Category: Refugee

Introduction

Peace is continuously becoming scarce in many parts of the world, with many people fleeing to areas where they can get assistance or live without worry. The U.S. and several other European nations are critical destinations for many individuals seeking asylum around the globe. America is a vital target for many people facing domestic issues because of the countrys significantly stable political and socioeconomic status. However, the countless factors affecting the U.S. lead the country to exhibit excessive protectionism by ignoring some fundamental aspects concerning humans need for a belonging and safe home. The issue, therefore, leads to immeasurable immigration concerns that can only be understood through the analysis of the refugee act of the U.S. The present work thus covers Americas Refugee Act intending to pinpoint the various bottlenecks that can be removed to make the process of accepting needy and qualifying persons into the country smooth.

Problem Statement: The Refugee Act

The American Refugee Act is a 1980 law that governs the issue of refugees acceptance into the country. The law defines who a refugee is and the various requirements to qualify to become a permanent citizen of the U.S. through naturalization. A refugee is incapable of returning to their home state due to justifiable fear of oppression based on race, political outlook, affiliation to specific social clusters, national origin, or religion (Public Law 96-212, n.d.). The definition finds its origin in the United Nations definition of the same group of individuals. The American Refugee Act determines who becomes a legal refugee in the nation and who can never realize considerations for the same.

Review of Literature

The Refugee Act was enacted by the U.S. Senate in 1979 and became an act in April 1980, after President Jimmy Carter signed it into law. The Act replaced the earlier versions of laws touching on the issue of refugees, mainly the Migration and Refugee Assistance Act and the Immigration and Nationality Act (Refugee timeline, 2021). Moreover, the Refugee Act of 1980 established a special office that handles refugees issues, the U.S. Coordinator for Refugee Affairs, and the Office of Refugee Resettlement (Pryce, 2018). The law requires that the coordinator reports directly to the president while the Office of Refugee Resettlement takes care of the groups funding issue (Public Law 96-212, n.d). Better still, the 1980 law also increased the number of refugees accepted in the U.S. in a specific fiscal year to fifty thousand, from the previous cap of 17,400 individuals (Public Law 96-212, n.d). Thus, the law promotes Americas contribution to humankind by the elimination of suffering.

The Refugee Act continued to operate and received several amendments to accommodate new developments since 1980. The first such change was the Lautenberg Amendment in 1990, which cushioned specific groups from excessive evidentiary scrutiny by the American administration for refugee considerations (Refugee timeline, 2021). However, the most critical changes to the Refugee Act of 1980 occurred between 2002 and 2003. Such was after the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, which includes CBP, ICE, and USCIS, as a reaction to the 9/11 incident (Conconi et al., 2020). As a result of the 2002-2003 changes in the law, the number of people allowed to enter the U.S. as refugees now is about fourteen thousand, from fifty thousand plus, in the 1980s. The reduction contradicts the ever-growing number of persons wishing and qualifying to become refugees in the U.S.

The tightening of issues at the Department of Homeland Security also causes noteworthy delays. The American Immigration Council (2021) reports that the refugee status processing duration at the Department of State currently takes between eighteen and twenty-four months to end. The issue leaves many refugee applicants stranded in dangerous conditions that worsen their state (American Immigration Council, 2021). Worse still, the new definition of a refugee by the Refugee Act (of 1980) leads to a dangerous blander in the struggle to offer safety to the many people seeking such in the U.S. The terms definition comes from the UNHCR Refugee Protocols meaning, which uses persecution as the sole reason for refugee consideration (Menjivar et al., 2019). UNHCR, however, disregards persons leaving their home nations due to resource shortages and life-threatening weather occasions, despite the existence of a justifiable reason for their search for a better place to live.

The mistake in the Refugee Act affects many individuals going to the U.S. to seek refuge. For example, the American Immigration Council (2021) says that none of the about four million displaced Venezuelan citizens seeking shelter in the U.S. in 2020 qualify as asylum seekers or refugees. That is because of the absence of the persecution facet in their description as persons seeking protection in the U.S. Disregarding individuals fleeing harsh natural calamities in Venezuela (in 2020) contradicts the nations implementation of the Azorean Refugee Act (of 1958). Consequently, Americas Refugee Act (of 1980) hurts many refugee seekers by exposing them to extended delays through prolonged refugee processing procedures. Additionally, the Act exhibits a myopic definition of a refugee, thus leaving many qualifying needy people unattended. The two mistakes cause several other problems in the U.S., such as creating a pool of desperate and vulnerable unregistered immigrants who fall prey to drug lords and human traffickers in the nation.

The issue of immigrant management in the U.S. is never new. America is often referred to as the new land by many scholars and populations worldwide. Almost ninety-nine percent of the nations occupants are immigrants based on their ancestry (Schoenholtz et al., 2021). However, persons who arrived in the U.S. earlier, mostly Caucasians from Britain, tend to feel like the real owners of the land (Schoenholtz et al., 2021). However, the sense of ownership developed significantly after the nations independence in the eighteenth century. The Americans opted to control the inflow of persons to the nation through their parliament and legal system. The existence of policies touching on the issue of immigration and refugees, as early as 1891, for example, proves this aspect.

The Literacy test of 1917 also exists as another American law limiting the number of persons entering the U.S. as refugees. Together with the Quota Acts of 1921 and 1923, all these laws reveal a deliberate move by the American administration to block some people with genuine needs and the desire to become Americans. Trumps administration and its handling of immigrants through the existing Refugee Act further revealed the real interest behind the many bottlenecks in the law (Schoenholtz et al., 2021). Nonetheless, America needs to realize the need to embrace brotherhood, especially due to the worlds conversion into a neighborhood by technological innovations and the purpose of acting genuinely toward humankind.

Policy Analysis Specifics

The Refugee Act of 1980 makes converting eligible individuals into Americans significantly difficult. The law, thus, seems to promote the very adverse effects that it promises to resolve. The American Senate enacted the Refugee decree in 1980 to facilitate peoples entry into America and the realization of a better life among refugees. The then legislators appreciated the need to protect the world and its citizens from hostile situations that made life difficult. The legislators also understood Americas vantage position to help the world realize stability and respect humanity. Therefore, the 1980 law established a specific council that ought to advise the president on the issue of immigrants and refugees needs.

