The print text under analysis is called Thailand ‘Interested’ in Refugee swap deal with Australia and is dedicated to the problem of immigration and relations between countries concerning the swap arrangement (Anonymous n. p.).
It also discloses the problem of asylum-seekers within a broad context. Due to the fact that the text touches upon national and cultural problems, it can be fruitfully analyzed from the intercultural perspective. Hence, it is possible to analyze the setting, the participants, genres and languages to enlarge on cultural elements, including beliefs and values.
The issue is connected with Australian attitude to the problem of immigration, which directly relates to intercultural communication because government and national relations largely identify the concept of culture.
The main participants presented in the text are Thailand asylum seekers, Australian government and Malaysia government that are involved in solving the existing problems.
The genre of the text refers to journalistic genre, which means that the main purpose of the text should be to attract the readers and make them read the article until the end.
In particular, the author makes a primary focus on the burning problems that will be interesting for the Australian nation, specifically when it comes to national identity, home ownerships. All these customs are implicitly incorporated into the print media.
The language should also be taken into consideration because it also differs a bit from that presented in other newspapers. In particular, the headings are quite calm and up to the point; they do not deviate from the main idea to attract the audience.
The text itself is quite understandable with no emphasis on certain facts. More importantly, the author of the article interprets the facts, but leaves his ideas aside to provide accurate information.
Theoretical Reflections on Intercultural Communication and Pragmatics
When it comes to the analysis of relations between language, culture, and communication, much concern arises in terms of intercultural pragmatics. From cultural-anthropological viewpoint, cultural problems are of higher importance than linguistic problems.
At the same time, language itself plays the leading role in presenting cultural differences. From cross-cultural point of view, culture is usually seen as a static concept being isolated from language and, therefore, the principle of cultural difference becomes the major explanation for cross-cultural misconceptions.
There are many other conceptual frameworks expanding on the interaction between language and culture. One way or another, communication between cultures is impossible without the introduction of semiotics and linguistics being the primary tools of relations between different nations.
With regard to this, if the language is one of the major instruments for rendering cultural information, texts, readings, media have a potent impact on the formation of inter-cultural relations. In addition, the structure of information matters as well because it can receive different appraisal in two different cultures.
Significant attention should be paid to advertizing media that is often culturally colored to attract a particular target audience. However, people from different cultures can interpret this advertisement negatively because of traditional and ethnical preconditions.
In whole, despite the existence of culture as an isolated concept that is expressed through beliefs, prejudices, stereotypes, values, and attitudes, they all can be revealed only through language.
Intercultural pragmatics is, therefore, closely intertwined with cultural communication between national and ethnic groups. Cultural cognition is also carried out with the help of similar means.
Works Cited
Anonymous. Thailand ‘interested’ in refugee swap deal with Australia. The Australian. May 2011. Web.
The Immigrant and Refugee Community Organization (IRCO) is a community organization which focuses on issues concerning proper integration of immigrants and refugees into the US society. The organization addresses really important issues and helps immigrants and refugees as well as Americans benefit from cooperation. The organization is located in Portland, Oregon.
It has several centers which address specific issues of particular groups of people: Main Office, Asian Family Center, Senior Center, Africa House / Skill Center (IRCO, 2012). The organization provides services which are “culturally and linguistically inclusive of all ethnic groups” (IRCO, 2012).
Notably, the organization does effectively help various groups to integrate into US communities as the immigrants and refugees obtain training (including linguistic courses), accommodations, financial help, psychological help, etc. All this is very important for the newcomers who have to face a variety of constraints.
It is necessary to note that the USA is characterized by a lot of controversy when it comes to immigration policies. At the same time, it is one of the countries which receive most immigrants and refugees. Therefore, the community inevitably faces problems concerning immigrants and refugees. Apart from specific logistic related issues, immigrants and refugees face issues concerning cultural diversity.
There can be various misunderstandings and even conflicts as the newcomers often speak little English and can see some cultural peculiarities of Americans as strange or even inappropriate and hostile. The IRCO understand all these constraints and works to diminish them to help immigrants and refugees become integrated into the American community.
The IRCO has various social incentives. For instance, in 2011 they implemented a program aimed at helping seniors. The organization helps seniors to feel a part of the society. Volunteers provide a variety of services for seniors. Besides, the organization provides anti-poverty services helping more than 70 families annually. The IRCO helps immigrants and refugees assess mainstream social care.
It is necessary to note that these social incentives have numerous positive effects. First, the organization does help various people integrate into the US society. At that, the incentives mentioned above address the most vulnerable groups of people. Thus, seniors are often left aside as organizations often focus on younger groups of people.
Though, seniors require most of people’s help. Assistance to seniors can also be beneficial for Americans as volunteers can learn more about needs of seniors (among immigrants and refugees as well as among Americans). The problem of aging is becoming really urging. Therefore, experience of Oregon’s communities can help acquire successful experience and use it nationwide.
Likewise, a lot of immigrants are coming with little or no money. The IRCO finds various ways to help poor families solve various financial issues. Again, this incentive can help Americans (along with new comers) work out effective ways to diminish poverty in the US society. It is also important to note that every incentive implemented by the IRCO (and the very existence of the organization) is beneficial for multicultural American society.
The organization helps people find appropriate ways to cooperate. With the help of the IRCO people having different cultural background become a part of an integrated society which makes the entire nation prosper. Admittedly, such organizations as the IRCO should be represented in every state of the United States, which will help diminish tension among various ethnical groups.
As far as there is a strong necessity to address accordingly attitudinal distinctions between refugees and those who come to live permanently in foreign countries, in order to improve the conditions of life, one can conclude that making distinctions between the two groups is rather important.
It seems to be obvious that numerous contradictions concerning people’s values, beliefs, expectations, traditions, mode of life, etc. are to be resolved in a proper way.
Thus, to avoid or minimize the consequences of cultural shock, social violation, and discrimination, immigrants and refugees are to be regarded separately.
Moreover, one is to keep in mind that immigrants and refugees come to foreign countries on the basis of different reasons; so, this point determines the major distinction between those who are forced to leave their country, and those who come of their own accord.
The thesis statement
Immigrants and refugees cannot be accepted equally, as their psychology is different. There is a need to distinguish between anthropological, historical and sociological domains the psychology of immigrants and refugees is based on. The contextual factors, which determine immigrants’ and refugees’ acculturation, are also different.
The body
The refugee problem is considered to be of particular concern, as people seek safety in strange lands and hesitate in their choice: it is not easy to select between danger at their native land and the loss of identity.
Immigrants, in their turn, have a right of choice. They can come home any time they wish.
On the other hand, it should be pointed out that such psychological processes as acculturation, assimilation, social changes, and individual challenges are equally experienced by both – immigrants and refugees.
In other words, the processes of socialization based on biculturalism can be applied to representatives of both groups (LaFromboise et al. 395-412).
The intercultural processes are recognized to be extremely important for social adaptation of immigrants and refugees. Thus, the so-called phenomenon of psychological acculturation can be used to explain the psychology of representatives of both groups.
The most important issue, which cannot be ignored, is that acculturation attitudes of immigrants and refugees are different. It was proven that mutual processes as well as mutual changes involve individual behaviors and cannot be interpreted the same way in relation to immigrants and refugees (Berry 616-618).
The issue of cultural identity is also to be discussed in detail, in order to understand the way immigrants and refugees experience acculturation.
It must be noted that immigrants undergo greater behavioral shifts easier in comparison with those who were forced to leave a native land due to certain political, economical or other reasons. That is why immigrants seem to experience less difficulty.
Refugees as compared with immigrants are considered to be less familiar to the dominant population and undergo ethnic stereotyping; however, the resident population prefers “to deal” with refugees rather than immigrants, as immigrants seem to symbolize the threat to the social cohesion of the society.
Generally, it is necessary to clarify that ethnic prejudice is related to both groups; although the dominant population expresses more negative attitudes towards immigrants (Stephan et al. 1-19).
Conclusion
It is really important to distinguish between immigrants and refugees, as representatives of the two groups experience various acculturation processes in different ways.
Furthermore, the attitudes of the dominant population towards immigrants and refugees are also ambiguous and should be regarded on the basis of different perspectives.
Works Cited
Berry, John. “A Psychology of Immigration.” Journal of Social Issues 57.3 (2001): 615-631. Print.
LaFromboise, Teresa, Hardin Coleman and Jennifer Gerton. “Psychological Impact of Biculturalism: Evidence and Theory.” Psychological Bulletin 114.3 (1993): 395-412. Print.
Walter G. Stephan, Lausanne Renfro, Victoria M. Esses, Cookie White Stephan and Tim Martin. “The Effects of Feeling Threatened on Attitudes toward Immigrants.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 29.1 (2005): 1-19. Print.
There is no use denying the fact that the current situation in the world could be described as very complicated and tensed. The modern society devotes a great deal of attention towards the issue of terrorism, trying to find a good solution to this nagging problem and promote peace all over the world. However, this process is very complicated and the war in Syria could be taken as the best evidence of the complexity of the situation. The evolution of ISIS resulted in the war on the territory of the state and devastation of many regions. Millions of people had to leave their homes and look for the new shelter trying to avoid the horrors of war. That is why, the issue of refugees becomes more and more important nowadays. Many European countries suffer from the influx of people from the Eastern region. However, people from Syria also move to some other states and Canada is one of them.
Analyzing the issue of Syrian refugees in Canada, it is vital to take into account the background of the given problem and its evolution. Thus, nowadays, Europe faces the greatest wave of immigration in its modern history (“How to Help Syrian Refugees in your community” para. 6). Thousands of people move to the countries of the EU in order to find shelter and enjoy benefits. The great influx introduced a great number of various conflicts based on cultural, ethical and religious grounds. Many European countries turn out to be not ready to face this problem and provide the needed conditions for these people. Under these conditions, the role of prosperous countries which could help to solve this problem becomes especially significant. The government of Canada proclaimed that the country could also provide shelter to refugees and the process started.
Thus, the fact is that refugees are not able to reach Canada because it is separated from the Europe, Africa of Asia by the ocean and it is difficult for them to cross it. That is why, the government of the state organizes special flights to help people move from Asia and Africa to Canada and find shelter there. Besides, since the 1st December about 900 refugees went through the registration procedure in the airports of Toronto and Montreal on a day-to-day basis (“Canadian immigration responses to the Syrian crisis – backgrounder” para. 4). People who arrive in Canada will be provided with all necessary things and conditions needed for their living will be created. Thus, it is obvious that it is a complicated process which demands some planning and organization.
Besides, placing people in Canada, mainly in Toronto or Montreal, the government faces several important problems which should be solved. First of all, it is the language bar. The majority of refugees do not know English or French, which makes the process of their accommodation more complicated and long-termed (“How to Help Syrian Refugees in your community” para. 9). Moreover, it results in the decrease of the level of mutual understanding between refugees and local people in Canada and the introduction of certain limits. With this in mind, it becomes obvious that the integration of these people into the Canadian society is impossible without the development of their language skills, for them to be able to communicate with people and understand main ideas.
Therefore, it should be said that the language question is closely connected with the culture of refugees and introduces another problem. Besides, Syrian people in Toronto do not know even the basic aspects of the Canadian or at least Western culture, preferring to act in accordance with their traditions and behavioral patterns. One realizes the fact that it does not lead to the integration of refugees in the society and might result in the creation of certain enclaves where the representatives of a certain culture will reside. The given problem might also lead to the appearance of confrontation between the representatives of various cultures, and, that is why, the efficient solution should be found.
Moreover, the above-mentioned facts introduce another problem. It is impossible to guarantee Syrian refugees any job because of the lack of basic language skills and knowledge of the Canadian culture. Thus, refugees residing in Toronto will enjoy benefits without any chance to obtain any job (“How Peel residents can help Syrian refugees” para. 7). They will not be able to perform at least some simplest sorts of activity because the training is also impossible under these conditions. That is why, their maintenance will cost a great sum to the city and state budget and this fact could also result in the increase of the level of tension.
Finally, the problem of housing is also very important under modern conditions. The government of Canada proclaimed that the state is ready to shelter about 25000 refugees (Levitz para. 5). It means that special conditions should be created and the place to live prepared. European countries create special camps for people to be able to wait till the end of various registration procedures. However, in Canada the situation is different. The country prepares itself for the refugees arrival and creates some special housing. Thus, people who arrive in Toronto could are placed in hotels at the first days o their arrival and then they are suggested some special social housing to live. it helps to solve the problem and not create various camps or enclaves (“Statement – Syrian refugees: responding to all” para. 8).
Cogitating about the given program and the way in which refugees are treated in Canada, it is also vital to admit the financial aspect of the given issue. One realizes the fact that this project is financed by the government of the state which wants to help these people and improve the image of the country. However, there are also some private sponsorship programs the main goal of which is to help people and create good conditions for their prosperous development and existence. These programs outline the main conditions for sponsorship and determine the groups of people who belong to the given category. Moreover, they also include various companies and organizations which might help refugees to improve their living conditions and feel comfortable in the Canadian society (Citizenship and Immigration Canada 5).
With this in mind, it is possible to make a certain conclusion. Nowadays, the world suffers from the threat of terrorism. The activity of ISIS resulted in the appearance of the issue of refugees as people have to leave their houses and look for new housing. While the countries of the European Union are not able to place thousands of people. Canada also tries to help to solve this very problem. The state invites people from dangerous regions for them to feel safe and protected. Specially organized flights deliver people to Montreal and Toronto where all the needed conditions are created. There are, however, some problems connected with the issue of refugees which should be solved in order to improve the current situation.
The issue of cultural minority has widely been covered by the Australian media. In reference to the refugees and asylum seekers in Australia, the media has been steadfast in covering aspects related to these groups (Mares & Mares, 2002). The role of the media is shaping how individuals view refugees and asylum seekers cannot be ignored (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2010).
Australia is among the leading countries in the intake of refugees and asylum seekers. According to BBC (2012), the Australian government has plans to ensure that the country provides room for over twenty thousands refugees each year. Currently, the country’s refugee intake is about 14,000 per year.
According the Prime Minister, Julia Gillard, increasing the refugee intake will lead to a 45 per cent increase in refugee intake. In line with these projections, the lawmakers agreed for the offshore camps serving the asylum seekers to be reopened in Nauru and PNG. This was meant to minimize the risks taken by asylum seekers who use boats (BBC, 2012).
In most instances, the media has referred to the refugees and the asylum seekers as “illegals.” This has been the case despite lacking objectivity. In deed, Australia is home to over 50,000 illegal residents who are not refugees or asylum seekers. These are individuals living in the country despite the expiry of their visas (Menadue, 2011; Gibney, 2004).
The media has also exaggerated the plight of refugees and asylum seekers in Australia. According to media reports, Australia is seen as being a host to many refugees and asylum seekers than any other country. However, in real sense, this is not the case (Mares, 2001; McMaster, 2002; Mares, 2002). Other countries register higher numbers of refugees and asylum seekers than Australia (Australian Refugee Rights Alliance, n. d.; Menadue, 2011).
The Australian media has exaggerated a slight rise recorded in the refugee and asylum intake. Notably, the media has opted to be politicized in its reporting. The opposition uses the media to portray that the government is doing very little to curb illegal immigration (Australian Refugee Rights Alliance, n. d.; Pickering, 2001).
The Australian media has also failed to objectively report on issues affecting the refugees and asylum seekers. This was portrayed in the way the media reported the Curtin protest by the Iraqi asylum seekers in the year 2000 (Mares, n. d.).
Discourse analysis for each media text
In the article by Sheehan (2012), the author criticises the Australian government in its effort to set the record straight following the viral email that was spread depicting the kindness of the government to the refugees. According to Michel Foucault’s notion of discourse, this media article portrays asylum seekers and refugees as not good for the Australian economy.
The article notes that the government is spending substantial funds on refugees and asylum seekers at the expense of the Australian public (Sheehan, 2012). Foucault noted that individuals are constituted by culture, which is critical in shaping their thoughts. From the historical experience, this article expounds on the bad image of asylum seekers and refugees among the Australian public.
In reference to Shirley Dally’s framework, the audience is the Australian public. The refugees and asylum seekers in Australia are the ones that have been represented. The source of the article is “The Sydney Morning Herald”. Shirley Dally’s framework focussed on what is presented, the audience, and the source.
