The train represents the travel of life. It can be progressive or regressive . The two movements symbolize the unsteady relationship between the man and woman. In addition, the very short stopping time of the train at the station is suggestive of the brief time available to the girl to undergo the abortion.
Hemingway tosses up another enigma at the end of the story. In doing so, he succeeds well in exposing a facet of human nature that shows how we often tend to go against our better judgment and engage in undesirable actions just in order to either gratify another person or keep up the status quo (Stukas). When the man enquires how she feels, Jig replies: Theres nothing wrong with me. I feel fine (Hemingway). The words have 3 interpretations: Jig has made up her mind to have the abortion; she has decided not to undergo the abortion and give birth to her child, or she has decided to temporarily shut the matter from her mind and leave the abortion decision for another day. At the end of the tale, it is quite obvious that the vast majority of what is transpiring is not clear but left to the conclusion of the reader.
Conclusion
In conclusion, while The Yellow Wallpaper was looked upon as a powerfully shocking story when it was published in 1892, it has the power to shock its readers even today. However, there is a significant difference. The readers in 1892 were shocked at the boldness of a woman who dared to posit their male and societal norms as grievous flaws. Modern readers, on the contrary, are shocked at the blatantly discriminatory way women were treated by men and society during that period which created a totally lopsided relationship between men and women. Discrimination in all forms provokes the interest of readers because it is a commonly encountered problem even in the modern world of today one that affects the equal relationship between men and women. On the other hand, while the relationship between the man and woman in Hills like White Elephants is unstable, it is characterized by a little equality between the two sexes. While Jig is too dependent on the man, asking his opinion even about silly things like What should we drink&..Should we have another drink? (Siciles), she is not totally trapped by societal rules as the woman in Gilmans story. Firstly, the couple is free to carry on their affair openly without societal backlash, and secondly, the woman is free to choose whether or not to have an abortion a matter of vital significance that lay at the heart of the Feminist Movement. These two aspects make the relationship between men and women in Hills like White Elephants quite similar to what modern readers are accustomed to seeing around them in their everyday life.
References
Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. The Yellow Wallpaper and Other Writings. USA: Bantam Classic Books. 1989.
Hemingway, Ernest. Hills like White Elephants. Virginia Commonwealth University. (N.d). Web.
Siciles, Daniel de Bourbon-Deux. Ernest Hemingways Hills like White Elephants Analysis. Associated Content. 2009. Web.
Stukas, Jake. Literary Analysis: Hills like White Elephants, by Ernest Hemingway. Helium, Inc. 2009. Web.
Voth, Lori. Literary Analysis: The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Associated Content. 2005. Web.
A folksong is a song that has the ability to adapt culture, human history, and art. Folksong usually employs the language used by the target audience when conveying its message. Furthermore, many people use folksongs to present their messages, feelings, views, opinions, and suggestions to a certain set of individuals. Significantly, the songs have the power to change someone into a very different person, either temporarily or permanently.
The change depends on the level of engagement of an individual and the determination demonstrated by the person. Additionally, folksongs especially those sung by Dylan present some resemblance with the main character used by Whitehead in his book John Henry Days.
The similarities are presented by the passion possessed by Dylan towards folksongs and Henry towards the contest. Thus, this essay examines the power of a folksong in transforming an individual and the relationship between Whiteheads book John Henry Days and Dylans folksongs.
The Power of a Folksong in Transforming a Person
The phrase I is somebody else used by both Dylan and Sante was sourced from Rimbaud who was a poet. The phrase demonstrates the power of folksongs in changing someone into a different individual. The phrase sheds some light into the life and experiences of Dylan. Evidently, Dylan quickly transformed from an unknown young man into a famous folksong star in New York City.
Dylan states that, life quickly changed when he began acquiring the status of a star in folksongs, because he was quickly promoted to a poet, oracle, conscience of his generation, and in a lateral move, pop star. 1 Therefore, the life of Dylan changed from the previous self into a famous and popular star of New York.
The changes forced him to adopt new lifestyles and become a different person from what he initially was before the transformation.