The council also exhibits the mandate to provide adequate finances to support refugees issues in the U.S. However, changes experienced over the years cause substantial deviation from the laws original meaning. Instead of making the issue of refugees straight, the Refugee Act now complicates issues and makes accessing refuge in America very difficult (Micinski, 2019). The law also remains fixated on an original error to date, where it only defines refugees as persons fleeing persecution. The issues caused by the laws negligence and poor implementation result in other grave consequences like the growth of illegal drug business and human trafficking in America. The Refugee Act, thus, contributes to homeland insecurity instead of security as of now.

Discussion and Conclusion

The main purpose of the 1980s Refugee Act is to make the process of refugees adoption into the U.S. easy, precise, and maintainable. During its enactment, the then-American legislators purposed to protect as many global citizens from domestic suffering as possible. The laws bright prospects, however, never lasted long enough. Today, millions of eligible refugees languish in the U.S., awaiting their adoption for months and years. The number of acceptable refugees nowadays is also very low relative to the time of the laws enactment. The current situation implies the need for legislators and all the concerned agencies to rectify the issue. Finding the link between the Refugee Acts bottlenecks and the drug business and human trafficking issues in the U.S. constitutes a crucial research topic to understand the present matter further.

References

American Immigration Council. (2021). An overview of U.S. refugee law and policy. Web.

Conconi, P., Facchini, G., Steinhardt, M. F., & Zanardi, M. (2020). The political economy of trade and migration: Evidence from the U.S. Congress.Economics & Politics, 32(2), 250278. Web.

Menjivar, C., Ruiz, M., & Ness, I. (2019). The Oxford Handbook of migration crises. Oxford University Press.

Micinski, N. R. (2019). Are you a terrorist? Comparing security screening for Iraqi asylum seekers in the United States and Sweden.International Migration, 57(4), 5874. Web.

Pryce, D. K. (2018). U.S. citizens current attitudes toward immigrants and immigration: A study from the general social survey.Social Science Quarterly, 99(4), 14671483. Web.

Public Law 96-212. (n.d.). Web.

Refugee timeline. (2021). USCIS.gov. Web.

Schoenholtz, A. I., Ramji-Nogales, J., & Schrag, P. G. (2021). The end of asylum. Georgetown University Press.

This article focuses on exploring the occurrence of unintentional injuries in immigrant and refugee children in Ontario, Canada. The authors clearly identify their purpose, claiming that they aim to compare the rates of unintentional injuries among the mentioned population based on their region of origin and visa class. This problem is considered important since 20% of people currently living in Canada are immigrants (Saunders et al., 2018). The research question is not formulated evidently, but the readers can understand that the authors pose the question about the differences in injury rates as related to the country and status of immigrants and refugee children.

The authors chose a cross-sectional and population-based study design to explore their topic of interest. The data was requested from Immigration, Refugees, and Citizenship Canada and the Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences (ICES). The total number of immigrants involved in the study was 999,951 persons, while the study period was between 2011 and 2012. The statistical analysis allowed the authors to properly analyze data, paying attention to the age, sex, neighborhood income, and source region variables. The use of descriptive statistics and regression helped in linking health information and administrative data regarding patient hospitalizations. In addition, the authors explain the differences between the immigrant groups by their internal approaches to environments.

The results of the article show that the rate of unintentional injuries among children was 20% higher among refugees. Namely, 8122.3 emergency and 6596.0 non-emergency visits were found in terms of the 100,000 population analyzed (Saunders et al., 2018). East and South Asians had the lowest trauma-related hospitalization rates compared to those from Africa, the Middle East, Eastern Europe, as well as South and Central America. Among the factors that were associated with higher risks, there were male sex, young age, and high income. Another significant finding refers to the leading causes of traumas received by the target population, such as suffocation (39%), vehicle injuries (51%), and poisoning (40%) (Saunders et al., 2018). The key strength of the study is that it synthesized data from administrative and health databases, making the results comprehensive and generalizable to other countries, such as the US or Australia. Nevertheless, the limitations of this article include the fact that only documented immigrants were examined, while those without health insurance were not considered.

The first concept provided by this article is the Ontario Health Insurance Plan (OHIP) that is offered as an alternative to the immigrants, who are admitted as permanent residents after three months in Canada. For the period of three months, they are eligible for the Interim Federal Health Program. Due to the existence of these programs, immigrants and refugees can timely receive health services. Since the cost of health care services remains one of the main obstacles to disease prevention and treatment, the plans are critical for the target population. The second concept is unintentional trauma that occurs as a result of accidental actions and inattentiveness. Considering that immigrants have their unique cultures and perceptions, the organization of safety cannot be disregarded. Therefore, this study contributes to both research and practice of safe living environments.

Questions

• How can the findings of this article be used in practice to make the lives of refugee and immigrant children safer?
• How can social workers contribute to safety through the work with these children and their families?

Reference

Saunders, N. R., Macpherson, A., Guan, J., & Guttmann, A. (2018). Unintentional injuries among refugee and immigrant children and youth in Ontario, Canada: A population-based cross-sectional study. Injury Prevention, 24(5), 337-343.

Abstract

Globalization has changed the context of migration in recent years. Individuals may voluntarily seek to leave their home countries for better opportunities. The United Nations High Commission on Refugees (UNHCR) recognized the changing patterns of migration now that wars and conflicts are reduced. The attraction posed by urban centers as primary migration destination because they provide economic opportunities to the mobile population. It is now more difficult to differentiate the asylum seekers or refugees from voluntary migrants, particularly the illegal ones because they used the same routes. It could be surmised that the refugees in the context of new migration patterns have new faces.

Introduction

Individuals may migrate out of the desire for a better life, or to escape poverty, political persecution, or social or family pressures. There is often a combination of factors, which may play out differently for women and men. Gender roles, relations, and inequalities affect who migrates and why, how the decision is made, the impacts on migrants themselves, on sending areas, and on receiving areas (Jolly and Reeves 2005, p.1). Individuals who migrate are motivated by economics and reunification with family members who have been away for a long time. Others migrate simply to escape poverty and strife in their homelands.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) (2006) reported that voluntary migration has become a problem of many nations now that population displacement is no longer affected by war and conflicts. Many factors compel population mobility. They include poverty, survival, and even a skewed view that there are better opportunities outside their home countries (p.9) Other emerging circumstances that displaced the population such as human trafficking, natural disasters, environmental degradation, and development projects also pushed away indigenous populations (p.9).