The author of the article quotes the amount spent to depict the differences in government spending on refugees and genuine Australian people. In relation to the theory developed by Deborah Lupton, this article can lead to resentment against the refugees and asylum seekers in Australia.
The refugees and asylum seekers are portrayed as illegally benefiting from the public resources. Deborah noted that journalists are interested in conflict and drama stories. In this article, the author is interested in creating a conflict between the government and the Australian public.
The internet has expanded the media outlets where individuals and organisations have created bogs as a medium of communication. In a blog run by NetReach Australia, there is an article that strives to put the record straight regarding a false email that was circulated in Australia regarding asylum seekers and refugees. The blog seems to contradict the view held by Sheehan in his article.
The blog dismisses the notion that the illegal immigrants and refugees are entitled to greater welfare payments than the pensioners in Australia (NetReach Australia, 2012). In reference to Michel Foucault theory, this blog post strives to set the record straight following the hoax email that was circulated among the Australian public. Foucault noted that historical experiences and culture have a great influence on discourse.
Thus, the article is a counter-discourse to shift the attitude of the public from the discourse that has been created. From Shirley Dally’s theoretical framework, this blog targets the Australian public who are interested in knowing truth. Shirley Dally emphasized on the aspect of the information, source of information, and the audience. The source of the article is a blog run by NetReach Australia. The blog outlines factual information regarding the refugees and asylum seekers in the country.
In respect to the Deborah Lupton, this blog is meant to make the public change the bad attitude that they may be having against the refugees and asylum seekers. The article is meant to reduce the conflict between the public and the government regarding the issue of asylum seekers and refugees. In Deborah’s perspective, this is the main discourse of the article.
In the article by Packham and Wilson (2012), the authors report on the new strategies used by the asylum seekers to gain entrance in Australia. In the article, it has been argued that the asylum seekers often make distress calls to the Australian authority for assistance when they encounter a problem while still in their boats.
It is expected that the asylum seekers will be met and assisted to get to Australia safely (Packham and Wilson, 2012). According to Michel Foucault, this article portrays the unorthodox methods used by asylum seekers to gain entrance to Australia. Owing to Foucault’s arguments, the discourse of the article is to create a negative attitude towards asylum seekers and refugees. The article elaborates on the new developments that have complicated the issue of asylum seekers in Australia.
In reference to Shirley Dally, the target audience of this article includes the Australian public and the policy makers. The article has represented the refugees and asylum seekers. The source of the article is “The Australian.” The authors have explained the way the asylum seekers make distress calls to the Australian authorities in an effort to gain a safe entry into the country.
Following the theory developed by Deborah Lupton, this article will further deteriorate the perception that the Australian public has against the asylum seekers. The article is aimed at exacerbating hatred towards the asylum seekers and refugees coming to Australia.
This is due to the unconventional strategies adopted by the asylum seekers, which is already a despised group. From Deborah’s point of view, the article is meant to bring conflict between the public and those seeking asylum and refugees.
Media choices and unhealthy representations of population group
The news article by Sheehan (2012) reflects on the unhealthy representation of the asylum seekers and refugees in Australia. The author claims that the Australian citizens are being cheated to believe that the asylum seekers are not taking away what is rightfully theirs.
The Australian public is the target audience and the article dismisses the explanations given by the government on the benefits provided to the refugees. Reading this article will play a great role in shaping the negative perception of the Australian public towards the refugees. In this case, the public will perceive the refugees as draining their resources.
The blog by NetReach Australia (2012) avoids an unhealthy representation of the asylum seekers and refugees. In this blog, the author dismisses the hoax email that was sent to the Australian public depicting the asylum seekers and refugees as benefiting from the welfare pension than the genuine pensioners in Australia.
NetReach Australia (2012) observes that such emails are meant to initiate a bad attitude towards the refugees and asylum seekers. The Australian public is the main audience targeted by this blog. This blog is meant to change the attitude that the public may be having against the asylum seekers and refugees. Therefore, the asylum seekers and refugees are not depicted in a bad light as there is no truth that they are a threat to the Australian pensioners.
The news article by Packham and Wilson (2012) also reflects on the unhealthy representation of the asylum seekers in Australia. In the article, it is noted that the asylum seekers have turned to the use of unconventional means to get assistance from the Australian authorities. Essentially, the asylum seekers make an emergency call to the Australian authorities while in the sea to be assisted to get into Australia safely.
This seems to work as they usually get a safe landing into Australia. The article targeted audience is the public and the policy makers. The authors hope that the policy makers would come up with a policy framework that would address this new development. The asylum seekers are portrayed negatively as they seem to be a nuisance. In this case, the public will despise them for their behaviour.
The media discourse analysis and the accompanying quote
There is no doubt that the media has a great impact on the attitudes of individuals. The aspect of cultural minority and the media is something that has been talked about by many authors. It has been noted:
…media reporting can shape public perceptions of refugees and asylum seekers. On the one hand, compassionate and sympathetic coverage can help to promote understanding… resulting in public pressure for the increased protection of refugees.
On the other hand, the portrayal of displaced people as a potential threat, and as competitors for scarce public goods, can generate and intensify feelings of fear, and awaken popular demands for protection from refugees (Mares & Allotey, 2003, p. 224).
The analysis provided by the news articles reinforces the tenets of the quote. The news article analysed presents a scenario where the asylum seekers and refugees are depicted in bad light. This ensures that the public has a negative perception of the asylum seekers and refugees coming to Australia. If the media portrayed the asylum seekers and the refugees in good light, the public would change its perception regarding the groups highlighted.
Utilising Health Promotion principles
The Ottawa Charter or the Framework for Health promotion was developed in the year 1986 with the aim of enhancing health promotion across the world. The Ottawa Charter established five areas that are critical to health promotion. The five aspects include healthy public policy; supportive environment; community action; personal skills and appropriate health services (Verrinder, 1999).
The five principles can be applied to the case of refugees and asylum seekers in Australia. In this case, good policy framework should be developed to ensure that the Australian people adhere to the provisions of the Refugee Convention that was established in the mid 20th century.
Under these provisions, the UNHCR, an agency that ensures the welfare of refugees and asylum seekers, has established guidelines on how the detention of the asylums seekers should be undertaken (Thom, 2009).
The Australian government should also establish a supportive environment that will promote the welfare of refugees and asylum seekers. The government should also encourage its neighbours to become a signatory to the Refugee Convention. This will help in creating a supportive environment as some of the asylum seekers and refugees will go into these countries (Reiher, 2010).
The media should also be encouraged to be objective and sensitive in the way they report issues related to asylum seekers and refugees. In this case, the media should base their reporting on facts regarding the asylum seekers and refugees.
Thus, the media should refrain from subjective reporting that can paint a false picture of the refugee situation in the country. In doing this, the media will positively shape the attitude of the Australian public towards asylum seekers and refugees.
Reference List
Australian Human Rights Commission 2010, Refugees in the media. Web.
Australian Refugee Rights Alliance, Fear and loathing in Australia: politicians and asylum seekers. Web.
Gibney, M. J. 2004, The ethics and politics of asylum: Liberal democracy and the response to refugees, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Mares, P., The media and asylum seekers in Australia. Web.
Mares, P. 2001, Borderline: Australia’s treatment of refugees and asylum seekers, UNSW Press, Sydney.
Mares, P. 2002, “Reporting Australia’s Asylum Seeker ‘Crisis’,” Media Asia, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 71-76.
Mares, P. & Allotey, P. A. 2003. “Controlling compassion: the media, refugees and asylum seekers,” in PA Allotey (eds), The Health of Refugees: Public health perspectives from conflict to settlement, Oxford University Press, South Melbourne, Australia, pp. 212-227.
Mares, P. & Mares, P. 2002, Borderline: Australia’s response to refugees and asylum seekers in the wake of the Tampa, UNSW Press, Sydney.
McMaster, D. 2002, Asylum seekers: Australia’s response to refugees, Melbourne University Press, Carlton South, Vic.
Menadue, J. 2011, Menadue: media missing the boat on asylum-seeker coverage.
NetReach Australia 2012, The Real Benefits for Asylum Seekers in Australia. Web.
Packham, B. and Wilson, L. 2012, “Asylum-seekers accused of ‘using navy like NRMA’,” The Australian. Web.
Pickering, S. 2001, “Common Sense and Original Deviancy: News Discourses and Asylum Seekers in Australia,” Journal of Refugee Studies, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 169-186.
Reiher, J. 2010, Refugee and Asylum Seekers: What is really going on out there? Political spin verses real facts. Web.
Verrinder, G. 1999, “The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion as a Framework to Design an Interview Schedule,” Australian Journal of Primary Health, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 66 – 73.
Introduction: The Key Concepts of the Refugees Research Area
The study explores the controversies of immigrants’ settlement in Australia. The research questions evolved as a consequence of numerous claims, according to which the minorities face much pressure and accommodation problems in the country. The research area targets a correlation between gender social integration tendencies and just world beliefs.
Literature Critique: Discussing the Outcomes of Previous Studies
The research paper compares the findings of an investigation that was based on Pearson correlation as well as summarizes the core outcomes of the previous studies that were aimed at different groups of refugees’ integration. The “Reactions to refugees: Do stronger believers in a just world compensate, dehumanize, and perceive refugees as more responsible for their status?” article was used to back up the belief, according to which weaker just believers tend to provide stronger support for refugees than the conformists do (DeVaul-Fetters & Esses, 2014). The primary motives for refugees suppression are discussed through the review of “Belief in a just world: Research progress over the past decade” (Furnham, 2002).
A three-dimensional scale of attitude measurement was discussed on the basis of “Attitudes toward illegal aliens: The reliability and validity of a Likert-type scale” (Ommundsen & Larsen, 1997). The findings of survey-based immigration studies were verified on the basis of “Attitudes toward illegal immigration: A cross-national methodological comparison” study (Ommundsen, Mörch, Hak, Larsen, & Van Der Veer, 2002). The article “Attitudes towards refugees: The dark side of prejudice in Australia” was reviewed so that to disclose the emotional grounds for ethnic prejudices (Schweitzer, Perkoulidis, Krome, Ludlow, & Ryan, 2005). Moreover, the research study analysis some nation-specific biases that precondition typical just world beliefs in Australia.
Identification of the primary research questions and aim
The major issues that are reviewed in the research study refer to the sources of refugees’ poor integration into American society. Specifically, the objective of the survey is to identify the links between traditional natives’ fears and the consequences of immigrants’ settlement. The central idea encompasses social, demographic, and economic factors that stipulate conventional attitudes towards refugees.
Linking Past Hypothesis to the Current Investigation
Due to the findings of previous studies that were based on both direct observations and quantitative estimations, refugees in Australia face some considerable citizenship troubles as well as national identity biases. According to the study that investigated the peculiarities of Sudanese immigrants’ integration, Australian health-care services do not deliver equal support to the natives and refugees, which can be explained by acculturation stresses (Milner & Khawaja, 2010). The investigation of the resettled refugees’ living standards proves that even the immigrants, which spend more than fifteen years in Australia, have problems with being officially naturalized by the state (Barnes, 2001).
Numerous qualitative studies explore the specifications of recent refugees’ integration. It is emphasized that new immigrants suffer from the constant race and ethnic discrimination, labour exploitation, and occupational manipulations (Peisker & Tilbury, 2006). According to the primary hypotheses that served as a focus for this investigation, there are some gender discrepancies between the perceptions of refugees. Moreover, it is assumed that people, which follow just world beliefs, adopt negative attitudes towards newcomers. Thus, this work links the practical experiences that were analyzed in the previous works, to the theoretical explanations of immigration prejudices.
Discussion: Summarizing the Findings of the Study
Comparing the Results to Previous Research Studies
The complex investigation that was based on the usage of Bivariate and Pearson correlations verified the hypothesis of gender beliefs distribution and indicated that men and women are likely to treat immigrants in the same way. The second theory was justified since the study showed that there was a direct connection between the BJW persuasions and refugees’ treatment. The similar gender-based investigations of acculturation tendencies were conducted in Australia before. However, past investigations targeted particular groups of native Australians. For instance, one of such studies focused on the citizens aged 12-19, who were asked to submit the questionnaires that described the tendencies of refugees’ social support (Kovacev & Shute, 2004).
The popular quantitative investigation that follows the Likert-type scale, despite its efficient methodological basis, focused exclusively on the cohort of students, who are quite vulnerable to social disintegration (Ommundsen & Larsen, 1997). In contrast to these studies, the discussed investigation analyzed the collected data through electronic quantifications and revealed general attitudes towards refugees among the diverse natives. Thus, it is result-oriented and restricts the scopes of causal-consecutive relations between different groups of citizens.
The Key Methodological Faults of the Investigation and Their Implications
The solid methodological foundation that lies in the centre of the investigation focuses on the mathematical precision and targets two hypotheses. However, the research does not account for the logical justification of the findings. Consequently, the quantitative study does not provide the reasoning for Australian hostility. Nevertheless, the question can assist in finding a consistent solution to the problem. For instance, due to Colic-Peisker (2006), the white-skinned refugees in Australia undergo a favourable social inclusion since natives tend to adopt a friendly approach to people, which are similar to them in appearance (p.615). Some experts argue that the so-called “relative deprivation theory” explains the low-level integration and negative experiences (Fozdar & Torezani, 2008). Therefore, the lack of scientific reasoning accounts for the methodological faultiness of the reviewed study.
Future Suggestions
Due to the recent reports, Australian refugees fall into the at-risk group of citizens, who suffer from psychosocial dysfunctions (Momartin, Silove, Manicavasagar, & Steel). Therefore, it may be suggested to research the issue of mental stability among immigrants and refugees in Australia. Similar works can become a foundation for the development of effective social integration programs. Besides, the investigation of human rights violations and trauma inventory can become the central factors that should be taken into consideration by the local governments of the country.
Limitations
The sample size is large since it represents the whole continent. The analysis is extensive and is based on quantitative methods. The time constraints are preconditioned by the work of calculative devices.
Conclusion
The research study focuses on the crisis of refugees’ social integration in the Australian communities. The method of investigation is the usage of electronic questionnaires as the indicators of personal attitudes of the Australian citizens towards non-natives. The study verifies two hypotheses that were initially suggested by the authors. First, it justifies the idea of direct dependence between just world beliefs and immigrants’ treatment. Thus, it is acknowledged that conservative people are likely to adopt prejudiced attitudes to newcomers while non-conformists, especially the youth, tend to embrace a loyal approach to refugees. Second, it rebuts the idea of gender-based discrepancies between the social treatment of immigrants among Australian citizens.
References
Barnes, D. (2001). Resettled refugees’ attachment to their original and subsequent homelands: Long-term Vietnamese refugees in Australia. Journal of Refugee Studies, 14(4), 394-411. Colic-Peisker, V. (2006). ‘At least you’re the right color’: Identity and social inclusion of Bosnian Refugees in Australia. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(4), 615-638.
DeVaul-Fetters, A., & Esses, V. (2014). Reactions to refugees: Do stronger believers in a just world compensate, dehumanize, and perceive refugees as more responsible for their status? University of Western Ontario, 31(1), 31-42.
Fozdar, F., & Torezani, S. (2008). Discrimination and well-being: Perception of refugees in Western Australia. International Migration Review, 42(1), 30-63.
Furnham, A. (2002). Belief in a just world: Research progress over the past decade. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(1), 795-817.
Kovacev, L., & Shute, R. (2004). Acculturation and social support in relation to psychosocial adjustment of adolescent refugees resettled in Australia. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(3), 259-267.
Milner, K., & Khawaja, N. (2010). Sudanese refugees in Australia: The impact of acculturation stress. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 4(1), 19-29.
Momartin, S., Silove, D., Manicavasagar, V., & Steel, Z. (2004). Comorbidity of PTSD and depression: Associations with trauma exposure, symptom severity and functional impairment in Bosnian refugees resettled in Australia. Journal of Affective Disorders, 80(2), 231-238.
Ommundsen, R., & Larsen, K. (1997). Attitudes toward illegal aliens: The reliability and validity of a Likert-type scale. The Journal of Psychology, 137(5), 665-667.
Ommundsen, R., Mörch, S., Hak, T., Larsen, K., & Van Der Veer, K. (2002). Attitudes toward illegal immigration: A cross-national methodological comparison. The Journal of Psychology, 136(1), 103-110.