Dylans life became different from his past life, and hence, he was no longer the previous unknown young man. He was a popular star known by a number of people in and outside the city of New York and the United States. His mode of dressing, eating, and the friends changed because of the new status acquired. He states that he did everything fast, thought fast, ate fast, talked fast, I even sang the songs fast.
I needed to slow my mind down, if I was going to be a composer with anything to say. 2 This implies that Dylans was no longer his former self but a different person, a folk star. The change was evident from the new character adopted after acquiring the new status.
The change of Dylan from his former self to a different personality forced him to look for ways to escape and return to the previous self. He highlights that, after going through overwhelming experiences from the acquired state, he had to devise a number of strategies to escape the new state.3
He tried singing songs using different styles such as western and country. Since Dylan had acquired a new status of fame, he had to behave in a manner different from his previous self. This was attributed to the fact that the new life attracted attention and scrutiny from the public. According to Sante, since Dylan sang for people all the time, his life changed, and he started living a life based on what he practiced.4
Therefore, this explains the fact that folksongs can change the life of an individual into a different person.5 Although sometimes the changes may be temporary as is the case with many stage performers, some changes are permanent or long lasting, as was in the case of Dylan.
The personality of Dylan transformed from ordinary person to a mysterious person. In an interview with Los Angeles times Dylan states that, his life became a mystery from the time he produced his first record.
Dylan is a complex, mercurial human being of astounding gifts, whose purposes are usually ambiguous, frequently elusive, and sometimes downright and unguessable. 6
Interviewer uses words such as complex and mercurial being to denote Dylans new change. This implies that Dylan was no longer his former self, but a mysterious person and a folk star
Relationship between Dylans Songs and Whiteheads Book
When asked about his fame and songs, Dylan gives reasons why his songs lasted for many years. He states that his songs were designed technically and professionally; hence, creating a form of attraction for the audience, who always wanted to listen to the songs.
According to Dylan, he employed poetical and folksong skills coupled with his knowledge of folksongs in creating the songs, which explains the reason why the songs lasted and remained in the minds of the listeners. For a song to captivate and last for a long time, it should be touching, inspiring, and motivating.7 Thus, Dylan technically and innovatively incorporated these factors into his songs to enhance their quality and durability.
Whitehead in his book John Henry Days employs poetical and literary skills creatively in writing the book. This results in the production of a captivating and interesting book. Over the years, many people have bought and read the book because it is interesting and educational.
In the book, Whitehead presents a journalist known as Henry who built a railroad and won a competition between him and the rock drill powered by steam before he fell down and died.8
According to Whitehead, Henry does not only look physically fit for the contest, but also the journalist proves to be prepared and ready for the race. The contest takes place in West Virginia and though Henry dies after the contest, he displays outstanding courage and stance.
While Dylan used folksongs to convey information to the target audience, Whitehead used literary skills to relay information to his audience. The folksongs of Dylan transformed his life in a manner similar to the writings in Whiteheads book John Henry Days.
Some form of accord exists between Dylans songs and the resilience demonstrated by Whitehead in the book and the actors he used. In both scenarios, some form of determination is expressed either by the main players or by the characters employed in the context. For instance, Dylan set his standards high and his determination was driven by the ambitions and good life.9
The determination enabled Dylan and Henry to give outstanding presentations in their respective fields. Additionally, Dylan and Henry display passion in all the activities that they performed. The passion gave them strength and energy to perform these activities perfectly. This is evident from Henry who struggled and managed to complete the contest although he dies afterwards.10
This demonstrates the importance of passion and determination. Subsequently, it also explains the reason why Dylans folksongs and Whiteheads book are among ancient literature, which have lasted for a long time and remain relevant in modern society. According to Brown, a story should have artistic style that renders the reader captive in an innovative manner.11
Hence, Henry who is the main character used in Whiteheads book and Dylans folksongs, chronicles, have some level of agreement, as they both demonstrate the importance of good artistic skills and passion of ones work.