Migration to some extent is a consequence of globalization. Globalization has developed along two main streams namely economic and cultural. For many, globalization is equated with economic interdependence. At the dawn of the 21st century, the scale and magnitude of global economic interaction appears to be unprecedented& Contemporary patterns of economic globalization suggest the emergence of a new international division of labor. (Brahm 2005). Globalization has caused the polarization of societys affluent and impoverished members.

Saskia Sassen posited that globalization contributed to class polarisation while Janet Abu-Lughod concluded that globalization is contributory to the rise of class disparity.

Saskia Sassen also underscored the effects of globalization in the economic milieu. Changes at various levels beginning at the local to the international level require that there must be a nodal point where everything will converge. World cities emerge to fulfill this function of coordinating global economic activities. The economic base of cities has evolved as a result of the demands for more products and services. Alternative service sectors are emerging because of globalization. Alternative economic base like the informal sector has developed to accommodate the new demands of expanding international market. Characteristic of this phenomenon is the increase in the number of immigrants that make up the majority of the informal sector. Migration not only has economic impacts but also social and cultural effects. While migration is not unique to the present age, communication and transportation technologies allow migrants a greater opportunity to maintain links with their homelands (Sassen 1993, p.32).

The prevalence of mix-migration patterns as described by the UNHCR (2006) makes it difficult to distinguish asylum seekers from mobile populations. Migrant workers form part of the 175 million estimated international migrants in 2005. This new development is attributed to advancements in communication and transportation, both of which are products of globalization (p.24). UNHCR (2006) also cited how asylum seekers and refugees used the same mobility routes like that of undocumented migrants workers. Migrant workers also become vulnerable due to changes in local and political conditions, or the lack of legal protection because of their illegal statuses (p.25). It could be conjectured that the refugees in the context of new migration patterns have new faces.

Immigrants: The New Face of Poverty

In recent years, the incidence of poverty among immigrants rose at an alarming rate. Fleury (2007) cited the situation in Canada. When compared to immigrants arriving in Canada in the 1970s and 1980s, the author revealed that immigrants arriving in the 1990s did not fare well because of changes in the composition of the immigrant population (country of origin, language, and skill level) to decreasing foreign credential recognition and a general decline in the return on post- secondary education in Canada.(p.1) When compared to native-born Canadians economic performances, the new immigrants were at higher risks of experiencing poverty. New immigrants had been identified as one of the five groups considered most likely to experience poverty. Other groups include lone parents, persons with work-limiting disabilities, Aboriginal persons, and unattached individuals aged 45-64.(p.1)N

Fleury includes the following circumstances that increase the likelihood that new immigrants will experience poverty. Family circumstances and the labor market are determinants of poverty among working age recent immigrants. An immigrant who is a full time student, not working sufficient number or hours or self-employed are considered vulnerable. Ethnic groups such as Asians and Arabs are more likely to experience poverty (p.19). Typical characteristics of at-risk recent immigrants include:

• be in the core working-age population (to be aged between 30 and 44);
• live in the large urban areas of Toronto or Vancouver;
• be a member of a visible minority group;
• have a university degree; and
• do not have any work-limiting disabilities (p.25).

Other factors that may influence the probability of new immigrants experiencing low-income include:

• Employed or unemployed status; number of hours of work accumulated as well as salary conditions;
• Access to personal market income from other sources (such as investments income);
• Access to financial support from other family members;
• Eligibility for and access to government transfers (p.37).

A downturn in high-tech industries in 2000 also contributed to the increasing number of educated and skilled immigrant workers experiencing low-income. Unemployment rate rose from 3.9% to 6.6 %. The most affected were immigrants who were IT professionals. In 2001, about 22% of total Canadian labor engaged in IT were immigrants who entered the country five years previously (Picot, Feng and Coulombe 2007, p.6). Falling earnings according to Feng and Picott (2002), may have their origins in the changing composition of immigrants. More immigrants come from developing countries (p.4).

The discourse on poverty presented a view that the economic disparity resulted from the inclusion/exclusion principles that often marginalise, neglect, exclude, or leave out certain people, and on providing access to resources and participation for all people. (Reutter et al 2005, p.515) Social processes that promote inclusion/exclusion include the influence of public economic and social policies, programmes, institutions and actors.(p.515) Migration posed difficult challenges to immigrants. It not only includes the impact of being in a new environment, it also gives rise to a host of social, cultural and political problems.

The Attraction of Urban Areas for Migrants

Population mobility was also a consequence of changing economic climate. In the United Kingdom, for example, rapid urbanization was the consequence of industrialization. More people preferred to go into main urban centers in search of better work and living conditions. Britain was also the first country to experience rapid urbanization that began in mid eighteenth century and culminated during the First World War (Law 1967, p.125). With the population becoming increasingly concentrated in the urban areas, more problems developed like social and health problems (Brown 1991, p.170). Britain was most ill-prepared among the European nations that experienced rapid urbanization. The existing infrastructures were not ready to accommodate an increase in population in a short period. London was of principal importance to the emerging industries. Other areas like North-West, the West Riding of Yorkshire, the West Midlands, the North East, South Wales and East Midlands were principal industrial areas.

Walks and Bourne (2006) cited how impoverished neighborhoods had growing concentration in major urban areas in Canada. The emergence of minority dominating the low-income bracket also seemed apparent in some urban areas. Most dominant minority groups include Aboriginals, blacks and Latin Americans. Certain groups such as the Chinese showed a new patterning of cultural pluralism marked by the emergence of ethnic communities.(p.294) The increasing visibility of ethnic group enclaves contravened assimilation principles often used to explain the ability of new immigrants to cope with the challenges in their new home. The increased concentration implies a breakdown of the assimilation process and/or social exclusion on the part of the host society.(p.276).