Peisker, V., & Tilbury, F. (2006). Employment niches for recent refugees: Segmented labor market in twenty-first century Australia. Journal of Refugee Studies, 19(2), 203-229.
Schweitzer, R., Perkoulidis, S., Krome, S., Ludlow, C., & Ryan, M. (2005). Attitudes towards refugees: The dark side of prejudice in Australia. Australian Journal of Psychology, 57(3), 170-179.
Is the denial of rights such as the right to education and health mortifying to the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon?
Introduction
Late in the 1940’s Palestinians from the north of Palestine were forced to leave their homes due to attacks from Israeli military forces and ethnic cleansing. This briefing is directed at the Deputy High Commissioner, Korea’s Ms. Kyung-wha Kang and the Assistant High Commissioners for Protection and Operations, Erika Feller and Judy Cheng-Hopkins who are directly concerned with the issues that have been elucidated on in the paper.
This briefing will be delivered at a presentation with the concerned departments on the findings of research based on the current predicaments that the Palestinian refugees are facing. The paper aims to elucidate on the plight of the refugees and the gains that would be attained from application of their full rights as well as some practical solutions to the predicaments.
It is pertinent to note that many homes were destroyed during the period so the Palestinians were forced to flee into Lebanon. During the first few months of their stay, they were provided with food and shelter by Lebanese farmers.
They were also assisted by the LRCS (International League of Red Cross Societies) which provided tents, food and clothes while the Lebanese Government gave some form of backing by contributing free depots, protection, warehouses, manual labour as well transportation (Betts & Loescher, 2010, p. 155). Aid was also provided from various private and public sources.
Background of the issue
In the 1950’s, the Sunni politicians demanded for a greater Muslim role in the Lebanese government. This together with the Sunni’s support for Nasser’s calls for Pan-Arabism led to the outbreak of a civil war in 1958. From then onwards, the Israelis persistently refused to implement the UN General Assembly resolution 194 (Betts & Loescher, 2010, p. 155).
This part petitioned for the refugees to be allowed to go back to their domiciles and subsist in harmony with their fellow citizens at the earliest practicable time and that they should be compensated for loss of property resulting from the confrontations (Aristide, 1986, p. 160).
The attitude of the Lebanese government then changed. So as to put off eternal relocation, the regime went ahead and placed callous limitations on the immigrants (Betts & Loescher, 2010, p. 155). No housing development was allowed. Work permits for Palestinians suddenly became unobtainable in 1962. Betts and Loescher (2010, p. 155) stated that “martial law was also imposed on the refugee camps which resulted in the 1969 uprising in the camps”.
In 1969, the Lebanese government signed the Cairo agreement between itself and the Palestine Liberation Organisation. This improved the conditions for the refugees. The Palestinian immigrants obtained some rights such as freedom of movement, residency as well as labour rights. They were also granted the rights to defend themselves in Lebanon (Betts & Loescher, 2010, p. 155). Aristide (1986, p. 160) elucidated that the rights “tied to the Cairo agreement never became national legislation”.
The PLO was forced out of Lebanon after the 1982 invasion by the Israelites. Consequently, the situation for the Palestinian immigrants worsened. Hostility against Palestinian immigrants was among the main facets all through the warfare (Aristide, 1986, p. 160).
The current situation in various sectors
Education
Aristide (1986, p. 160) asserts that the “Palestinian refugees are denied access to Lebanese public schools”. On the other hand, Betts and Loescher (2010, p. 155) designate that “the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA, 1949), offers secondary education in Lebanon to counter the effects of restrictions placed by the Lebanese government and the high cost of private schools”. This is mostly because they are beyond the means of Palestinian immigrants.
It operates around 70 primary education institutions as well as three secondary institutions in Lebanon. However, most of the facilities in UNRWA operated schools are quite pitiable and the schools are over occupied and have limited or no recreational space. In a bid to take care of their spouses, majority of the scholars were coerced into ceasing their learning activities and seek for employment (Aristide, 1986, p. 160). The schools therefore, have very high dropout rates.
Employment
Palestinians without identity documents are unable to sit for the intermediate schooling exam if they do not have any recognized ID, hence, locking out many children from accessing secondary education.
The Lebanese statute allows only skilled individuals from the Lebanese professional associations to partake in any profession (Kunz, 1973, p. 138). Such associations can be easily established but for foreigners they are regulated by reciprocity clause which states that non-citizens cannot form associations (Kunz, 1973, p. 138). Kunz (1973) further stated that:
The major sources of income for Palestinian refugees are employment in shops and institutions within the refugee camps; employment in UNRWA and its affiliated institutions; remittances from relatives who work abroad; employment in Palestinian organisations and associations and employment in agriculture and Lebanese companies’. This is because a number of ministerial decrees prohibit Palestinians from about 72 trades and professions. (p. 138)
Healthcare
The Palestinian health centres and shops in the camps of immigrants have been prominent hunting points for the Lebanese police officers (Mason, 2000, p. 248). Since the early 1990’s, the Lebanese police have been arresting Palestinian individuals with unlicensed facilities. In 2005, the Lebanese minister of labour granted Palestinian refugees in Lebanon, the right to work in private sector jobs. It is however not known if this decision will make an impact as obtaining a work permit is an expense that very few Palestinian refugees can afford.
Immigrants from Palestine are not allowed to use the public medical amenities in Lebanon (Kunz, 1973, p. 138). As a result they are forced to rely on healthcare that is provided by UNWRA or in hospitals that have contracts with them. Due to limited funding and resources they can only provide primary and secondary but not tertiary healthcare. Another healthcare provider is the Palestinian Red Crescent Society (PRCS). The withdrawal of the PLO has had a negative impact on the scope and quality of services the PRCS provides.
Social security
All children born to non-ID Palestinian fathers do not receive any identification documents from the Lebanese government nor are they registered with UNRWA therefore remain non-ID as well (Mason, 2000, p. 248).
Basing on the implication of the reciprocity clause, individuals from other countries living in Lebanon are allowed to equally enjoy the universal rights just like the other citizens of Lebanon (Good-Gill, 2001, p. 139). But since it is claimed that Palestinians do not belong to any particular state, the clause does not apply to them (Mason, 2000, p. 248). Individuals working in Lebanon from Palestine do not have any right of social defence (Chimni, 2009, p. 16).
Restrictions on building
Reconstructing of camps that were completely obliterated is forbidden by the Lebanese authorities. Chimni (2009, p. 16) asserted that “reconstruction or building in other camps requires a special permit which is usually not issued”. Fighters of the Lebanese government also substantiate that Palestinians are not ferrying any building materials illegally. This is because it is regarded as a serious offense that is punishable by arrest or detention.
Property ownership and transfer
Persons who do not carry a citizenship certificate offered by the state are prohibited by the presidential decree from owning property in Lebanon. Chimni (1998, p. 361) attests that “these rulings further imply that non-Lebanese persons can acquire property in Lebanon, but only under certain conditions like- the property should not be in excess of 3000 square metres”.
The property rule in the country of Lebanon proscribes individuals from Palestine from owning property. The law also proscribes the Palestinian kids from inheriting their parents’ assets (Aristide, 1986, p. 160).
Naturalisation
Travelling manuscripts are often issued by the Lebanese regime to ensure that individuals from Palestine are not only working but also living abroad (Mason, 2000, p. 248). There are quite a number of diverse documents which are given to the Palestinians to make use of when travelling around. Immigrants who are registered with both UNWRA and DAPR are given lasting nationality certificates as well as a five year renewable travel certificate.
Those indexed with only DAPR are supplied with forms or papers of everlasting nationality and a Laisser Passer with one year validity. These are renewable thrice while refugees who are not registered with any of the two institutions are not issued with any travel documents (Castles, 2003, p. 28).
Mason (2000, p. 248) asserts that “in 1995, the Lebanese ministry of internal affairs imposed an entry and exit visa leaving many Palestinians with travel documents stranded outside”. The restrictions have since been eased.
The statute of Lebanon has banned the relocation of refugees from Palestine (Mason, 2000, p. 248). In 2003, the president of the then newly formed cabinet stressed that the government will not back down on its insistence that Israeli grants or complies with the right of return of Palestinian refugees and that Lebanon rejects any plans for their resettlement in Lebanon
Civil society
The government as well as majority of the Lebanese population completely oppose the full integration of the Palestinian refugees in the country. One reason behind this is that they hold the refugees responsible for the civil war outbreak in Lebanon.
Castles (2003, p. 28) in his research stated that “currently Palestinians who are born in Lebanon and the children of Lebanese mothers and Palestinian fathers who are considered Palestinians are not granted Lebanese citizenship”. Residency of an everlasting nature is nevertheless approved for any Palestinian female who may get betrothed or affianced to a man from Lebanon.
The nongovernmental organizations in Palestine are outlawed from operating in Lebanon. However, PRCS is excluded from this law. In order to operate such an organization the requirement is that they must be first registered as a Lebanese NGO, serve both Palestinians and Lebanese and that majority of the employees must be Lebanese citizens (Castles, 2003, p. 28).
Comment
Generally the situation in Lebanon has led to worldwide action and petitions from humanitarian organisations (Castles, 2003, p. 28). The Palestinian refugees are greatly mistreated and the Lebanese government has done comparatively little in an effort to make their lives more bearable.
In this time and age violation of basic human rights should be a thing of the past. So far the Lebanese government has received criticism from all over the world due to this issue. It is time for the leaders of the country to demonstrate good leadership qualities by amending the laws of the land so as to contribute to the general development of the entire state.
Recommendations
Given the harsh living conditions of the refugees in Lebanon, the following recommendations would greatly assist in making the life of Palestinian refugees much better:
Provision by the Lebanese government of adequate shelter and functioning infrastructure in refugee camps would go a long way in resolving the issue. This will improve the living conditions of the refugees and the government may even benefit from commercial activities that may arise from setting up infrastructure (Richmond, 1993, p. 17).
Ensure access to health facilities and affordable medication to all Palestinian refugees especially for the provision of healthcare at tertiary level. The Lebanese government should also make an effort to secure additional support for UNRWAs care programme for severe chronic illnesses (Kunz, 1973, p. 138).
The Palestinian children should be allowed to join public schools so as to reap from the benefits of quality education hence, boosting their employability. This will benefit the whole country as the number of educated individuals in the entire country will increase. A high level of unemployment has never been beneficial to any region and the same applies to the Palestine region. The number of unemployed individuals ought to be increased.
The needs of the most vulnerable members of the Palestinian refugees such as persons with disabilities, women and children should be addressed. They should not be ignored any longer.
Food security for refugees should be enhanced. Government spending ought to be concentrated on creating jobs and initiatives for enhancing the food security.
The Lebanese government should reconstruct the ongoing emergency relief stores in Nahr el-Bared camp and design a comprehensive Poverty Reduction Strategy. Involving all the stake holders will be beneficial to the cause since they will know what exactly works for them as they consider the other parties that may be involved in the consultations (Richmond, 2002, p. 707).
The government should lift the bans on providing the Palestinians with citizenship in a move to benefit from the labour capital that the Palestinians can offer.
Conclusion
The situation in Lebanon requires a complete overhaul in the laws and attitude of the entire nation towards Palestinian refugees. The UNHCR should therefore take up the task of liaising with the Lebanese government with the intention of ensuring that their laws are in compliance with international human rights.
The changes will also go a long way in ensuring that the rest of the world recognises the fact that some action is being taken to improve on the conditions as well as the living standards of the refugees. It is important for the concerned parties to elucidate on their commitment to embrace the changes that have been recommended. Most of the basic rights that many people enjoy are a luxury and the people ought to be able to reap from the benefits accorded to them by the governments and administrations.
References
Aristide, Z 1986, ‘International factors in the formation of refugee movements’, International migration review, vol. 20 no. 2, pp. 151-169.
Betts, A & Loescher, G 2010, Refugees in international relations, Refugees in International Relationships, vol. 6 no. 3, pp. 1-28.
Castles, S 2003, ‘Towards a sociology of forced migration and social transformation’, Sociology, vol. 37 no. 1, pp. 13-34.
Chimni, S. B 1998, ‘The geo-politics of refugee studies: a view from the south’, Journal of refugee studies, vol. 11 no. 4 , pp. 350-374.
Chimni, S. B 2009, The birth of a ‘discipline’: from refugee to forced migration, Journal of Refugee Studies, vol. 22 no. 1, pp. 11-29.
Good-Gill, G. S 2001, Refugees challenges to protection. International migration review, vol. 35 no. 1, pp. 130-142.
Kunz, F. E 1973, ‘The refugee in flight: kinetic models and forms of displacement’, International migration review, vol. 7 no. 2 , pp. 125-146.
Mason, E 2000, ‘Forced migration studies: surveying the reference landscape’, Libri, vol. 50 no. 1, pp. 241-251.
Richmond, A. H 2002, ‘Globalization: implications for immigrants and refugees’, Ethnic and racial studies, vol. 25 no. 5, pp. 707-727.
Richmond, A. H 1993, ‘Reactive migration: sociological perspectives on refugee movements’, Journal of refugee studies, vol. 6 no. 1 , pp. 7-24.
What are the first and most common associations with refugees trying to integrate into society? For someone, that means enthusiastic labor force, who do any job willingly so that they have a chance not to return to their, apparently, troubled homeland. By contrast, someone else would see a mob of rude, non-intellectual individuals who only waste resources. In practice, meanwhile, both sides are right, but partly, as the integration is a prolonged process that has different effects at different stages.
Right after their arrival, asylum seekers need intensive support, which does have a negative effect on the economy as well as the service sector of the host country. Notably, the latter has to provide everyone with a proper dwelling, sufficient food, and access to affordable healthcare. This requires extra spendings and, consequently, overloads the public budget, especially if there is a constant influx of immigrants. Furthermore, the sphere of service provision finds itself under pressure as well, which makes the refugees live under poor conditions and compromises the service quality for the locals.
This phenomenon is known as a refugee crisis, which is currently the strongest in several African states, including Ethiopia, Niger, the Central African Republic, and others. For developing countries, unrestricted immigration bears a substantially more serious threat, which determines the worldwide attention to the problem.
By contrast, a positive effect of refugees, which usually remains unconsidered, is that they contribute to the aggregate demand of the host country. Simply stated, there emerges a bigger need for goods and services since it grows together with the number of consumers. Subsequently, the supply has to rise as well, which, in turn, adds to the disposable income of native workers, resulting from increased production volumes.
Intensive immigration may have cultural effects as well, which can be favorable or not, depending on the context of a particular situation. Thus, on condition that the integration has been successful, newcomers influence the diversity of the host country positively; in other words, they enrich it. By contrast, in case the refugees are not willing to respect and follow the local traditions and regulations, sociocultural consequences will most probably be negative.
That happened, for instance, in Qatar, which is temporarily hosting several thousands of Afghans who have fled the Taliban. In addition to financial and service-related difficulties, there occurred to be cultural divergences resulting from substantially different levels of civility. In cases of that kind, cultural clashes emerge that may lead to misunderstandings, hence a spree of conflicts between the newcomers and the local population.
In conclusion, although many people see refugees exclusively as a burden for the host country, this is not completely correct. As immigrants increase the overall demand for goods and services, they begin to contribute to the local economy in a relatively short while, which, in turn, benefits the residents. However, if the cultural differences between them and the locals are critical, they can aggravate the refugee crisis.
The world has experienced different crises that have resulted in the overwhelming displacement of people. The commonest causes leading to refugee influx include but are not limited to floods and wars of varying magnitudes. In Africa, for instance, the refugee problem is one of the worst experiences that the entire continent has ever faced in the twenty-first century. Many people have been exiled from their home countries, left with only one option; seeking asylum in neighboring foreign countries. Fresh and renewed internal wars in some African countries like the Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Chad, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, among others have only added to the ever-increasing number of refugees (Miller, Mitchell & Brown, 2005). These wars have escalated the problems of refugees all over the world because of the resultant social, economic, and political instabilities. Many of the refugees have been forced to flee to countries like Kenya, South Africa, and many others in the continent where there is relative peace and hence protection. Furthermore, others have been forced to seek refuge in countries outside the continent that have ratified the requirements for refugee protection. One of such countries which have experienced the wrath of this problem in Australia. DIMA (2004) report indicates that out of 6 million immigrants in Australia, 645 000 are refugees. It is noted that if this trend continues, the number of refugees would go higher to an unprecedented level within the next few years (Rutter, 2004).