Conclusion
Folksongs are powerful and can lead to changes in the personality of an individual to a different self. Changes presented by folksongs are either temporal, which last for a short period, or long lasting. The essay used the example of Dylan who was transformed himself into a popular star of folksongs. In the essay, Dylan changed from a young unknown man to a popular star admired by a number of fans.
In this case, Dylans change was a long lasting one. In addition, the essay argued on the relationship between folksongs of Dylan and Henry, a character used in Whiteheads book titled John Henry Days. According to the argument, there exists some level of agreement between the two elements as both demonstrate artistic skills of creativity and innovation that makes them leave good legacies and captivate individuals.
Bibliography
Brown, Cecil. Frankie and Albert. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Cantwell, Robert. When We Were Good. London: Harvard University press, 2009.
Dylan, Bob. Chronicles. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004.
Sante, Luc. I Is Somebody Else. In Kill all your Darlings: Pieces 1990-2005.
Edited by Luc Sante. Portland: Verse Chorus Press, 2007.
Perry, Steve. Songs that Fall from the Sky. New York: Oxford, 2006.
Whitehead, Colson. John Henry Days. New York: Knopf Doubleday, 2009.
Footnotes
1 Bob Dylan, Chronicles (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004). 143.
2 Luc Sante, I Is Somebody Else. In Kill all your Darling, ed. Luc Sante (Portland: Verse Chorus Press, 2007). 24.
3 Bob Dylan, Chronicles (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004). 144.
4 Luc Sante, I Is Somebody Else. In Kill all your Darling, ed. Luc Sante (Portland: Verse Chorus Press, 2007). 7.
5 Robert Clantwell, When We Were Good (London: Harvard University Press, 2006). 45.
6Luc Sante, I Is Somebody Else. In Kill all your Darling, ed. Luc Sante (Portland: Verse Chorus Press, 2007). 162.
7 Steve Perry, Songs that Fall from the Sky (New York: Oxford, 2006) 24.
8 Colson Whitehead, John Henry Days (New York: Knopf Doubleday, 2009). 389.
9 Bob Dylan, Chronicles (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004). 142.
10 Colson Whitehead, John Henry Days (New York: Knopf Doubleday, 2009). 389.
11 Cecil Brown. Frankie and Albert (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). 3.
It is hard to disagree that many positive and negative factors can influence the relationships between different people, especially the relations between men and women. When talking about the latter, it is possible to distinguish two dominant emotions that affect the communication between a woman and a man: attraction and repulsion. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to explore the mixture of these feelings, discuss their impact on male-female relations, and provide examples from three short stories.
Attraction may be considered a mostly positive emotion that pushes a man and a woman to develop mutual relationships. The presence of this interest basically means that a person sees in the potential partner a number of important traits that seem positive to them. For example, one may be attracted by a persons kindness, laughter, voice, way of thinking, or character in general. As for repulsion, this feeling towards a man or woman can appear initially or after attraction. It is usually caused by actions or character traits that seem purely negative and disgusting to a person. When talking about male-female relations, it is essential to notice that attraction and repulsion can exist in a certain mixture and replace each other depending on the circumstances. Such relationships are usually considered not very healthy.
For example, in Flannery OConnors Good Country People, the reader can observe how the main character develops an attraction to the young man. Hulga is attracted by Manleys ideas and perception of life and dreams about their conversations. Additionally, during the night, she had imagined that she seduced him (OConnor, 1955, p. 12). However, when the young man suddenly tricks her, Hulgas attraction to Manley changes to repulsion and disgust. Further, in William Faulkners A Rose for Emily, the power demonstrated by Homer Barron attracts Emily. However, their romantic relationship does not lead to their wedding, and it is possible to suggest that Homer starts to feel some kind of repulsion toward Emily (Faulkner, 1930). Finally, it is possible to suggest that both women in Weltys The Petrified Man were once attracted to their husbands. While one of them states that she is still attracted: Mr. Fletcher and myself are as much in love as the day we married, the other feels disgusted (Welty, 1942, p. 64). Her self-love and desire to remain beautiful are stronger than her ability to love her husband.