A separate view on the increased concentration see this as a positive and strategic assertion of different ethnic groups of their cultural goals and identity. This clustering of ethnic enclaves could be interpreted merely as strategic in light of increasing transnationalism and/or the global marketing of ethnic spaces.(Walks and Bourne 2006, p.276) Changes in immigration policies beginning the 1960s had affected the patterns of settlement, as many recent migrants preferred to stay in major urban centers. The deterioration in income level among recent immigrants had been attributed to declining returns to foreign work experience and the devaluation and non-recognition of foreign credentials.(p.278) Concurrently, the situation is further exacerbated by the existence of institutionalized forms of occupational exclusion as well as racial discrimination within the labour market.(p.278) Teelucksingh and Galabuzzi (2005) concurred with the observation that racial discrimination occurs in Canadian employment. It could be seen in two forms: economic discrimination, (when employers make generalized assumptions about the worth of racialised employees), and exclusionary discrimination (when members of a racialised group are not hired, paid equally or promoted regardless of their skills and experience).(p.1).

Economic well-being is often dictated by three fundamental institutions such as, 1) the market  especially the labour market, 2) the state  with direct transfers of both services and payments, and 3) the family (in explaining how Canadians earn and pool resources).(Liu and Kerr 2003, p.114) Government policy regarding immigrants had a positive impact on immigrants until recently. This simply reflected the declining labor markets, not only in Canada, but also in other parts of the world. The difference between the selection process in the past and the present is the increasing demand for secondary labor. A mismatch in human capital factors such as education or work experience is experienced by the current generation of migrants. Hence, the job offers are less rewarding to immigrants. (United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees, 2006).

Demographers reported that presently, there are 3.1 immigrants for every 1000 citizens in the U.S. Foreign-born individuals comprise 9 percent of the total population. These figures are perceptibly lower compared to those at the beginning of the 20^th century when ratio reached a 10 is to 1000. Through time, with the incessant entry of immigrants even at lower concentration, America turned into a sea of ethnicities and races. This condition, whether beneficial or not, would not have taken place if not for the further legislations authorized in the later decades of 1980s, 90s, up to date. (American Immigration Law Foundation).

During the new millennium, the USA Patriotic Act was enacted after an alarming onslaught of terrorism. The Act aims to develop techniques that will intercept and hamper terrorist movements into the country. Furthermore, in 2003, the INS was integrated into the Department of Homeland Security. It cannot be denied that immigration is a socio-demographic issue that poses different ramifications. Immigration policy has been held in constant debates by US citizens, with small voices coming from undocumented immigrants from Latin America and Asia. According to Hardin, as of 1973, the United States has been accepting 400,000 immigrants every year; with another 600,000 undocumented immigrants as per educated guesses (Hardin, September 1974). Of the 1.7 million increase of US population each year, it has been accounted that immigrants shared 19% of it, or if the illegal immigrants were included, it would be 37% (Hardin, September 1974). The issue that revolves around the proposals on US immigration policy is  how such shifting increase in the share of lands and other resources of immigrants affect the original citizens of the United States?

Author Hardin says food supply can be probably increased to meet the demands of the population, but what about some other tangible and intangible resources such as air, water, forests, beaches, wildlife, scenery and solitude? It could be endangered and the balance in ecosystem destroyed. (Hardin, September 2004). The country with the worlds biggest population of 600 million India has seen a series of destruction of its natural resources due to its demographic profile. With an average increase of 15 million in its population annually, its forests that used to occupy a large fraction of its territory are now reduced to a small fraction perhaps to yield the building of residential sites for its growing population and other structures for various purposes. The remaining farmlands are either flooded or eroded, and the environment appears impoverished. (Hardin, September 2004). On one hand, Hawaii residents are very much aware to the limits of their environment that even fellow US citizens from the other 49 states are given restrictions to immigration. The Hawaiian government for the benefit of posterity is preserving their lands. As one Hawaiian government official said when responding to a speaker of Japanese ancestry who opposed the closing of Hawaii doors to immigrants: Yes, but we have children now, and someday well have grandchildren too. We can bring more people here from Japan only by giving away some of the land that we hope to pass on to our grandchildren some day. (Hardin, September 1974) The other principle behind the ethics of the common is that of preserving a stable state in society wherein the quality of life of those living in it is not reduced or diminished (Eliott and Lamm, n.d.). You can accept new immigrants and tolerate new births but the welfare of the society in terms of the quality of life must not be exchanged for such purposes. Eliott and Lamm says further in support that at some point when the environment gets crowded, people living in it begin to cause harm to each other: If acting morally compromises the ecosystem, then moral behavior must be rethought&. Conditions of crowding and scarcity can cause moral acts to change from beneficial to harmful, or even disastrous; acts that once were moral can become immoral. (Eliott and Lamm, n.d.).

Further, opening the doors of America to Latin and Asian immigrants could be tolerated and legitimized only to the level where such altruism would not harm the current situation of American citizens and their successors and posterity. In one angle this proposition might appear cruel to those intending to immigrate but it is how the concept of intergenerational justice works. Examining the moving force behind the new legislation proposed by the Bush Administration, the immigration is being encouraged first and foremost to meet the growing demand of industries for cheap labor (Intergenerational Justice, n.d.). It just means that those who are given the incentives to migrate are people coming from less developed countries who are willing to work for less than citizens (Velasquez, 1992). What kind of altruism or humanitarianism will that be if immigrants will not be taken cared of by the government? There are propositions on pathway to citizenship of immigrants specifically in the Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act of 2005, and some rights and protection to social services like education and health but it would not compensate for the misery of separation of immigrant workers from their families and the typical laborers condition. The motive of the new immigration laws is undeniably for commercialization and benefit of industries. Velasquez listed three benefits that could be derived from allowing immigration of Latin Americans (and Asians alike): first, drop in the consumer prices of commodities because of less production cost brought about by immigrants who are only able to bid for lower wages; second, greater consumerism since immigrants are considered new consumers of goods; and three, additional tax revenue from immigrants thru income and social security taxes (1992). It is the usual economic rhetoric that benefits private industries and government but could also probably result to the second-class citizenship. The new immigration laws will bring about the new breed of First World Country poor. This is the worst-case scenario that is described in the tragedy of the commons. It is exaggerated stance thrown to the people opposing the immigration laws that they are racists but could it be that they are just acting out of fear on what will happen in the real world?