The research findings surrounding the refugee problem in Africa are very shocking. The statistics in the 1980s show that the world had a population of refugees standing at 17 million; one out of three refugees in the world was an African (Nsubuga-Kyobe & Dimock, 2002). Recent statistics place the number of refugees at 24 million, Africans representing one third (DIMIA, 2004). Despite the fact that millions of African refugees are assisted by UNHCR, there are still quite a large number who are internally displaced. This research paper will focus on the settlement services available to African refugees in Australia with special emphasis on what have been done to help them overcome the challenges that come with their status. It will further analyze whether these settlement services do recognize the special conditions that the African refugees face and whether or not their respective background in refugee camps and life in times of war affects their settlement. It will also look briefly at the government directive issued in 2007 to stop the quota for African refugees for that particular year, and consider why the African refugees are having such significant hard time settling down in their new found place of residence. The methodology employed in conducting the research will also be discussed with an aim of justifying it as the most appropriate.
Problem Overview
Enormous efforts have been made by UNHCR and the member states, human rights groups and other aid providing organizations that advocate and champion the rights of the refugees (Lee, 2004). According to the UNHCR, cited in Martin (1998) the involvement in giving asylum to people escaping persecution in their home countries is one of the ancient hallmarks of civilization. This has been mentioned in so many historical books especially during the reign of the empires of the Middle East such as the Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, and ancient Egyptians (Martin, 1998). However, Gunn (1994) notes that very few people do understand the magnitude and the extent to which an individual’s life is affected by virtue of being a refugee. Despite a person’s race, sex, age, nature of conflicts, religion, refugees worldwide do have similar experiences which can be compared (Gunn, 1994). Some of the shared consequences of being a refugee include; the loss of or separation from the members of the family, loss of social and economic status, forced displacement, torture, harassment, loneliness, and lack of proper sanitary issues (Gunn, 1994; Lee, 2004; Westwood, 2001). This has resulted in extreme poverty, physical health issues, and even mental health issues in general among the refugees. The refugee problem is growing day in day out in the world and in spite of the enormous efforts being put into containing this crisis, more extra efforts need to be put if the problem is to be brought within manageable limits.
Due to high number of refugees flooding the places of refuge, many and appropriate services need to be enhanced. The chief responsibility for the protection of a person lies entirely with their country of nationality, and where the country has demonstrated its inability or unwillingness to offer the necessary protection, the international protection system is activated. However, these countries must ratify the laid out requirements for them to be host to refugees. Some of the countries include but not limited to Kenya, Australia, and Canada. The 1951 refugee conventions together with the Protocol Relating to Refugees of 1967 are some agendas that have been ratified by Australia. In the 1951 convention, a refugee was defined as someone who due to well- founded fears of being harassed and persecuted for religious, racial, nationality, belonging to a given social group or for political reasons, and is outside the respective country of origin, and is incapable of, or owing to similar threats, is not ready to avail himself or herself of the protection of the particular country (Anderson, 2004, p 39). Settlement, on the other hand, refers to the process of transformation and change with regard to physical, cultural, social, and emotional dimensions (Anderson, 2004, p 39). These are the working definitions for the purposes of this research.
From the above discussion, it was therefore appropriate to carry out this study in order to evaluate the success of the settlement programs that are provided to African refugees in Australia. This will significantly expose the strength and weaknesses that will help in improving the services offered in this country and other states which have ratified the necessary conventions to provide humanitarian programs. The scope of this study will be on the areas outlined in the earlier parts of these introductory pages. The limitation of this study may be from the secondary sources that are used in completing the entire research. This calls for a lot of keenness in the evaluation of materials used in the study. The success of every research work greatly depends on the type of methodology used in the research process. In the next sections, I shall discuss the methodology that I used and why I thought it was the best.
Methodology
As already discussed in the above section, the aim of this research is to focus on the settlement programs offered to African refugees in Australia with a bias in the evaluation of the government’s success in providing these services.
Recent researchers have come to appreciate the value of using the mixed method for conducting a given research. In order to maximize the available resources, I will employ the use of both qualitative and quantitative design both in the collection and analysis of data. However, because of time factor, I will concentrate more on the use of qualitative methods. The study will include unobtrusive methods because of the degree of sensitivity of the topic that I am covering coupled with the ethical issues that surrounds the handling of refugees.
When it comes to the use of the quantitative design methodology, it will entail the construction of a suitable questionnaire that will draw out questions regarding the situation of the African refugee in Australia. This will mainly include responses from the refugees themselves. In general, the sample that I have proposed will consist of community development workers and social workers in Migrant resource centers and the refugees who actually use their services. This will come in handy when assessing and evaluating the ability of the service providers, especially the government, to satisfy the needs of the refugees.
The qualitative design methodology on the other hand will entail series of semi-structured interviews which are targeted at different social and community workers in various organizations and who work at different capacities within the same organizations. The semi-structured interviews will mainly consist of open-ended questions regarding the perspectives that the refugees and the asylum seekers have on the resettlement process and whether these services have actually been effective in addressing the plight of the refugees. I considered this design because of its flexibility as interviewers normally commence with a clear-cut questioning plan but will not be tied to the same pattern and may deviate to ask additional questions that may be necessary for the success of the research. This will in turn offer very unique and situational insights to the entire research phenomena. The research using this method will also involve the review of existing literature, for instance the official policy documents from Australian government reports, Newspaper articles, official statistics in the Department of Immigration and Citizenship, and other commentaries. The internet is another invaluable source of wider range of data relevant to the research question.
This study identifies the use of questionnaires as a very suitable method of conducting research since it enables one to gather diverse information without necessarily having to talk to all respondents on a one-on- one basis. It is also a very flexible method for me to use. This method, however, has its own weaknesses which need to be checked in order to minimize the inaccuracies that may emerge in the research findings. The use of the qualitative method, therefore, serves to neutralize the weaknesses inherent in the qualitative design methodology. This method is very effective in accessing the people’s perceptions, definitions of various situations, meanings, and constructions of reality. Qualitative research method is one of the most powerful ways of understanding others in the society.
The mixed method of research selected for use in this study is therefore one of the most effective and efficient than the single use of qualitative or quantitative method. It brings together the strengths of each of the two main methods that have always been used by researchers. The challenge that I need to overcome is to know when to use one or the other. It is critical to this study to effectively collect the perspectives of both the service providers and the refugees. This will go a long way in determining whether there is any huge difference between what the government and service providers are offering and what the refugees feel they are getting versus what they ought to get. If incase congruencies exist or major differing opinions, then this multi-instrumental approach will provide the necessary tools to determine whether any measurable correlations exist in personal perspectives.
Time constraints will remain one of the major limitations for every researcher. The study has to be over within 12 weeks only and I have to collect and research extensively if my findings are to be reliable. Covering all these within this time plan is really strenuous. With this challenge in mind, I had to narrow my research question to be more specific.
Body of a Research
The Scope of Challenge
Over a long period of time Australia as a country has given many refugees necessary to help them rebuild their lives. The refugees’ countries of origin are largely from African continent, with Somalia, Sudan, Sierra Leone, and Eritrea leading the pack. The government of Australia basically gives support to the refugees through a number of programs subdivided to carter for specific conditions and status of the refugees. For example, the government through its program Humanitarian Settlement Strategy (IHSS) has been offering some critical services to the newly arrival groups of refugees. Some of the services outlined in this program were identified as coordination of arrival cases, reception of the new arrivals, temporary accommodation services, and canceling services for those who underwent psychological trauma back in their countries of origin. Through the Department of Immigration, the government works with groups of volunteers who have been trained on humanitarian services, to help offer appropriate services at their entry points and help them settle within the local community (DIMA, 2004).
Australian government identified each refugee with the country of origin to help them with the services they required in line with their cultural background. With this Sudan was identified as one of the leading contributor to refugee influx, calling for a special attention from the government of Australia. In fact in 2004/2005, DIMA (2004) estimated there were well over 2000 Sudanese national in the refugee camps, a figure that doubled in 2006 report.
In 2004/2005, Australian government provided more that two thirds its humanitarian services to refugees from Africa (DIMA, 2004). In the past one decade, it was reported that the government gave out more that 14000 humanitarian visas to the Sudanese alone, and around 10,000 of the visa grants happen within a span of only two years (DIMA, 2004). Many of these refugees have received the permanent residency status through the offshore humanitarian visa, that enables them to reunite with their and subsequently become citizens of Australia (Cummins, 2000).
On their arrival to Australia via neighboring countries like Kenya and Egypt, most of these people have no formal education, and face language barrier hence handicapped when it comes to social integration. In essence, most of the African refugees on arrival cannot not only write but are unable to utter a single word in English. For instance, the Sudanese government encourages the use of Arabic in all schools, the language used as the national language (Cumming, 2000). Refugees from Sierra Leone are known to speak mostly their vernacular language hence unable to integrate, considering the fact that they have never stepped inside classroom in their lifetime. This challenge prompted a serious concern for the Commonwealth Government of Australia.
Australia’s capacity to protect refugees has given it a major reputation and is currently one of the major resettlement countries. It is capable of taking up to 12,000 refugees annually (DIMIA, 2004). In total, according to Refugee council of Australia, it has over 640,000 refugees at present (DIMIA, 2004). The Humanitarian Program in Australia is one of the parts of its massive contribution to the international protection of refugees. This has positioned Australia as a highly reliable destination that can effectively respond to global humanitarian crises and that it has the capability to provide refugee services to meet the exact requirements of the refugees. When the Department of Immigration was established in 1945 by the Australian government, the source of refugees shifted from the UK to Southern Europe, to Northern Europe, to Asia, to the Middle East and currently to the African continent (DIMIA, 2004). In fact, in the year 2004-05, about 70 per cent of Australia’s Humanitarian Program targeted African refugees (DIMIA, 2004). The main countries of refugees origin include; Sudan, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Congo, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Eritrea. The major cause of displacement in these countries is political instability and insurgency.
This program was initiated mainly to ensure the newly-arrived groups of refugees get integrated into the Australian mainstream community and society in general (DIMIA, 2004). Also, the services are offered in order to assist people overcome the challenges that may bar them from enjoying their lives in the host country. The Australian government has been instrumental in the provision of critical services in an attempt to re-settle the post war victims. The policy framework governing these programs has been transformed from assimilation, through integration, to multiculturalism (Lee, 2004). The multicultural programs encompasses a huge range of services and programs which include ethnic radio, grants to ethnic schools, SBS TV, advisory committees, anti-discrimination tribunals, inter-faith dialogues, and community language teaching (Nsubuga-Kyobe & Dimock, 2002). These programs are mainly related to language teaching and interpretation (English), healthcare provision and housing services (Cummins, 2000).
The services are provided through the integrated Humanitarian settlement strategy program which also funds several organizations and service providers at the community level. These enable them to deliver the settlement services to the grass root levels. Despite all these efforts, as shall be discussed later, there have been a lot of concerns about the resettlement of refugees from Africa in Australia, considering their inherent special needs that will be highlighted later in this paper.
Findings and Discussion
The story of African refugees is long and tedious. Many African refugees on their way to Australia have experience some of the most horrifying experience ever in their lifetime, sometimes leading to tragedy. But the kind of courage and confidence filled with hope as they move to the Queensland is unmatched. On the side of the Australian government, their attempts to help refugees rebuild their lives have been at times hailed and at times criticized, with obvious difficulty emanating from special needs that the refugees from Africa requires and the limited capability in terms of resources and policy framework challenges. Even though the refugees are moving away from the long drawn civil strife, they still find the new culture in the new environment as challenging as never before.
From this study, it was revealed that the Australian government has taken some critically important steps in their effort to address the problem. Under the Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC), the government of Australia has been handling some of the critical issues that affect African refugees in the country. Melbourne is one of the major cities that have been hosting quite a number of African refugees. It is in this city that the government has concentrated some of its activities through numerous intervention programs. Some of the programs are: Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP), Translating and Interpreting services (TIS), Community Grants Program (CGP), Integrated Humanitarian Settlement Strategy (IHSS), and how they have handled the On-shore applicants for asylum by the refugees.
Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP)
At present, there is specific language learning program that is designed for adult refugees in Melbourne. This program is designed in such a manner that it provides English lessons that run for 510 hours for the group that have little English language proficiency, since Australia is basically an English speaking nation and English proficiency will determine a persons level of social integration (Cummins, 2000; Carrasquillo, Kucer & Abrams, 2004). For a group with international humanitarian visa and found to be in the category of special needs group, they get longer hours of lessons (610 hours), an additional 100 hours more that other groups. This particular one is conducted through the Special Preparatory Program (Hakuta, Butler & Witt, 2008).
AMEP is funded through the Australian Regional Governments and Commonwealth. The Commonwealth, under their special programs for refugees has been for a long time the main source funding for the AMEP program. However, the program has faced numerous challenges due to limitations ranging from:
Funding provisions
Through the Commonwealth, about 100 to 400 hours have been set aside to give extra lessons to the group that have been categorized as adults with special needs in the learning of English. They include groups who have never used English as a spoken word in their lifetime. This program that was started in 2004 under the name of Special Preparatory Program has had some ups and downs.
In Melbourne, it has been found that about a quarter of the refugees who arrive in the City have affected learning processes for the earlier arrivals. Furthermore, the impact of interruption has been more rampant on the side of the African refugees who are the majority in the Special Preparatory Program (Fazel & Stein, 2003). This is because they have been identified to need longer periods in this program due to their limited English background, hence putting a strain on the available funds. In a government report, it was established that Africa students need to stay in the camp twice more than other refugees from other regions; about one year instead of 6 months planned (Muir, 2003). And still, this longer period of stay is never enough and an extra stay is getting funding from the territorial governments, whose source fund is also overstretched (Muir, 2003).
The criteria for funding
Even though studies have made it a common knowledge that African refugees need more attention as compared to others from other regions, the criteria for funding these programs have not been reflective of this knowledge (Carrasquillo, et al., 2004). The lack of categorization on the newly-arrived refugees has been an impediment to these special programs which are designed for them. It is observed that majority of African refugees get into the country with the help of their humanitarian visas under the category of Special Humanitarian Program. However, the categories have been found not to receive similar treatment even though they are expected to be handled at the same level and similar way, no matter the sub-class one identifies with.
Process of Allocating the Funding
The provisions in the funding departments are considered satisfactory in overall view, but the problem may emanate from somewhere else, especially in the process or criteria. In actual sense, it is possible that retrospective funding may lead to insufficient funding in the long term (Westwood, 2001).
Additional Issues in Practice/ Policy Challenges
In the refugee camps, it was noticed that counselors are overworked and to make it worse, they evidently lacked cultural awareness especially about the diversely cultured African refugees. This is seen in the way language assessment is done with tools that are generally biased towards culture, hence creating the possibility of misjudgment. Again some of the refugees’ needs such as pastoral support for those who suffered or still suffer from trauma got from their conflict backgrounds are not met adequately.
There is lack of critical planning especially for the African refugees who are consistently pressured to provide for their families. This creates a dilemma when it comes to choosing what activity to participate in; part-time employment or attending the programs. This shows that there is lack of flexibility on the side of planning.
The programs provided are mostly from both government and NGO programs. The problem has been the lack of coordination between the two groups, resulting into replication of projects and programs, consequently creating imbalance.
Translating and Interpreting services (TIS)
African refugees in Australia generally come from wide range of language backgrounds (Coelho, 1998, p.132). Even though no tangible study has been done to establish the level of language variability among the refugees, it is observable that majority of them are French speakers. This is because they come from French speaking nations in Africa. It has also been revealed that African refugees who are unable to speak, write, or even read English have found it really difficult to socially integrate and adapt in Australia generally (Coelho, 1998). To get the necessary services, the refugees need the translation and interpretation services. For example, it was observed that in the medical sectors especially hospitals and other health centers, the translation and interpretation services are offered widely but the doctors fail to utilize them appropriately. This is said to be caused by lack of knowledge about the existence of such provisions among the physicians or just sheer negligence.
The government of Australia subsequently initiated a program, Translating and Interpreting Services to help ease the communication problem barrier between the non-English speakers and the English speakers. Currently, the TIS program helps the refugees with the assistance from over 1300 interpreters all over the country. These interpreters are trained and are able to speak wide range of languages, subsequently offering translation services throughout the week all the time (Hakuta, Butler & Witt, 2008).
The interpreters are assigned duties in relation to their professional level of the languages they speak and their geographical affiliation as well as availability to offer the services at the right time. The body responsible for offering the necessary accreditation to the translators and translators is the known as National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters (NAATI) (DIAM, 2004). It is this body that examines and approves the translators through assessment of their language skills and geographical inclination to help reduce culture shock. To take care of some sensitive areas like gender and disability, some translators and interpreters are assigned specifically unique duties to handle such cases, especially when such a request is made.
Community Grants Program (CGP)
During the financial year 2008/2009, the total number of grants that were focused towards African refugees was about 80. These grants were estimated at $5 million plus other general programs or projects that were specifically designed for African refugees. Data from Australian department of statistics shows that African refugees comprised of 27% of all refugees during this financial year (Hakuta, et al., 2008). This program mainly targeted this group, who were identified to mainly come from Sudan, Somalia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, etc (Coelho, 1998). Out of these those who needed serious humanitarian assistance were the majority.
The Community Grants Program was basically set with the idea of offering the new arrivals of refugees settle. The grants are useful because it helps the new refugees find the right connections to enable them find jobs, settlements places (place to call home). In a nutshell, the programs focus on strengthening the individual capacity so as to help them have the necessary link to the actual provision sources.
In this program, the services offered are placed under several different sub-programs namely:
Orientation to Australia: this is meant to develop practical skills to boost self-reliance among the refugees in Melbourne and elsewhere. The primary objective is to ensure that the refugees get right information to enable them get self-reliant integration within the Australia social and economic system. The secondary objective is that once the communities get integrated, they are able to rely on themselves towards search for better jobs, healthcare and education for their children. At the same time, the sub-program is aimed at helping the community build the good social integration within themselves and the entire community as a whole.
Communities Development: this sub-program is to ensure the communities focus their goals on building self, especially for the newly-arrived refugees. It intends to help the communities work together in an effort towards restoring their cultural values, so as to give them the necessary feeling of acceptance. This was seen as a way of solving the problem that the refugees had highlighted in several forums that their cultures were being undermined and that they found it difficult to create the harmony with their hosts. Again, the communities are put in a position where they can reliably respond to any form of emerging crises as well as set their own priority in relation to what they deem fit for the betterment of their lives. With this approach, sustainability is achieved.
Integration: This entails an attempt to create a sense of belonging to the African refugee communities, through encouragement of inclusion as well as participation (Lee, 2004). The corporation and partnership created between the communities was intended to assist the refugees get to the mainstream system of the Australian community and solve the problem of social isolation. In essence, this program is using one strategy to achieve two goals; training the mainstream community on how to accommodate and integrate the refugees as well as helping the refugees understand the diversity of the broader Australian community.
IHSS is a program initiative that targets refugees in Australia, especially the ones in dire need of humanitarian support. It is noted that majority of the refugees who have experienced serious trauma from the strife back in their respective countries of origin are African, mainly from Sudan, Sierra Leone, Congo and Somalia. These refuges have received enormous amount of trauma that simple refugee assistance may not help much in restoring normalcy in their lives. Australian government and other agencies therefore saw the need for more than just granting special visas. They identified proper settlement as the ultimate goal, where they would begin to redefine and rebuild the missing links in their lives.
IHSS is meant to support at initial stages with properly structured settlement assistance that would see new arrivals receive basic needs through IHSS-delivered services. The program under IHSS are meant to take a half a year, where volunteers help the refugees
On-shore applicants for asylum by the refugees
The increased granting of on-shore visas to the African refugees has presented one such big challenge. Available information shows that over 70% of those granted on-shore visas were African refuges (Hakuta, Butler & Witt, 2008). After receiving the Visas, they are settled in areas that are already filled with other African refugees who arrived in Australia long time ago, close to more than two years.
Even though they get some special attention from both the government and NGOs, the government of Australia is said to lack the capacity or has been insufficiently dealing with the African refugees who lack proper education, those whose health has deteriorated, and the ones suffering from psychological trauma. They have been accused of assisting the refugees partially and discriminatively, denying certain groups basic humanitarian services (Roberts, 2005). The groups are identified as: those who have stayed for 45 days since their arrivals and yet have failed to apply for refugee status, those appealing against court decisions, or those who have protested against the government’s isolation.
Conclusion
The research paper has highlighted the general plight of the African refugees in the Australia and the efforts that have been put in place to ensure that they get the services they deserve as human beings. In the It has touched on the methodology used to conduct the research which was the mixed method of research (MMR). The success of the Australian government in the provision of necessary services has been critical evaluated. The number of refugees flooding Australia originates from various parts of the world. Some come from Europe, Asia, and Middle East. Most recently the number of refugees from Africa has hit a record high. This has mainly been necessitated by the wars in most regions of African countries. Despite some of the great services offered to refugees from Africa, it was found out that there is still a lot to be done if the problems facing the refugees are to be addressed amicably. This paper has elaborated the key areas which the government should strive to improve on.
It is evident that a lot of effort has been put in place to provide African refugees a human face in Australia. Considering the fact that very high number of African refugees flooding the places of refuge, have numerous problems ranging from deplorable humanitarian problems to language barriers, the government of Australia has done some considerable work in resorting normalcy in this people. Through program Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP), the government has done funded the program to ensure that the refugees get basic services as required by the international humanitarian standards. In Melbourne, alone it has been found that about a quarter of the refugees who arrive in the City have affected learning processes for the earlier arrivals. This created the urgency to sort out the issue as much as possible by increasing the funding to help increase the number of settlement sites. Because African refugees are considered special, they are given more hours to integrate into the learning system hence more funding. However, it has been observed that even the additional time of 6 months sometimes is not enough for some specific African refugees, hence creating more complexity into the challenge.
Considering the fact that majority of African refugees get access to Australia with humanitarian visas under the category of Special Humanitarian Program (Westwood, 2001), they do not receive similar treatment when it comes to visa full residency programs, with some highlighting racial discrimination as the main reason for this problem. Again it has been noted that the fund provision has been faced with logistical and retrospective challenges (Westwood, 2001). Furthermore, lack of appropriate planning has been identified as a major barrier to the programs’ success. This has subsequently caused problem among the refugees who find it hard to balance between going to balance between looking for work and attending the services, since they have to dfeed their families as well as learn language to integrate.
The Australian government grant program is also another program that has received important attention in the recent past. The Community Grants Program was basically set with the idea of offering the new arrivals of refugees settle. The program is critical because it helps new refugees find the right connections to enable them find jobs, settlements places (place to call home). In summery, the program is basically meant to strengthen the individual capacity so as to help them have the necessary link to the actual provision sources. With the sub-division of the program into units of Orientation to Australia, Communities development and community integration, the government ensured they offered the entire necessary requirement to help them overcome the inherent challenges. It is also under this program that government intends to bring corporation between the refugees themselves and the entire community of Australia. This is under the special sub-program of Integrated Human Settlement Strategy (IHSS) after identifying the need for a proper settlement to rebuild the refugees a fresh for them to see any meaning to life after terror.
The government of Australia has also increased issuance of on-shore visas to the African refugees. However, this has come with unprecedented challenge due to the pressure placed on the already overstretched resources. This is because after receiving the Visas, they are settled in areas that are already filled with other African refugees who arrived in Australia long before. The government of Australia is also reeling from inadequate resources that have led to pressure on their ability to deal with the problems facing African refugees who have been found to lack proper education, suffer from serious ill health has deteriorated, and psychological trauma. They have also been accused of assisting the refugees partially and discriminatively, denying certain groups basic humanitarian services (Roberts, 2005). The groups are identified as: those who have stayed for 45 days since their arrivals and yet have failed to apply for refugee status, those appealing against court decisions, or those who have protested against the government’s isolation.
Generally, African refugees have presented Australian government with the challenge they have never seen before. The services they offer to them have been great. However, it must be noted that the changes have occurred among the nature and need of the African refugees in Australia. This has also evolved the programs from the initial new-arrival services to the present continuous programs meant to integrate the refugees into the mainstream Australian society; it is evidently a long journey. At present it can be noticed that the programs are tailored to meet specific necessities. However, with the continuous influx of African refugees, it is expected that Australian government will continue focusing on the specifically designed programs to increase the formal settlement assistance from now until years to come. This should be the prime goal of the government with assistance from other agencies like UNHCR and the NGOs. The future of the programs will be how best to manage the isolated cases of African refugees whose lives have continuously evolved overtime and who are often at risk of perishing or losing the important skills to survive in the diverse community of Australia.
Reflective Report
The entire paper has covered issues relating to the treatment of refugees by the Australian government. It is evident from the discussion that a lot of efforts have been put in by the government in Australian with assistance from other United Nations Agencies. The role played by the UNHCR, as we have learnt, is quite enormous. It keeps track of all details concerning refugees who are either internally displaced or those who shift to other countries in search of tranquility and peace. In this research we have focused mainly on the situation of African refugees in Australia and particularly how they receive the services subject to them. We have learnt that despite the good efforts demonstrated by the Australian government, many challenges are still encountered by the African refugees. This raises a lot of concern about the country’s reputation as far as handling refugees is concerned.
The tough situations faced by the aforementioned refugees are least expected given the fact that the country benefits especially economically from the services that these refugees are capable of offering. Some of the problems which are experienced by the refugees include social isolation, and language barriers. However, the most sensitive issue as far as handling of African refugees is concerned is racism. In some instances they are not allowed to perform given tasks or hold certain job positions hence making their stay wilder. If the situation is not checked, it may amount to oppression which is against the requirements of the UN conventions that member states ratify.
The study focused on the qualitative research methods. However, before settling on the qualitative research, I had to weigh the other option of quantitative research. Using the available literature, I came up with the following comparisons:
In qualitative research, there is no any information that is described as qualitative data since everything is either yes of no, with descriptive nature of explanation. Again on this type of research, I did only have a rough idea of what I wanted and as Nkwi, Nyamongo & Ryan (2001) observe, it is normally recommended for early stages of research projects. On the other hand, quantitative research help us classify some specific features, counting figures and leads us to construct statistical models in an effort to explain the observations we have made (Nyamongo & Ryan, 2001). In this case researcher tends to have specific information he or she wants.
Qualitative research is focused in understanding a given research problem from the perspective of a given population that has been involved (Nkwi, Nyamongo & Ryan, 2001). Denzin & Lincoln (2000, p.193) says that this type of research is very necessary when inquiring about specific cultural information on values, opinions, behaviors, and most importantly the social context of the particular information. It also offers crucial information on a more personal perspective e.g. the existing contradictory behaviors, opinions, beliefs, motions and relationships between individuals (Denzin & Lincoln (2000, p.193). I have to admit this part proved very important in my study.
From the above analysis, I identified qualitative research to be more relevant to my study as it provided the description of people’s experience in a complex contextual manner, hence African refugee status and experience that I really needed to reflect on. I therefore resorted to use the two types of qualitative methods, i.e. participant observation and In-depth interviews. My own observations were critically important in collecting data on natural setting. At the same time in-depth interview proved even more useful in the collection of data on the individual’s and the family’s personal histories, perspectives, encounters, and experiences through the discussion of some sensitive issues within the families of the refugees.
Focus group discussion is another very effective qualitative method especially when it comes to eliciting data on a particular group’s experience and the generation of a wide overview of certain social issues. It helped a great deal in enquiring some of the detailed information that I have highlighted in the report. The questions were systematic, beginning from their personal information like their personal details, country of origin, the number of family members, etc. at some points the process was so tensed and emotional that I found it absolutely necessary to pause and leave the respondent calm down before we could continue. I made sure I was within the context of my study so as to speed up the process and avoid backlog of ideas.
Since my research meant I was to come into contact with a group which quite sensitive to handle, I had to maintain the ethical standards required in a qualitative research. As a researcher I had to consider the concerns of the people we study, even if they don’t show the concern. I therefore made sure that all the processes of research were done in appropriate manner in tandem with the laid down guidelines and procedures of conduction qualitative research.
Even though I can confidently say that the study when on well, I experienced some of the most outstanding barriers that are worth highlighting. First there was the problem with language and communication. Many African refugees could not speak English, hence my reliance on interpreters who even though were very helpful, sometimes proved unreliable and inaccurate. Secondly, I certainly found it hard at times to control my emotional self. This is because never in my lifetime have I ever been exposed to such as environment, listening to personal stories that are hard to comprehend. But it was a lesson worth it; learning some of the most important issues that I am sure will be in handy in my professional practice and personal growth.
Owing to the methodology that I used in the research, I believe that the findings are as accurate as possible and can be used in counterchecking and enhancing the performance of the Australian government in its efforts to provide specific services and needs of the refugees from Africa. I believe this report has the potential to offer the necessary reflection for such an improvement now and in future. Finally, any further research is welcome as no specific study is an island of its own but relies on other researches to provide the necessary ingredients necessary in solving the daily problems of the world. This report is one of the many ingredients.
Reference
Anderson, A. (2004). Issues of Migration: Theoretical perspectives and implementing best practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
Carrasquillo, A. Kucer, S. & Abrams, R. (2004) Beyond the Beginnings: Literacy Interventions for Upper Elementary English Language Learners. Clevedon, UK, Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Coelho, E. (1998) Teaching and learning in multicultural schools. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Cummins, J. (2000) Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire. Clevedon, UK, Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Denzin,K. & Lincoln, Y. (2000) Handbook of Qualitative Research. London, Sage Publications.
Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (2004). Web.
Fazel, M. & Stein, A. (2003). Mental health of refugee children: comparative study. British Medical Journal, 327 (7407), 134 (1).
Gunn, M. (1994) The Journey Twice as Far: First time literacy in a new culture and a second language. Hobart: Adult Migration English Service.
Hakuta,K., Butler, Y. & Witt, D. (2008) How long does it take English learners to attain proficiency? Policy Report 2000-2001 for the University of California. Linguistic Minority Research Institute.
Lee, G. Y. (2004) Culture and Settlement: The Present Situation of the Hmong in Australia: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. Canberra, Pandanus Books.
Martin, S. (1998) New Life, New Language: The History of the AMEP. Sydney, Macquarie University.
Miller, J., Mitchell, J. & Brown, J. (2005) African refugees with interrupted schooling in The high school mainstream: dilemmas for teachers. Prospect, An Australian Journal of TESOL, 20 (2), 19-33.
Muir, D. (2003) English and literacy teaching and learning strategies for newly arrived humanitarian refugee students from Sudan. Sudanese Australian Integrated Learning (SAIL) Program. Web.
Nkwi P, Nyamongo I, & Ryan G. (2001) Field Research into Social Issues: Methodological Guidelines. Washington, DC, UNESCO.
Nsubuga-Kyobe, A. & Dimock, L. (2002) African communities and settlement services in Victoria. Bundoora, Melbourne: Australian Multicultural Foundation.
Roberts, J. (2005) ESL resources failing African Refugees. The Australian.
Rutter, J. (2004) We left because we had to: A citizenship teaching resource for 11-18 year olds. UK, Refugee Council.
West Coast AMES (2002) Teaching to learn: Exploring alternative teaching strategies for oral/aural learners. Australian National Training Authority Adult Literacy National Project. Canberra.
Westwood, P. (2001) Reading and learning difficulties: Approaches to teaching and assessment. Victoria, ACER Press.
The holistic development and mental wellbeing of a child depend on the stability of the family in which one grows. Children from stable families and supporting parents tend to become responsible citizens and successful adults. On the other hand, children from dysfunctional families where violence and crime are common activities learn to embrace such antisocial practices. In this paper, the researcher explains societal views on refugees and the effects of migration and integration on children’s holistic development and mental wellbeing. The study shows that refugees have often received the support of the international community as they try to protect their lives away from their countries. However, the increasing cases of extremist attacks and violent crimes committed by some asylum seekers are changing the perception. There are fear and resentment that many currently have towards refugees. The instability that refugee children suffer significantly affects their development and mental wellbeing. They are most likely to become engaged in crime as they become youths.
Refugee Definition, Background, and Societal Views
Definition of Refugees
The term refugee has received different definitions from various organizations, but they all bring out the same meaning. Taken from the word refuge, which means protection or shelter from distress or danger, this term has been defined in various ways by different organizations and scholars. Goularas, İpek and Önel (2020) define it as “a person who has been forced to leave their country to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster.” This definition emphasizes the fact that a refugee is forced to seek asylum in a foreign country because of persecution, internal conflicts, or natural disasters. They feel that if they do not leave their homes, they may be exposed to grave danger. According to the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), a refugee is a person “who has fled war, violence, conflict or persecution and has crossed an international border to find safety in another country.” This definition excludes internally displaced persons who are expected to get the protection and care of their governments. When an individual crosses the international border because of the reasons given above, they will be considered refugees based on the definition of UNHCR.