In the case of Mexico, the Mexican government must already take steps in addressing the possibility that the U.S. government will reduce if not, will not anymore allow Mexicans to migrate to the U.S. as the latter sees that there are not much benefits to gain from if it allows Mexicans to migrate to the U.S. In short, by allowing more unskilled workers from Mexico would not be in the best interest of the United States (Camarota, 2001). Mexican government must finally come up with realistic policies or form of government that prioritizes this pressing need of providing livelihood to millions of that Mexicans unskilled or skilled, highly educated or not if the U.S. would restrict totally or not the entrants of Mexican citizens to the U.S.

Considering that these two countries share a 2000-mile border, one can not just simply ignore the fact that even how much the U.S. government would opt to protect its interest and Mexico would live independently from the former, their futures are still closely bounded. These two states still see that one way or the other they complement each other in some other areas other than the issue on Mexican to the U.S. It is said in the data gathered by Camarota that available data suggest that the costs to the United States (on Mexican immigration both legal and illegal) clearly outweigh the benefits. Further findings show that the fields of trade, investment, the environment, and drug interdiction on which the interests of the two countries do coincide and therefore a strong working relationship is likely to continue (Camarota, 2001).

Inspite of it all, Mexico, as a country, has to make a stand as to how it will manage its domestic problems of providing employment opportunities for its citizens. It could not rely on the U.S. forever to solve Mexicos economic problems or even immigration issues. The Mexican government has to take charge of its own sets of problems and issues and it must strive to work hard to serve its citizens. It must be bold enough to ensure that the interests of its citizens is sought and secured first above all else. It must seek the help from its citizens and not from those in other countries whom it can not truly rely upon to protect the interest of Mexico and its people.

To begin on how Mexico plans to go about its problem is to start with education. Mexico has to improve its system of education that targets educating people from grade school to higher levels, even those who are of working age. This would significantly equip the capacity of Mexicos labor to compete with other workers from other countries in the world. Moreover, this injection would enhance the capability of Mexicos citizens to take part in shaping their country to become responsive to the needs of its people and to make a difference in their lives and those of others they impact in the real economic, cultural, political and social settings.

The reformation may take a long process for the government and its people to recover and to become self-sufficient in protecting the welfare of its people but it is rather better to start somewhere, somehow today before it is too late to make up for the lost times and opportunities. The Mexican citizens must be aware of the richness they have in terms of their strong, well-grounded culture and their industry to bring back to their families their hard earned labor to improve their ways of life. The Mexican citizens must envision themselves to be that race that stands up and is self-sufficient in meeting the needs of its people; one who does not rely on others for help but rather are willing and can help others. They must further envision themselves that Mexican people can make a difference in their country and their efforts can impact the whole world in a lot of sense.

Conclusion

Fundamental to admission of immigrants into sovereign states was the need for new labour inputs. People would continue to seek better opportunities away from home if conditions such as political oppression and instability and poverty continue to deprive these expatriates of a life in peace and relative economic stability. The open policy on immigration was intended to fulfill the economic needs of the country like the United States, the major players such as employers failed to extend the benefits of hiring cheap foreign labor to their immediate families. They left the welfare of the second generation immigrants to third parties(p.635). The underlying principle that dominates the immigration policy is the nation takes care of its immediate labor needs, as defined by powerful economic interests, and lets the future take care of itself.(p.635).

Some researchers find that ethnic concentration in certain areas have certain value for immigrants. Foremost in their decision to select a particular locality was the presence of support in a familiar linguistic, religious and familial environment.(p.166) Ethnic concentration also occurred if the host country had a specific area assigned for these immigrants to settle. Over time, the immigrants can move out and look for better alternatives as condition improves.

The rising number of poor immigrants in recent years merits a second look because it affects the overall economic well being of the community. The lack of appropriate support and legal protection for migrant workers also pose serious consequences, not only to the immigrants but also to the host countries. Many would argue that globalisation has benefited the wealthier nations and pushed developing nations into disadvantaged positions. This is also true for the migrants from impoverished nations.

The situation of the voluntary migrant population is threatened when they are displaced because of the inadequate legal protection accorded to them in some host countries. They become like refugees, stateless and unable to justify their presence in the host country whenever their economic, social and cultural needs are disrupted.

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Introduction

The rising trend of refugees has been observed globally from 2002 to 2006 (UNHCR 2007). The migratory trend of refuges crossing international borders is expected to increase in the years to come (Moses, 2006). The number of refugees registered with UNHCR has risen from 9.9 million to 11.7 million in 2007 (UNHCR 2008). Apart from the concern of refugee influx, the more acute concern is regarding the migration of the refugees in urban areas. It is estimated that half of the refugees in 2007 migrated and now resided in urban areas (UNHCR 2008). Further, an unprecedented increase in the influx of refugees in urban areas has been observed in the recent past (Obi and Crisp 2000, Koser 2007, UNHCR 2008). Further, migration of refugees is mostly from rural to urban areas (Koser 2007). Urban migration will pose severe space and development crunches in the cities round the globe. Hence, this calls for the question of urban migration to be analyzed more critically. This paper aims to understand the demographic nature of the urban refugees, the challenges they pose in terms of settlement and financial arrangements and recommendations as to how they can be handled.

Urban Refugees

Before we further deal with the subject it is important to define what is meant by refugees and urban refugees. Refugees refer to individuals granted complementary forms of protection or those enjoying temporary protection (UNHCR 2008). So the people who are migrating to the urban areas are referred to as urban refugees. According to an UNHCR report, urban refugees and asylum seekers include a varied array of people. But it must be made clear that not all of these people are genuine refugees. These migrated people include the opportunistic, the well educated, the better resourced, and the mal-adjusted, the marginalized, the outcast, and the most desperate (Buscher 2003, 2). It should be noted since the 1960s that urban refugees differ from rural refugees in their background, their pattern of movement, needs and expectations. Urban refugees thus, were identified as a much smaller group of refugees who were educated and had left their country with a definite plan it further their education which they will not be able to do in their homeland (Karadawi and Woodward, 1999).