The Organization of African Unity (OAU), currently the African Union (AU), defined a refugee as an individual “who, owing to external aggression, occupation, foreign domination or events seriously disturbing public order in either part or the whole of his country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave his place of habitual residence to seek refuge in another place outside his country of origin or nationality” (Abouarab 2019, p. 56). This definition broadens the scope of factors that can force an individual to become a refugee. External aggression, occupation, and foreign domination are factors that the UN avoided using in its definition, but OAU identified as possible reasons that may force an individual to seek asylum in a foreign country (Parekh 2020). Just like the definition given by UNHCR, the OAU also believes that an individual becomes a refugee when they cross the border of their country of origin to a foreign country.
Latin America also had its definition of refugees as the problem became increasingly common in the region during the 1970s and 1980s because of civil war and other internal factors. The Cartagena Declaration on Refugees defined it as “persons who have fled their country because their lives, safety or freedom have been threatened by generalized violence, foreign aggression, internal conflicts, massive violation of human rights or other circumstances which have seriously disturbed public order” (Brown 2019). This definition, just like the one given by OAU, identifies foreign aggression as a potential factor that can force people to become refugees. It goes further to identify a violation of human rights, which OAU avoided mentioning, as another potential threat that can cause the problem.
Definitions provided above all demonstrate the fact that a refugee is a person who is forced out of their country to a foreign nation because of a threat to their lives. They leave their homes, involuntary and not knowing when it will be safe for them to come back, to any foreign country with the primary goal of protecting their lives. Different organizations provide different factors that may lead to a refugee status, which helps in determining their views on this issue. UNHCR believes that internal conflicts, persecutions, and natural disasters are some of the main factors that may force an individual or a group of people to seek asylum. The institution emphasizes the fact that internal leadership of a given country is primary responsible for managing this problem. A government that fails to manage internal armed conflicts and persecutes a section of its citizens because of their political views creates instability and insecurity that forces some citizens to seek asylum in foreign nations.
OAU believe that external aggression, foreign domination, occupation, and disturbance of public order are the main sources of the problem (Jansen & Lässig 2020). It is important to note that their definition left out factors such as persecution, internal conflicts, and natural disasters as potential causes of the problem. As Teller (2020) notes, this definition tends to place the blame on foreign forces as the main cause of the mass displacement of people from their homes. The same view is evident in the definition given by the Latin American countries. These two regional blocks have often felt that foreign powers have been interfering with their normal socio-political and economic structures unfairly. Such interference causes major political rifts that cannot be effectively addressed in peaceful democratic elections (Diemer 2016). As such, they hold the view that this problem is a creation of the leading economies such as the United States and countries within the European Union.
Background: Historical, Social Policy, and Professional Analysis
The practice of asylum-seeking can be traced back to most of the ancient kingdoms in Africa, Europe, and Asia. In ancient Greece, anyone who sought sanctuary in a holy place was not to be harmed because doing so would invite divine retributions (Juss 2019). The same practice spread to ancient Egypt as it was believed that such an individual had divine protection. In 600 AD, Aethelberht I, king of Kent, issued a decree that anyone who sought asylum in church or any holy place was not to be attacked by an individual or state agencies (Sciaccaluga 2020). This law gained popularity and spread to other European nations during the middle ages. It was seen as a sign of surrender and that the asylum seeker no longer posed any threat. The word refugee gained popularity when the League of Nations established the High Commission for Refugees to help those who were forced out of their country of origin because of various threats to their lives.
When the First World War ended in 1918, many people were displaced, with others forced to seek asylum outside their country of origin. The League of Nations was faced with the challenge of settling those who had been displaced during the war. The High Commission for Refugees was established in 1921 and Fridtjof Nansen was appointed to head it (Annamalai 2020). The immediate concern was to find ways in which this global community could resettle those who were displaced in the war. The victims of the Russian Revolution and the Russian Civil War became the immediate beneficiaries of this organization, especially after Lenin revoked Russian expatriates’ citizenship in 1921 (Parekh 2020). Survivors of the Armenian Genocide and Jews who fled from Eastern Europe, especially Russia, became the beneficiaries of this organization as they sought asylum in foreign nations around Europe and North America.
The United Nations High Commission for Refugees was founded in 1950 to take over the responsibilities of the defunct organization that had been established by the League of Nations. Since then, this organization has played a major role not only in helping refugees to seek asylum out of their countries of origin but also in shaping the international societal views on refugees (Kehnscherper 2017). This organization has been working with individual states in Europe, Africa, Asia, North America, South America, and the Middle East to ensure that those who are fleeing their homes are offered the protection that they need (Croegaert 2020). Africa, the Middle East, Central and South America are some of the regions that have been worse hit by the problem of civil strife and political persecutions, leading to high numbers of refugees.
The perception that society has towards refugees often defines the approach that they take when responding to the need to assist asylum seekers. Henry (2020) explains that after the Second World War, the United Nations, through UNHCR, was successful in inculcating sympathy towards refugees. They were viewed as victims of circumstances beyond their control. The majority had been displaced during the war and others were displaced because of internal conflicts caused by weak governments after the war (Bradley, Milner & Peruniak 2019). As such, the global community was willing to provide the necessary support to ensure that their basic needs were met in these foreign countries. The United States and European Union played a major role in providing financial assistance to states and non-governmental organizations that were providing direct support to these displaced persons. The UN has enacted various social policies meant to protect the refugees since then and most of the member states have ratified these policies.
During the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and part of the 1990s, many countries in Sub-Sahara African, Central and South America, and the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) went through a period of civil strife. The Rwandan genocide of 1994, the Nigerian Biafra Wars, the Chechen War of 1992, and the Gaza-Israel conflict are some of the notable international conflicts that have left millions homeless, with a significant number seeking asylum in foreign countries (Schnyder & Shawki 2020). These conflicts were mainly blamed on poor governance in these countries and negative ethnicity.
Some leaders of these countries have blamed the West for causing instability in their countries. Albanese and Takkenberg (2020) state that the argument about foreign interference in the governance of these countries is debatable. For instance, the United States and the Soviet Union were directly involved in the Vietnam War that left thousands dead and hundreds of thousands of families homeless. During this period, the global society had a favorable view towards refugees (Weiwei 2020). The problem has persisted and most recently, the Arab Spring that started in 2010 left millions of people from Syria, Yemen, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Bahrain seeking asylum in various countries in Europe and the United States.
The migration and integration of these refugees have a major impact on children’s holistic development and well-being. McGee (2020) explains that a child needs socio-economic stability to achieve holistic development. They need to interact with their peers normally and have stable homes and families where they can get the support they need (Rioli 2020). They should also have the acceptance of the immediate community. The constant movement from one place to another denies them the stability that they need at this critical stage of development. Fiddian-Qasmiyeh (2020) note that the situation can be made worse in cases where they are forced into societies that do not have favorable views towards specific foreigners. When they are constantly rejected in these societies and considered a source of threat or a bother, then they develop fear and resentment. They do not feel they belong to society. Inferiority complex would define their personalities as they are forced to learn to give priority to the locals.
Societal Views on Refugees
The perception of society towards refugees has been varying over the past several decades. According to Cimatti (2016), for a long time, there has been a favorable societal view on refugees. They are always considered victims of wars and natural disasters. When UNHCR was created, its founders understood the significance of helping those who were displaced from their homes because of forces beyond their control. The events of the First and Second World Wars were major reminders that sometimes one cannot control certain events in society. People had to flee from their homes to save their lives. Many were forced out of their country because of the hostility they faced from those who were in power. As such, there has always been sympathy towards these displaced persons. The international society has been committed to ensuring that they are supported.
Children who are part of refugees have always received more favorable treatment. As a child, stability is one of the critical factors of holistic development and mental wellbeing. They need to attend school and play with their friends in a peaceful environment where they can get the support that they need. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. When they are displaced, they are forced to endure the hardship that their parents and family members go through when seeking refuge. They have to suspend their academics to ensure that they protect their lives. Many children have lost their lives as they emigrate from their home country because of stability. Others are forced to stop their education altogether, especially those who are in war-torn parts of Asia and Africa (Elliott and Earl, 2018). The international community is always sympathetic towards these children, and an effort is always made to ensure that they are given appropriate support to protect their mental and physical wellbeing.
It is important to note that the societal view of refugees has been changing over the recent past because of events that have been happening over the recent past. The instability in the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) region, especially after the War on Terror and the Arab Spring, has resulted in millions of people being displaced from their homes (Fernández-Aráoz, Roscoe and Aramaki, 2017). The problem is that within the same region, anti-west extremist groups such as Al Qaeda and ISIS have enjoyed a massive following over the past several years. These terror groups have blamed the United States and Western European countries for destabilizing the region. As such, they have been planning and executing attacks against these countries that they have classified as enemies. They have had successful attacks against the United States, United Kingdom, France, and Germany among others with varying degrees of devastation.
The problem that has been experienced is that the majority of these terrorists camouflage as refugees. They leave their country to their United States or Europe as people who need assistance, but their goal is to plan and execute attacks on these countries. The sophisticated defense system that these western countries have put in place, especially after the September 11, 2001 Al Qaeda attack on the United States, makes it almost impossible for them to organize successful attacks while they (the extremists) are in their home countries (Garst et al., 2019). As such, they pretend to be part of the refugees so that they can be given refuge in these targeted countries. The majority of them are directly responsible for the stability at home so that they can justify the need for them to seek asylum. They join their victims (genuine people who are displaced by these wars) and travel out of these countries with the primary goal of attacking their host countries.
These events have redefined the perception that society has towards refugees. The sense of trust has been lost as many people in the west and other parts of the world continue to witness attacks perpetrated by some of these refugees. A fear has emerged that a significant number of these refugees are not genuine asylum seekers. According to Girma (2016), many governments across Europe, especially in Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, and France have had a challenging experience when handling these refugees following the Arab Spring. On the one hand, they have to remain responsible to the international community and United Nations’ convention on refugees by granting asylum status to those who cross into their borders from the MENA region. On the other hand, they are faced with a growing public concern about their safety after some extremists’ attacks were witnessed in different parts of Europe. The compassion and commitment that the global society had towards refugees are fast eroding and their place fear, rejection, and resentment are growing (Girma, 2016). This is likely to significantly affect children’s holistic development and mental wellbeing.
Research Themes and Question
The primary theme of this study is to develop a better understanding of refugee’s lives, identify barriers of prejudice and stereotyping against these communities, and recommend ways of overcoming them. The goal of the researcher is to establish the impacts are of being a refugee, both the advantages and disadvantages this journey may bring into an individual’s life and the outcomes that these factors may have. The study will define who a refugee is and reasons as to why they may choose to migrate from their country. The following are the specific questions that the researcher seeks to answer through this investigation:
What is the refugees’ migration and integration process?
What are the factors that may affect children’s holistic development and mental well-being?
What is the impact of the migration and integration on children’s holistic development and mental well-being?
What are the societal views on refugees?
Analysis of the Main Themes and Theoretical Perspectives
The previous section has provided the definition of various terms and a detailed discussion of the perception of society towards refugees. In the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe, there has been an influx of refugees following the Arab Spring (Suddler, 2020). This happened at a time when the global community was getting increasingly concerned about crimes committed by people granted asylum status. According to Hunt and Fedynich (2019), there has been a growing trend of refugees sneaking out of their camps and committing various forms of crime. The problem has been witnessed in Kakuma in Kenya where Somali refugees have been accused of engaging in criminal activities. Many European nations such as France, Germany, and the United States have also witnessed such cases of crime committed by those granted asylum.
According to Irop and Kryvovyazyuk (2018), crimes committed by these people vary significantly. Some of these refugees are involved in minor criminal offenses intended to get basic needs such as food and clothing. Once people are granted asylum in another country, it is the responsibility of the host nation and the international community to ensure that they are offered basic needs (Elrod and Ryder, 2021). The problem is that sometimes the host nation may be overwhelmed, especially when millions of people from Yemen and Syria moved to Europe during the Arab Spring (Karagianni and Montgomery, 2018). Some of these refugees may move out of the camp to find food when they are neglected for too long. They are likely to engage in criminal offenses such as stealing.
Studies have shown that a section of those who are moving out of their countries to foreign nations as refugees are parts of large criminal syndicates with specific intentions. In most of the cases, they are often part of the problem that forces people out of their country (Thompson, Bynum and Thompson, 2021). They cause civil strife to justify the need for some of them to be accepted in their targeted nations as refugees. Once they are in these countries, they work as a unit to commit major crimes such as terror attacks. The host nation cannot identify these criminals when taking in asylum seekers. Louis and Murphy (2017) explain that the most worrying trend is that currently, women and children have been involved in such major criminal activities. They know that it is less likely for these children or women to be suspected as members of a larger gang.
Youth offending is becoming a major concern among various nations around the world, including the United Kingdom. The number of young people engaging in criminal activities in the country has been increasing, especially as the country continues to receive more refugees (Goldkind, Wolf, and Freddolino, 2018). Some of these young offenders are refugees. Managing this problem is a major concern because some of these visitors consider local prisons as being safer than the environment back home (Mathias, 2017). Others have joined crime because events that forced them to flee their homes and the lack of stability that followed thereafter destabilized their holistic development and mental wellbeing. It is important to investigate factors linked to involvement in crime, the impact of structural inequality, and the social composition of the prison (Chase, 2020). The section also looks at effects of policing strategies and the country’s youth justice system on youth offending, young people’s perspective of offending, and theories that can help in explaining these concepts.
Factors Linked to Involvement in Crime
The goal of this study is to find a way of addressing this problem of youth offending, especially those who have been granted asylum status in the country. To find a solution to the problem, it is necessary to start by investigating the cause of the problem. According to Mayfield, Mayfield and Wheeler (2016), one of the leading factors of youth offending is the instability of the family. As one grows up, there is a need to have a stable family that offers both emotional and material support. Some of these youths have been forced to lead a life where they lack parental guidance that can enable them to lead responsible lives. They enter the adolescent stage knowing that the only way through which they can get what they need is to use force and other illegal strategies.
The neglect that some of the youth experience in the country has been considered a factor linked to involvement in crime. McKibbin and Fernando (2020) argue that adolescence and young adulthood are sensitive stages of one’s development. These people need the attention of society in various aspects. When they feel ignored by the people they look up to for guidance and support, they can easily join criminal gangs where they will feel accepted. Meleady and Crisp (2017) believe that ISIS was able to recruit so many people from European nations because they appealed to this section of the youth. They promised them the emotional and social support that they felt they lacked at home as long as they agreed to be part of the group. As society continues to be indifferent to the youth, crime is likely to become more common in the country.
Economic challenges have been one of the major factors linked to involvement in crime in the country. Every youth hopes to get stable employment or some form of financial support that can enable them to meet their personal needs beyond the basic requirements (Rathore, 2019). For refugees, the hope of getting gainful employment in a foreign nation is always minimal. When youths lack a stable source of income, they become highly susceptible to criminal activities. They may be easily tempted to join criminal gangs as a way of earning their daily income (Mishra, Lama and Pal, 2016). Creating some form of employment for these youths may be the best way of addressing such a problem.
The growing radicalization of the youths is another major possible cause of youth’s involvement in criminal activities. A section of youths in the country has been convinced that the government is unfairly involved in the geopolitical activities in the Middle East and Northern Africa region. These radical groups have blamed the United States and its allies for creating the current political instability in the region, specifically in countries such as Iraq and Afghanistan. As such, they feel it is justified for them to launch retaliatory attacks against those who they consider their enemy (Park, Burgess and Sampson, 2019). Most of these radical groups lack proper military training and capacity to launch a meaningful attack on the country’s military installations. Therefore, they go for soft targets that cannot put any resistance. Cases where these extremists open fire on civilians at church, in school, at the workplaces and various other social gatherings have been witnessed in the recent past (Mumford et al., 2017). They feel that it is their moral obligation to fight against a government that they believe is oppressing their people.
The feeling of rejection can be a major source of the problem linked to involvement in crime. When a country allows refugees into its territory, there is always a level of responsibility that it accepts. In most cases, these refugees are expected to remain within a given residence and to avoid traveling to various parts of the country until they have the permission to do so (Patel, Poston and Dhaliwal, 2017). However, they should not feel rejected by the host nation. A feeling of rejection may make them embrace radical ideas. Some of these youths are often hopeful that if they make it to Europe from their war-torn countries, they will have a better opportunity to succeed in life (Rothblum, 2020). However, when they are rejected, their hope is lost and they can easily be influenced to join criminal gangs.
Impact of Structural Inequality on Youth Offending
The structural inequality in the country has been blamed as one of the possible causes of youth offending in the country. Pretorius, Steyn and Bond-Barnard (2018) observe that capitalism has been criticized as a concept that creates an avenue for the few to gain more wealth than they can ever use in their lifetime while leaving the rest with very little to meet their basic needs. Despite the criticism, it has proven to be the only realistic economic ideology in such a competitive society. Russia and China, which tried to spread communism to the rest of the world, have become the leading capitalistic nations in the world (Kane et al. (2018). They realized that communism was slowing their economic growth, promoting laziness, and creating an environment where people were not appropriately rewarded for their effort and creativity.
Capitalism has created a system where structural inequality cannot be easily eliminated in society. Those who control means of production have the best capacity to become richer while those who are struggling to earn a living are less likely to overcome their economic challenges (Wang, 2018). A child from a poor family will be forced to attend public schools where resources are limited, which means that their academic success will be compromised. On the other hand, a child from a rich family will attend some of the best private schools where all the necessary resources are made available for them, making it easy to achieve success (O’Neill, 2019). Upon graduation, such a child will be employed easily because of the connections of their parents.
Children from poor families struggle to achieve success in their lives. Shaikh, Bean and Forneris (2019) observe that these children are more likely to drop out of school than their colleagues from more financially stable families. When they drop out of school, their only source of income would be to do odd jobs which pay minimal salaries. It means that they would also become poor parents and the vicious cycle of poverty will continue in their lineage (Kostouros and Thompson, 2018). The structural inequality in society can easily promote crime among socially underprivileged people. They may consider crime as the only way of getting what they need.
Structural inequality may have a major impact on youth offending in the country. Shamira and Eilam-Shamir (2017) note that peer pressure is a major problem among adolescents and youth adults. The need to be like their friends and to have what their colleagues have may push many into crime. When a youth from a poor family has friends from rich families, the economic disparity may become an issue. The poor parent lacks the financial capacity to purchase some of the things that the child may need to lead a lavish life like their friends (Melde and Weerman, 2020). Peer pressure can push these youths to engage in criminal activities to earn some money that they can use to meet their needs. Theft is always one of the most common criminal acts that they consider (Kidman, 2018). Another common crime among the youth, especially those in college and those who dropped out of school, is the selling of drugs (Cox, 2018). The problem is that at the onset, these youths engage in low-key criminal activities. However, they slowly graduate to more serious offenses such as robbery with violence and major drug trafficking. They become a major threat to society and themselves.
Social Composition of the Prison Population
When one is arrested for engaging in a criminal activity, they will be taken through the justice system and when found guilty, they may receive varying sentences, from warnings and community services to fines and imprisonment (Van and Bourke, 2017). Although imprisonment has received criticism as a means of correcting offenders, it remains the most preferred way of punishing hardcore criminals who pose a major threat to members of the public (Skorková, 2016). A demographical analysis of prisoners often demonstrates their composition in terms of class, gender, ethnicity, ability, education, health, age, and substance use. Some members belonging to a specific demographic are more likely to engage in crime than others.
In terms of social class, people from rich families are less likely to become prisoners because of various factors. As Sherif (2018) suggests, a significant number of those who are incarcerated committed economic crimes. Some were trying to earn a living through illegal means because of the high cost of living. Those from poor families are less likely to face the same challenge. The neighborhood in which the poor live is prone to crime. Children grow up knowing that sometimes it is okay to use violence to achieve what one needs. Such an environment eventually defines their personality (Stariņeca, 2016). Another major factor why the rich are less likely to be imprisoned compared with the poor is that they can pay high legal fees to get the best representation when they commit a crime. With such effective defense attorneys, they can have their cases dismissed or they can serve non-custodial terms. Others even consider bribing judges to ensure that they get a favorable ruling. The structural inequality in society disfavors the poor, which explains why they form the majority of prisoners all over the world.
Some of the most common offenses that would earn an individual a jail-term include drug-related offenses, crime against property, violent offenses, sexual offenses, and homicide cases. The time that one would serve in prison depends on the severity and time of the crime that one has committed (Strielkowski and Chigisheva, 2018). Crime against property is classified as one of the less serious offenses and is likely to earn an individual less than five years in prison, and in most of the cases, it would be 2-3 years, as shown in figure 1 below. Drug-related offenses are classified as serious crimes depending on the degree of trafficking and strategies that one uses to evade arrest and prosecution. Sexual offenses is another higher level of serious crimes that when one is convicted, can serve more than five years. A life sentence is more common among those who are convicted of homicide and related crimes.
Figure 1. Number of Prisoners, Prison Time, and Offence (Mills and Kendall, 2018).
When assessing the demographics of those who are in prison, age is another important factor. As shown in the figure below, teenagers aged 15 to 17 years are the least likely people to be sent to prison. At this age, the majority are in school with ambitions of becoming successful people in life. Unless they come from dysfunctional families, such teenagers are less likely to engage in crimes that can earn them jail terms. The second category is those aged 18 to 20 years. These are college-going young adults who still have hope of achieving success in life. However, their rate of being incarcerated is more likely than the younger group. Those aged 21 to 24 have just completed college and are keen on finding stable employment (Kratcoski and Edelbacher, 2018). Their incarceration rate is higher than the younger groups. The fourth category is those aged 25 to 29 years. As shown in the graph they are more likely to be imprisoned than the previous group, although the difference is not significant. The next group are those aged 30 to 39, and are the most likely individuals to end up in prison. In 2012, they formed 27% of prisoners in the United Kingdom. In 2017, their composition increased to slightly over 30%. At this stage, those who have not gotten stable employment become frustrated. They have a family to support, the energy to work, but lack the opportunity to meet their needs (Tu and Lu, 2016). They easily consider crime as the only alternative to become successful in their lives. The composition of those incarcerated drops among those aged 40-49. These people have learned to cope with socio-economic stresses in their lives. The rate further drops among those aged 50 to 59 years. They have resigned to their fate and accepted things as they are. Individuals over 60 years are some of the minority groups in prison. They lack the energy and motivation to engage in violent crimes.
Figure 2. Percentage Composition of Prisoners by Age (Ministry of Justice, 2017, p. 10).
Ethnicity or race is another major factor that one may consider when assessing the demographics of those who are incarcerated in the country. A report by Fazel and Betancourt (2018) indicated that there is a disproportionate representation of blacks in the United Kingdom’s prisons than their actual population in the country. The reason why black offenders are more likely to end up in prison has been a major public discourse over the past decade. Figure 3 below shows that among those who are in prison for repeat offenses, the majority are Asians. Whites form the second-largest proportion of those who are repeat offenders while blacks come in position three. It means that most of the blacks are likely to be given long prison time when convicted of their first crime than the rest of the races in the country.
Gender is another factor that may be considered when assessing the composition of prisoners in the United Kingdom. Bhabha, Kanics and Senovilla (2018) observe that it is always a general belief that men are more likely to commit crimes than their female colleagues. The claim is confirmed by recent statistics, as shown in figure 3 below. The majority of those who are in prison are men (Thompson and Thompson, 2020). However, it is important to note that the proportion of female prisoners is rising fast relative to that of men. In 1990, the ratio of men to women in prison was greater than 2:1. It meant that for every female prisoner in the country, there were more than two make prisoners. However, that has changed significantly as shown in the figure below. If the trend continues, there will likely be as many females incarcerated in the country as there are males.
Figure 3. Gender and Race Composition of Prisoners in the UK (Ministry of Justice, 2017, p. 50).
Education is another major factor that defines the composition of prisoners in the country. According to Reynolds and Bacon (2018), those with advanced education are more likely to get gainful employment than their colleagues with limited education. It means that they are more likely to lead better lives. They understand the law and are more likely to break it, especially out of ignorance (Megele, Simpson and Buzzi, 2017). When they commit an offence, they understand their rights and would not implicate themselves upon their arrest. They will get proper representations, which most likely will keep them out of prison (Dapin, 2020). These individuals know various ways of solving conflicts, especially going to court when offended, which means that they are less likely to taking the law into their hands. As such, their composition in prison is lower than those with limited education.
Substance use remains one of the most problematic factors among the youth in the United Kingdom and the rest of the world. According to Madziva and Thondhlana (2017), the ratio of prisoners who abuse drugs to those who do not is 4:1. It means that 75% of those who are in prison abuse some form of drug or alcohol, although that may not be the reason why they were arrested. The problem of drugs may be assessed from three perspectives (Blaemire, 2019). The first is the group of those who have embraced drug trafficking as their only source of income, which means that their arrest and imprisonment are directly linked to drugs. The second group is those who are forced to rob, steal or commit other crimes because they are addicted to drugs back lack money to finance their addiction. The last category is those who commit other crimes such as assault because they are intoxicated after taking drugs.
Effects of Policing Strategies and the Responses of the Youth Justice System
The government has been keen on redefining policing strategies to make it more friendly to the public and effective in keeping law and order. There has been a concerted effort to ensure that the department employs unique strategies that can ensure that they are proactive when dealing with all forms of crime. The reactionary strategy that has been a standard practice may pose a major threat to members of the public (Fazel and Stein, 2002). As such, using relying on intelligence and acting upon it in time is critical in ensuring that threats are neutralized early enough before these criminals can succeed in committing a crime. However, a section of society still feels that the police still use unnecessarily excessive force against a section of society. It has created enmity between the law enforcement agencies and a section of society (Song and Song, 2019). The problem of such hostility is that the police may not get the much-needed intelligence from these people at a time when it is necessary. It makes the work of policing more complex, dangerous, and frustrating.
The youth justice system has also gone through a major transformation over the years to make it more effective in reforming the youth instead of emphasizing punishment when convicted of various forms of crime. According to Hodes and Vostanis (2019), the justice system is currently keen on giving non-custodial sentences to first-time offenders of less-serious crimes. Studies have shown that youths are more likely to become hardened criminals after serving a term in prison. For that reason, an effort has been made to use other forms of correction that minimizes the chances of them going to jail. Just like the law enforcement agencies, the justice system has been criticized for being biased against minorities, especially immigrants and people of color (Samara et al., 2020). It compromises its ability to fairly discharge its duties.
Young People’s Perspectives of Offending
Young people who are involved in various forms of criminal activities often have some false justification for their offenses. The majority know that what they are doing, such as drug peddling, theft, robbery, and the use of violence to achieve specific goals, is a crime (Úcar, Soler-Masó, and Planas-llad, 2020). However, they go ahead and engage in these activities because they believe society has neglected them. Some of them had unstable families while others lacked the same. They grow up being bitter with society and believe that they would have become responsible citizens if they received the support they think they deserved (Pycroft and Gough, 2019). They view crime as their only way of getting what they need. They know that their actions are harmful to their targets, but that does not stop them from engaging in these criminal acts. Zwi et al. (2017) explain that some of these youths use crime as a way of expressing their frustrations to the members of the public. They believe that society should and will understand them when they engage in such illegal practices.
Theoretical Perspective
It is necessary to review various theories that can help in understanding youth offending. Theoretical perspectives on identity formation and the agency to change were some of the areas of focus (Hannibal and Mountford, 2019). Erikson’s theory of identity explicitly explains the stages of development and identity conflicts that one goes through in life. People often go through varying conflicts in these stages of life as they try to answer questions such as ‘who am I’, ‘what can I become’, ‘what is my role in society’ and ‘how can I interact with others’ (Eruyar, Huemer and Vostanis, 2018). People respond differently to these questions and they eventually define their personality.
Theoretical perspectives explaining youth offending can also help in understanding the problem. Operant conditioning is one of the theories that can be used to explain why some youths engage in criminal activities. According to Andriukaitienė et al. (2017), the theory holds that people tend to embrace a given behavior when it is associated with crime and punishment. A child who grows up in a neighborhood where crime is rampant is likely to engage in crime when they see it as rewarding (Baroudi and Arulraj, 2019). They admire the rich drug lords in society and embrace the idea that as long as one stays a step ahead of the law enforcement agencies, crime pays well.
Summary
It is important to identify conclusions that can be drawn from the above analysis about themes that are central to practice. The review of the literature shows that youth offending is still a major problem in the country. A significant population of these young offenders is in the country as asylum seekers. The government needs to find effective ways of dealing with the problem. The justice department and the law enforcement agencies should work closely to ensure that crime is prevented before it occurs. Creating a close working relationship with the entire society will eliminate the feeling that some people are discriminated against. It will promote a sense of responsibility among the entire population.
Application of the Principal Themes to Understanding and Developing Good Practice
The critical analysis conducted in the previous section has outlined the nature and magnitude of youth offending in the country. There is a need for various stakeholders to work as a unit to ensure that the problem is addressed in the most effective way possible to ensure that youths are protected. Based on principle themes discussed above, this section discusses how to promote good practice to ensure that children grow to become responsible and law-abiding youths and young adults. These themes can be applied in the following ways to help fight youth offending in the country.
Needs of Young Offenders
When addressing the problem, it is important to start by understanding the needs of young offenders. According to Bennett and Murakami (2016), one of the greatest needs of these delinquents is societal understanding, love, and support. Most of them feel rejected by society, making it easy for them to join criminal gangs and extremist groups (Bowers, Rosch and Collier, 2016). If they get the love and support from the immediate community, they can transform into responsible citizens. Youths need to be offered a platform for them to continue with schooling. The government should also create avenues where they can get actively involved in the economic development of the nation soon after leaving school (Farrington, Kazemian and Piquero, 2019). Such active participation in either the private or public sector limits the time and likelihood of them joining criminal gangs. These young offenders also need counselling and emotional support.
Crucial Points of Intervention in a Child’s Or Young Person’s Life
It is crucial to intervene at specific stages of a child’s development to ensure that they grow up into responsible young adults. The first stage is toddlerhood where a child learns very fast from the immediate environment (Calk and Patrick, 2017). They need to be shown love, respect, and compassion for them to reflect the same. The pre-adolescent age is another crucial point of development of a child where an intervention is needed (Hardwick, 2020). The child needs to learn personal restraint and the need to respect others and their property, just as they would want the same from others. The early and mid-adolescence stages are the most critical stages of development where one’s character is defined (Horner, 2019). They have fully developed abstract reasoning and can separate right from wrong. However, they still need the support, love, care, and guidance of members of society to become responsible adults.
Values, Principles and Skills of Good Practice for Young Offenders
Young offenders need to learn values, principles, and skills of good practice that can transform them into law-abiding citizens. As Cascio and Boudreau (2016) observe, in most cases, these individuals often commit the crime knowing that what they are doing is wrong. They need to embrace morality as a guiding principle in their lives. They need to avoid deliberate engagement in crime. They also need to gain practical skills that can enable them to earn a living in a legal way (Fox, Lane and Turner, 2018). They also need to understand their role in promoting a crime-free and progressive society.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Targeting Children and Young People at Risk of Offending
Targeting young people at risk of offending with effective programs is advantageous in various ways. At this stage, one can easily reform and become responsible citizens (Zhu and Kindarto, 2016). They are still full of hope and expectation and can easily embrace a legal path to success. When young people are targeted, the vicious cycle of crime is broken, creating a new generation that is focused and determined to lead crime-free lives. It also connects with work on identity formation as they embrace the need to become responsible citizens. Security agents and the rest of society can connect with the emerging responsible adult, rather than solely reacting to the angry adolescent (Fox, Lane and Turner, 2018). They will understand the assistance that these young people need to become responsible citizens. The major disadvantage is that the strategy may create an impression that older persons cannot change.