There is a perceptual difference between the perception of refugees and urban refugees. Refugees have always been a cause of antipathy and xenophobia among people. The idea was that refugee settlements engulf a lot of resourceful public investment at the cost of tax payers money (Marcelli, 2001). The conservative view regarding refugees was that they were a public liability and there was no benefit to hosting refugees and that their mere presence results in only negative consequences for receiving communities. Hence, urban refugees have attracted far less academic attention than their rural counterparts have. As stated by Jacobsen (2002), While refugees impose a variety of security, economic and environmental burdens on host countries, they also embody a significant flow of resources in the form of international humanitarian assistance, economic assets, and human capital (577). The study is true but it cannot be ignored that the focus of her study was rural refugees and largely neglects the potential benefits of urban refugees. But this traditional view of the refugee burden has changed, an alternative view of refugees as resourceful and beneficial to the host state has emerged (Marcelli 2001, Sienkiewicz 2007). The essential difference arises from how the two are defined. Refugees are people who have been dislocated from their homeland not voluntarily but due to circumstances, but refugees in urban areas are voluntary and arise with a plan to gain something productive, like education.

Urban Refugees  Data

The 2005 UNHCR data shows that the migration of refugees was less than that of the rural areas or in camps which was just 18 percent of the total refuge movement worldwide in 2005 (UNHCR, 2006) The 2006 UNHCR Report identified over 1,100 different locations, including over 310 camps/centres and 460 urban locations, hosting an estimated 13.4 million persons of concern or 41 per cent out of the 32.9 million total populations under the Offices competency. Among the 13.4 million persons reported, 3.7 million live in camps, 5.1 million in urban areas, and 4.6 million in rural areas dispersed among the local population. The type of location was unclear or unknown for about 58 per cent of the population of concern to UNHCR.

Table 1: Locational Concentration of refugees in 2006. Source: UNHCR, 2007

Further if we analyse table 1, we see that the percentage of refugees in the rural areas is more in regions which are less developed like that in central and eastern Africa and Asia. But in case of developed regions like that of Europe and the Americas the influx is more in urban areas. So this data cannot conclusively say that the refugee migration is essentially an urban phenomenon.

We further discuss the data from the UNHCR trend report for 2007 which shows that out of the 166 countries surveyed for refugees; in more than half the countries the migration of refugees was more in urban areas than in rural or in camps. Further, in 38 percent of the countries the migration of refugees was only in urban areas. This shows that migration of refugees today is essentially an urban phenomenon. Hence we see that the migration of refugees to urban areas is a more recent phenomenon.

Characteristics of Urban Refugees

The numbers of urban refugees are always disputed as the number is difficult to ascertain. One of the major cause is often misunderstood and misperceptions regarding migrant workers and urban refugees. The UN Convention on the Rights of Migrants defined Migrants as a person who is to be engaged, is engaged, or has been engaged in a remunerated activity in a State of which he or she is not a national (UN 1990). Even though the UN and other international organization differentiate between migrant workers and urban refugees, they are usually categorized as unwanted foreign nationals.

Among urban refugees two distinct groups has been identified in many studies. First identified group are refugees with urban origins and the send are refugees from rural areas. On the basis of their origin, their flight patens differ. Rural refugees tend to migrate as a group with their entire clan, whereas refugees from urban areas tend to escape individually or in very small groups (Kibreab 1996). This flight pattern is said to affect the type of asylum the individual is likely to take (Sienkiewicz, 2007).

Research has shown an increased number of refugees in urban areas. Rogge (1985) believe that an increased number of rural African refugees are migrating to the cities and are urbanizing. Thus, refugees no longer cease their migratory flight in rural areas across the border in their country of asylum but continue the migration all the way to towns and cities. (Rogge 1985, 128) It has been identified by researchers that believe that the flights to the urban areas by refugees are usually illegal and clandestine (Sommers,  2000).

Now the question arises why there has been an increasing trend of an urban pull-factor? The reasons behind urban drift are manifold. One potent reason is financial. The belief of higher job opportunities and higher wage rates in urban areas is one of the reasons. As Kibreabs (1996) study found that annual incomes are higher in the urban areas than in the rural areas even for unskilled workers (160). Apart from financial reasons, there are other concerns like educational opportunity; medical facilities, etc have made urban areas more sought after destination (Sienkiewicz 2007). Further relative unattractiveness of rural areas or humanitarian aid group camps which are high population density, increased levels of unemployment, drought and subsequent low yields and abject poverty in rural settings have led refugees to seek the alternative lifestyles of urban living (Kibreab 1996).

Moreover, there are apparent flaws in the design of UN operated camps and settlement schemes. These refugee camps huddle all refugees together and make them go through same policy of resettlement and relocation programs irrespective of their occupational and cultural background (Kibreab, 1996). This policy has turned out to be insufficient as many refugees coming from urban areas, unable to familiarize with this alien atmosphere, choose to migrate to the cities. As Kibreab (1996) states this is the reason why urban refugees are [growing] in defiance of host-government policies and, consequently, remain outside the purview of the international assistance and protection regime.

Problems Faced by Urban Refugees

Refugees migrating to urban areas, despite their beliefs, face far greater challenges than those who flock to UN or host government refugee camps and settlements. The latter in the UN camps are provided with basic amenities such as food, water, and shelter, urban refugees perforce have to become self-sufficient in order to live in cities. As very few of the refugees have proper identifications and official documents (as many are illegal) they Lacking proper identification papers, they must find employment and perpetually face the fear of being deported by authorities or be detained (Bailey, 2004). Further, their inability to avail credit or open bank accounts makes the situation of urban refugees worse than refugees in camps as because urban refugees have to pay even for their basic amenities like shelter and food (Sienkiewicz,  2007).

Urban refugees are more susceptible to the exploitations of local employers, landlords, and businessmen (Buscher 2003). Further, they are usually paid less than locals with equivalent qualifications are as well as have to pay more as house rent (Sienkiewicz, 2007). Landau and Jacobsen (2004) studied urban refugee migration in Johannesburg showed that crime on migrants was more than that on South Africans. Their study revealed that almost three-quarters (72 percent) of the migrants surveyed reported that they or someone they live with has been a victim of crime, compared with 43 percent of South Africans (who have spent most of their lives in the country) (Landau and Jacobsen, 45). On crosschecking their study data with administration statistics, they found that refugees are most often the victims of crime and are seldom the perpetrators and they commit less crime as they are in a constant state of fear of being caught or deported. Hence, it may be concluded that it is the presence of migrants that increases crime rate but not vice versa.

Another problem that urban refugees face is unavailability of financial assistance from banks. Most of the host countries by policy do not permit refugees to open bank accounts or receive loans. Due to the lack of a safe place to store money make the migrants, especially the affluent ones, easy targets for mugging and theft (Landau and Jacobsen 2004, 46). In addition to being victims of crime, the migrants are unable to pursue entrepreneurial initiatives due to unapproachable banks abstains them from engaging in economic activities that benefit both themselves and the state (Landau and Jacobsen 2004, 46).

Further, there has been an observed social aversion regarding the migrants. They are considered as the ones who take away the job of the locals and/or reside on the local tax payers money. This anti-migrant feeling usually make the refuges social pariahs and they remain in close nit grows of people who share the same condition as refugees.

Hence, we see that even though urban refugees have equal or higher skill as the citizens of host countries, they have to face discrimination from the administration as well as the society. Refugees pre-eminently are stereotyped and subjected to discrimination. Not only have people in the Western countries generally interiorized a national consciousness which makes them consider it normal that there are foreigners, people who do not have the same rights as we do, (Kristeva, 1991). Their position as refugees curbs their growth due to innumerable policies against migrants.

Urban Refugee a Problem for Policymakers?

In order to understand refugee settlement from the point of view of social inclusion it is observed that policies for resettlement become an ever increasing problem (Omidvar and Richmond 2003 ). Immigrants have helped shape the urban environment of many countries like the African countries (Sienkiewicz 2007, Sommers, 2000), Canada (Omidvar and Richmond 2003 ), etc. such influx has created a pressure on host governments to provide housing, neighbourhood and street life, the delivery of municipal services, urban politics and cultural life. The urban refugees have dispersed their residences and developed and transformed their neighbourhoods, laying claim to public space, challenging cultural traditions, creating organizations and getting involved in civic politics (Omidvar and Richmond, 2003 ).

Further the UN has also recognized the need to expand their refugee camps from rural to urban areas and promising urban settlement (Sienkiewicz 2007). Increasingly researchers have emphasized on the point that camp settlements for refugees posed negative effects from social, economic, environmental and health reasons, not only for the refugees but also for the citizens of the host country (Black 1998). Thus, urban settlement is a policy that the UN and host countries have started to deliberate.

But one problem that has been identified in case of refugee settlement in developed countries like the US and Canada is that there is an increase in radicalization of poverty in the urban areas (Omidvar and Richmond 2003 , Frey and Farley 1996). But this too shows the stereotyping that refugees have been painted with (Black, 1998) and has enforced restrictive policies towards refugees in various countries like Sudan, Kenya, Canada, etc. (Sienkiewicz, 2007).

But what is important to understand is that urban refugees are self-sufficient. As has been observed by Landau and Jacobson (2004), urban immigrants in Jonesburg were qualified and skilled individuals. Even though many refugees are seen as reluctant to work, the reason behind their reluctance is the hope of relocation (Kibreab, 1996).

Advantages of Urban Refugees

Refugees in urban areas have been assessed as valuable asset to the society if policymakers remove the restrictions placed on them though another study associates reggae productivity to their legal status, which implies that if they are illegal immigrants, then their productivity index shows a downturn (Passel and Fix 1994). Host countries note that the influx of registered refugees is likely to lead to improvements in the overall development in the region (Passel and Fix). Further, the humanitarian aid that flows into the region cannot be complete differentiated between the needs of refugees and the needs of the native population and that locals must be among the beneficiaries of refugee-related development projects as has been stated by UNHCR (Chambers 1986, 258). For proper identification of refugees in urban areas, it would be necessary to have a more accurate estimate of refugees in urban areas. Till such time, the distribution of aids will spill over to locals too. As the humanitarian aids cover the most basic services, such as infrastructure improvements, supplemental health programs, and educational facilities, most of the host nations benefit from them (Sienkiewicz, 2007).

Education level among urban refugees tends to be higher than that of the local city population. Landau and Jacobsen (2004) found that migrants have higher levels of education and are more skilled [with] 22 [percent having] finished tertiary education or [having] earned a post-graduate degree, compared to 14 [percent] for South Africans (44). The study further demonstrated that an additional 9 percent of refugees had work experience in professional fields such as medicine, law, and accounting before they arrived in Johannesburg. These individuals could help fill the acute skills gap facing the inner city (Landau and Jacobsen 2004, 46). It is apparent that a large number of migrants and refugees specifically fled to South Africa to take advantage of the availability of skilled professions. The country experienced a brain drain in the mid-1990s and since has had trouble filling professional jobs. As long as South Africas policies continue to exclude foreigners from the workplace, urban refugees will remain an untapped source of skilled labor.

In a study of Somali refugees settling in Nairobi in 1990s, showed that they were were successful businessmen and brought with them entrepreneurial experience and capital (Campbell 2006, 404). Further, the Ethiopian refugees who migrated to Nairobi were fluent in English, and had prior business experience (Campbell 2005). Further, the refugees in various other regions belonged to the middle and upper classes, their resources, and skills remained underutilized due to restrictive policies (Sienkiewicz, 2007). Additionally, refugees frequently offer diverse skill sets. Apart from their educational qualification, refugees came with diverse skills such as sewing skills and unique wood carving techniques (Jacobsen, 2002). These refugees often turned to be more efficient due to different cultural techniques, refugees could potentially teach locals new skills and efficient ways of completing various tasks.

A policy change towards refugees will help the host governments as well as the refugees. The governments will benefit from the distribution and sale of essential work permits to refugees (Sienkiewicz 2007). In a way the traditional fear of urban refugees intruding in to the profit of the locals is proven wrong when the worries of refugee businessmen in Eastleigh, who must abide by strict regulations, pay taxes, and purchase permits, is voiced about less regulated refugee businesses cutting into their profit margins (Campbell 2006, 404). What should be done here is to legalize the business activities in the regions so as to the whole community may benefit from the business activities of the refugees.

Further, entrepreneurial activities by refugees are capable of contributing to the host countrys economy by employing locals. This trend has been observed in Nairobis Eastleigh. These refugees offer goods at the lowest possible prices, the Somali refugee businessmen have successfully expanded their customer base (Campbell, 2006). I order to facilitate their growing business Somali have had to employ Kenyans. As the unemployment rate in Kenya is very high, and mostly the labors are unskilled, the natives welcome any opportunity for employability (Campbell). Thus in Eastleigh, cooperation between the host country population and the refugees has created extensive employment opportunities.