Limitations of the Intervention Strategies
There are limitations of intervention and strategies needed to work ethically within the social policy framework when dealing with the problem of youth offending. One of the biggest limitations is the lack of trust between the government and a section of society (Yang, Ding and Lo, 2016). Rolling out such a program in black-dominated neighbourhood may be viewed as an indication that the government considers them as more susceptible to crime. Instead of being viewed as a beneficial program, some will view it as a discriminative act against the minority. It would result in the lack of support (Chau and Liu, 2019). Lack of commitment from members of society who should be playing a major role in addressing the problem is another major limitation to the intervention strategies.
Effects of Gaps in Funding, Provision and Support Services
Gaps in funding, provisions, and support services have had a major negative effect on the fight against child offending in the country. According to Cherry and Aloisi (2016), various programs are needed to ensure that adolescents are assisted in becoming responsible citizens. However, such programs need funding, provisions, and other support services. They should be executed in learning institutions. The problem is that such programs are always not regular because of limited resources. In most of these cases, the programs are funded by the government (Yahaya, 2016). Private sector players are yet to get actively involved in funding such initiatives.
Obstacles to Effective Practice of Structural Inequality and Examples of Good Practice
Addressing the problem of youth offending will need stakeholders to understand obstacles to the effective practice of structural inequality and examples of good practice. As explained in the section above, the primary cause of structural inequality is capitalism (Wattsa, Steeleb and Mumford, 2019). However, it has proven to be the most practical economic ideology of all that currently exists and may not be easily changed. However, factors such as systemic racism, favouritism of a section of society, unfair tax policies that oppress the poor, and substandard education for the poor have been identified as major obstacles to the effective elimination of inequality (Verhezen, 2019). They need to be addressed to ensure that inequality is reduced. Good practices such as corporate social responsibilities focusing on empowering the youth should be encouraged among leading companies in the country.
Conclusion
The normal development and mental wellbeing of a child depend on the stability of the immediate family and the sociological support of society. Children who grow up in unstable families and social settings may easily become delinquents, as shown in sections one and two of this paper. A good example examined in the study is the refugees forced to leave their home country to foreign nations because of various factors. When these refugees get integrated into the new communities, their children’s holistic development and mental wellbeing will be protected. However, societal views on refugees are changing negatively as some of them are blamed for crime and terror. It means that these children may lack the needed holistic development and mental wellbeing. They are likely to become delinquents, engaging in various forms of criminal activities.
It is the responsibility of the government and all members of society to help fight the problem of juvenile delinquency. The number of youths engaging in various forms of crime is increasing, which is a major cause of concern. A significant number of these young offenders are from financially-challenged families in the country, which is an indication that poverty plays a critical role in promoting crime in society. Identifying all these factors responsible for promoting juvenile delinquency, including racism, is the first step towards solving the problem. Society should then work as a unit in addressing these problems.
References
Abouarab, J. (2019) Reframing Syrian refugee insecurity through a feminist lens: the case of Lebanon. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.
Albanese, F. & Takkenberg, L. (2020) Palestinian refugees in international law (2nd edn). Oxford University Press.
Andriukaitienė, R. et al. (2017) ‘Theoretical insights into expression of leadership competencies in the process of management’, Problems and Perspectives in Management, 15(11), pp. 220-226.
Annamalai, A. (ed.) (2020) Refugee health care: an essential medical guide (2nd edn.). Cham: Springer Nature.
Baroudi, S. and Arulraj, D. (2019) ‘Nurturing female leadership skills through peer mentoring role: a study among undergraduate students in the United Arab Emirates’, Higher Education Quarterly, 7(1), pp. 1-17.
Bennett, H. and Murakami, J. (2016). After dark. London: Hodder Headline Limited.
Bhabha, J., Kanics, J. and Senovilla, D. (2018) Research handbook on child migration. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Blaemire, R. (2019) Birch Bayh: making a difference. Bloomington: Indiana University Press
Bowers, J., Rosch, D. and Collier, A. (2016) ‘Examining the relationship between role models and leadership growth during the transition to adulthood’, Journal of Adolescent Research, 1(5), pp. 1-23.
Bradley, M., Milner, J. & Peruniak, B. (eds.) (2019) Refugees’ roles in resolving displacement and building peace: beyond beneficiaries. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Brown, D. (2019) The unwanted: stories of the Syrian refugees. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Calk, R. and Patrick, A. (2017) ‘Millennials through the looking glass: workplace motivating factors’, The Journal of Business Inquiry, 16(2), pp. 131-139.
Cascio, F. and Boudreau, J. (2016) ‘The search for global competence: from international HR to talent management’, Journal of World Business, 75(1), 1-12.
Chase, E. (2020). Youth migration and the politics of wellbeing: Stories of life in transition. London: Ingram Publisher Services.
Chau, S. and Liu, J. (2019) ‘Proliferation and propagation of breakthrough performance management theories and praxes’, International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 68(4), pp. 1-192.
Cherry, M. and Aloisi, A. (2016) ‘Dependent contractors in the gig economy: a comparative approach’, Americal UL Review, 66(1), p. 635.
Cimatti, B. (2016) ‘Definition, development, assessment of soft skills and their role for the quality of organizations and enterprises’, International Journal for Quality Research, 10(1), pp. 97-130.
Cox, A. (2018) Trapped in a vice: the consequences of confinement for young people. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Croegaert, A. (2020) Bosnian refugees in Chicago: gender, performance, and post-war economies. London: Rowman & Littlefield.
Dapin, M. (2020). Public enemies: Russell ‘Mad Dog’ Cox, Ray Denning and the golden age of armed robbery. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Diemer, M. (2016) More inclusive asylum policies in Germany? Norbert Elias and the tolerated refugees. Berlin: GRIN Verlag.
Digital social work: tools for practice with individuals, organizations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Elliott, T. and Earl, J. (2018) ‘Organizing the next generation: youth engagement with activism inside and outside of organizations’, Social Media and Society, 4(1), pp. 1-14.
Elrod, P. and Ryder, R. (2021) Juvenile justice: a social, historical and legal perspective. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Eruyar, S., Huemer, J. and Vostanis, P. (2018) ‘How should child mental health services respond to the refugee crisis’, Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 23(4), pp. 303-312.
Farrington, D. P., Kazemian, L. and Piquero, A. (eds.) (2019) The Oxford handbook of developmental and life-course criminology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Fazel, M. and Betancourt, T. (2018) ‘Preventive mental health interventions for refugee children and adolescents in high-income settings’, The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 2(2), pp. 121-132.
Fazel, M. and Stein, A. (2002) ‘The mental health of refugee children’, Archives of Disease in Childhood, 87(5), pp. 366-370.
Fernández-Aráoz, C., Roscoe, A. and Aramaki, K. (2017) ‘Turning potential into success: the missing link in leadership development’, Harvard Business Review, 17(1), pp. 1-17.
Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, E. (ed.) (2020) Refuge in a moving world: tracing refugee and migrant journeys across disciplines. London: UCL Press.
Fox, A., Lane, J. and Turner, S. (2018) Encountering correctional populations: a practical guide for researchers. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.
Garst, B. et al. (2019) ‘Fostering youth leader credibility: professional, organizational, and community impacts associated with completion of an online master’s degree in youth development leadership’, Children and Youth Services Review, 96(9), pp. 1-9.
Girma, S. (2016) ‘The relationship between leadership style, job satisfaction and culture of the organization’, International Journal of Applied Research, 2(4), pp. 35-45
Goldkind, L., Wolf, L. and Freddolino, P. (2018). Goularas, G., İpek, T. and Önel, E., (eds.) (2020) Refugee crises and migration policies: from local to global. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.
Hannibal, M. and Mountford, L. (2019) Criminal litigation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hardwick, R. (2020). Pedophile hunters. New York, NY: Routledge.
Henry, D. (2020) Young refugees and asylum seekers: the truth about Britain. St Albans: Critical Publishing.
Hodes, M. and Vostanis, P. (2019) ‘Practitioner Review: Mental health problems of refugee children and adolescents and their management’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 60(7), pp. 716-731.
Horner, N. (2019) What is social work: contexts and perspectives. London: Learning Matters.
Houwer, R. (2016) Changing leaders, leading change: a leadership development model for marginalized youth in urban communities. London: Youth Research and Evaluation eXchange.
Hunt, T. and Fedynich, L. (2019) ‘Leadership: past, present, and future, an evolution of an idea’, Journal of Arts and Humanities, 8(2), pp. 22-26.
Irop, I. and Kryvovyazyuk, I. (2018) ‘Transformation of entrepreneurial leadership in the 21st century: prospects for the future’, Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 217(1), pp. 115-119.
Jansen, J. and Lässig, S. (eds.) (2020) Refugee crises, 1945-2000. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Juss, S. (2019) Research handbook on international refugee law. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Kane, B. et al. (2018) Universe illustrated by Neal Adams. Washington, DC: DC Comics.
Karagianni, D. and Montgomery, J. (2018) ‘Developing leadership skills among adolescents and young adults: a review of leadership programmers’, International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 23(1), pp. 86-98.
Kehnscherper, L. (2017) Agreement vs. deal: framing of the EU-Turkey refugee policy in German quality newspaper. Berlin: GRIN Verlag.
Kidman, F. (2018) This mortal boy. Auckland: Vintage.
Kostouros, P., and Thompson, B. (2018) Child and youth mental health in Canada: cases from front-line settings. Toronto: Canadian Scholars.
Kratcoski, C. and Edelbacher, M. (2018) Fraud and corruption: major types, prevention, and control. Cham: Springer.
Louis, K. and Murphy, J. (2017) ‘Trust, caring and organizational learning: the leader’s role’, Journal of Educational Administration, 55(1), pp. 103-126.
Madziva, R. and Thondhlana, J. (2017) ‘Provision of quality education in the context of Syrian refugee children in the UK: opportunities and challenges’, Journal of Comparative and International Education, 47(6), pp. 942-961.
Mathias, M. (2017) ‘Leadership development in governments of the United Arab Emirates: re-framing a wicked problem’, Teaching Public Administration, 35(2), pp. 157-172.
Mayfield, M., Mayfield, J. and Wheeler, C. (2016) ‘Talent development for top leaders: three HR initiatives for competitive advantage’, Human Resource Management International Digest, 24(6), pp. 4-7.
McGee, T. (2020) From Syria to Europe: experiences of stateless Kurds and Palestinian refugees from Syria seeking protection in Europe. London: Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion.
McKibbin, W. and Fernando, R (2020) The global macroeconomic impacts of COVID-19: seven scenarios. Melbourne: Australian National University and Centre of Excellence in Population Ageing Research.
Megele, C., Simpson, J. and Buzzi, P. (2017) Social media and social work: implications and opportunities for practice. London: Policy Practice.
Melde, C. and Weerman, F. (2020) Gangs in the era of internet and social media. Cham: Springer.
Meleady, R. and Crisp, J. (2017) ‘Take it to the top: imagined interactions with leaders elevate organizational identification’, The Leadership Quarterly, 28(1), pp. 621-638.
Mills, A. and Kendall, K. (eds.) (2018) Mental health in prisons: critical perspectives on treatment and confinement. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
Ministry of Justice. (2017) National offender management service annual offender equalities report: Ministry of Justice statistics bulletin. London: Ministry of Justice.
Mishra, N., Lama, D. and Pal, Y. (2016) ‘Human resource predictive analytics (HRPA) for HR management in organizations’, International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research Volume, 5(5), pp. 33-35.
Mumford, M. et al. (2017). ‘Cognitive skills and leadership performance: the nine critical skills’, The Leadership Quarterly, 28(7), pp. 24-39.
O’Neill, M. (2019) Police community support officers: cultures and identities within pluralized policing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Parekh, S. (2020) No refuge: ethics and the global refugee crisis. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Park, E., Burgess, E. and Sampson, J. (2019) The city. London: The University of Chicago Press.
Patel, J., Poston, R. and Dhaliwal, J. (2017) ‘A workaround model for competent project managers using agile development in a traditional organization’, ICIS Proceedings, 9(1), pp. 1-13.
Pretorius, S., Steyn, H. and Bond-Barnard, T. (2018) ‘Leadership styles in projects: current trends and future opportunities’, South African Journal of Industrial Engineering, 29(3), pp. 161-172.
Pycroft, A. and Gough, D. (eds.) (2019) Multi-agency working in criminal justice: theory, policy and practice. Chicago, IL: Policy Press.
Rathore, V. (2019) An insight into Indian juvenile justice system. New Delhi: Notion Press.
Reynolds, D. and Bacon, R. (2018) ‘Interventions supporting the social integration of refugee children and youth in school communities: a review of the literature’, Advances in Social Work, 18(3), pp. 745-766.
Rioli, C. (2020) A liminal church: refugees, conversions and the Latin diocese of Jerusalem, 1946-1956. Leiden: BRILL.
Rothblum, D. (ed.) (2020) The Oxford handbook of sexual and gender minority mental health. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Samara, M. et al. (2020) ‘Examining the psychological well‐being of refugee children and the role of friendship and bullying’, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2), pp. 301-329.
Schnyder, M. and Shawki, N. (2020) Advocating for refugees in the European Union: norm-based strategies by civil society organizations. London: Rowman & Littlefield.
Sciaccaluga, G. (2020) International law and the protection of climate refugees. Cham: Springer Nature.
Shaikh, M., Bean, C. and Forneris, T. (2019) ‘Youth leadership development in the start to finish running & reading club’, Research Gate, 14(1), pp. 112-126.
Shamira, B. and Eilam-Shamir, G. (2017) ‘Reflections on leadership, authority, and lessons learned’, The Leadership Quarterly, 28(1), pp. 578-583.
Sherif, V. (2018) ‘Voices that matter: rural youth on leadership’, Research in Educational Administration & Leadership, 3(2), pp. 311-337.
Skorková, Z. (2016) ‘3rd international conference on new challenges in management and organization: organization and leadership in Dubai, UAE, competency models in public sector’, Social and Behavioral Sciences, 230(6), pp. 226-234.
Song, J. and Song, T. (2019) Big data analysis using machine learning for social scientists and criminologists. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Stariņeca, O. (2016) ‘Employer brand role in HR recruitment and selection’, Economics and Business, 1(58), pp. 58-62.
Strielkowski, W. and Chigisheva, O. (2018) ‘Leadership for the future sustainable development of business and education 2017 Prague institute for qualification enhancement (PRIZK) and international research Centre (IRC) scientific cooperation international conference’, Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics, 4(1), pp. 69-75.
Suddler, C. (2020) Presumed criminal: black youth and the justice system in postwar New York. New York, NY: New York University Press.
Teller, A. (2020) Rescue the surviving souls: the great Jewish refugee crisis of the seventeenth century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Thompson, E., and Thompson, L. (2020) Sociological wisdom. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Thompson, E., Bynum, J. and Thompson, M. (2021) Juvenile delinquency: a sociological perspective. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Tu, Y. and Lu, X. (2016) ‘Do ethical leaders give followers the confidence to go the extra mile: the moderating role of intrinsic motivation’, Journal of Business Ethics, 135(1), pp. 129-144.
Úcar, X., Soler-Masó, P. and Planas-llad, A. (2020) Working with young people: a social pedagogy perspective from Europe and Latin. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Van, H. and Bourke, M. (2017) Handbook of behavioral criminology. Cham: Springer.
Verhezen, P. (2019) ‘Leadership wise leadership and AI why new intelligence will need new leadership’, Research Gate, 3(1), pp. 1-25.
Wang, J. (2018) Carceral capitalism. Cambridge, MA: Distributed by the MIT Press.
Wattsa, L., Steeleb, M. and Mumford, D. (2019) ‘Making sense of pragmatic and charismatic leadership stories: effects on vision formation’, The Leadership Quarterly, 30(9), pp. 243-259.
Weiwei, A. (2020) Human flow: stories from the global refugee crisis. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Yahaya, R. (2016) ‘Leadership styles and organizational commitment: literature review. Journal of Management Development, 35(2), pp. 190-216.
Yang, C., Ding, G. and Lo, K. (2016) ‘Ethical leadership and multidimensional organizational citizenship behaviors: the mediating effects of self-efficacy, respect, and leader–member exchange’, Group & Organization Management, 41(3), pp. 343-374.
Zhu, Y. and Kindarto, A. (2016) ‘A garbage can model of government IT project failures in developing countries: the effects of leadership, decision structure and team competence’, Government Information Quarterly, 4(1), pp. 1-8.
Zwi, K. et al. (2017) ‘Refugee children and their health, development, and well‐being over the first year of settlement: a longitudinal study’, Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 53(9), pp. 841-849.