The trend of employing locals has been extended in South Africa too. 34 percent of migrants in Johannesburg have hired locals to do some of their task sometime within the duration of their stay, whereas only 20 percent of South Africans have reported working for refugees (Landau and Jacobsen, 2004). Furthermore, 67 percent of the employees hired by refugees in South Africa are locals (Landau and Jacobsen, 2004). The employment opportunities for locals, due to refugees doing business supplies, will increase immensely if policies towards immigrants were made less restrictive. The need for translators alone would be enough to employ numerous local citizens (Sienkiewicz 2007). Presently, as current immigration policies hold immigrants as illegal, they are not in a position to contract the locals in their businesses.

The above discussion show that the urban refugee influx has the potential of bringing economic prosperity to a region by extending their education, skill, and business prosperity towards the betterment of the region. Surely, these refugees are in a position to enhance the economic livelihood of the state. This has been demonstrated by the case of Kenya in the above paragraphs. As has been observed by Campbell (2005) the urban refugees in Kenya have become self-sufficient entrepreneurs who have contributed to infrastructural development, retail growth, and local employment.

Conclusion

The discussion paper on urban refugees shows that the trend of urban influx of refugees has been present forever, but the trend has gained greater prominence in the present years. Even though there are opportunities for refugees to settle for free basic necessities provided by UN camps, refugees prefer to settle in urban areas as it holds more promises than life in camps (Black 1998). Clearly there has been an increasing trend in urban refugee migration and this has made the erstwhile policy of governments which restricted refugees and prevented their social inclusion needs to be reviewed as migrants in urban areas, unlike refugees in rural areas, have the potential to contribute positively to the economy in various ways. The paper also discusses the problems that urban refugees pose to policy makers as they tend to increase criminal activities in the cities and there is seen a trend of radicalization of economic inequality. But once the restrictive natures of policies curbing the economic freedom of refugees are elevated, the inequality can be easily be done with.

In conclusion it can be stated that even though the trend of refugee influx in urban areas are high, the interests of urban refugees and host countries can be viewed as compatible. Refugees migrate to urban areas to seek to acquire self-sufficiency and stability, and the host country seeks to enhance their economic abilities by increasing productivity it eh nation with inflow of skilled human capital. Considering previous research on educational background of urban refugees, it is clear that they posses education and skill to become productive partners to the host state. Thus, it may be recommended that less harsh polices on refugees should be devised in order to improve the plight of urban refugees.

References

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Introduction

The imaginary case of Mohamed who has to sell six roses every day before he can go back to the camp to assist his mother is a precise depiction of the situation that Syrian children refugees are going through. The thirteen-year-old boy has been living in a congested refugee camp in Jordan. Mohamed lost his father in a terrorist assault that occurred in Syria. Since then, he has been compelled to join other Syrian children refugees in camps where they live under desperate conditions. As the Syrian conflict persists, more children are moving out of Syria to seek asylum in neighboring countries and any other state that is willing to welcome them. The Syrian children refugees deserve adequate support. Childcare has popularly been viewed as a family affair and the responsibility of adults. Nonetheless, the situation of Syrian children refugees requires the intervention of the international community. The ensuing discourse explores the ethics of care that can be used by advanced democratic societies such as Canada to safeguard the rights of Syrian children asylum-seekers.

Brief Summary of the Case of Syrian Children Refugees

Military clashes in Syria have led to an increased number of refugees from Syria to the neighboring countries. Syrian children refugees have suffered the loss of loved ones and consequently traumatic experiences whose effects have been augmented by the closure of schools. Besides facing seclusion, they lead insecure lives. They also act as breadwinners who have to take care of their families through hard labor. Many of them experience physical and mental tribulations after witnessing the butchery of their families and acquaintances (Gheaus, 2013).

The situation demonstrates the lack of intervention programs to help them to recover from the trauma. They seldom leave their shelters, which are mostly shanties or tents. Therefore, there is a great concern that has arisen over a generation that may grow up being devoid of formal education. The majority of the children immigrants remain out of learning institutions for long (Cockburn, 2005). Some of them have even been taken to participate in the war, which has robbed them of their innocence. Most schools have been converted into refugee camps.

Young children have had their childhood taken away from them. Bitterness and suspicion have taken over their lives. The children face the scarcity of sanitation and health services. They are forced to sleep in the cold, even during winter. Scores of Syrian babies are also being born outside Syria where they cannot access birth certificates. The risk of losing the whole generation is real. The danger increases with the continuation of the war in Syria. The ongoing clashes have worked to undo the progress that had taken place in terms of education and quality of life in Syria over the years. Many of the children are exposed to the risk of losing their future if the ongoing conflict does not end. Although humanitarian organizations have been trying to give aid to the refugees, there is a need for more interventions to be done to obviate more disaster.

Application of Ethics of Care

Ethics of care is a moral theory that arose from feminists who appreciated the vitality of care. Caregiving, which is part of moral practices, is a character, standard, or a desirable quality (Cockburn, 2005). Care is not only labor but also an ideal that controls normative decision-making. It comprises everything that is done to repair the world. The ethics of care has four components. One of the constituents is the attentiveness of the need for care. The thoughtfulness is followed by a sense of responsibility, which entails the willingness to be responsive to the need. The other constituent is a propensity, which is the ability to offer excellent care (Cockburn, 2005).

The final aspect is the ability to recognize the possibility of abuse in care. The basic needs approach care addresses all things that are done to facilitate the meeting of peoples biological needs to preserve their fundamental abilities as members of society (Cockburn, 2005). The theory implies the moral importance of the significant elements of interactions and dependence on human life. It seeks to sustain relationships by contextualizing and encouraging the good work that caregivers do to the recipients through a complex array of social interactions. It encourages the satisfaction of ones needs, as well as those of others. Therefore, it inspires the spirit of caring for the more vulnerable and dependent people.

According to Somanader (2015), the population of Syrian children immigrants has relentlessly been going up. This situation indicates an increase in the number of children who lack basic needs such as nutrition, sanctuary, clothing, as well as schooling. Various humanitarian organizations take the responsibility of taking care of such children in camps. However, more groups of people should be involved in helping the children to find better amenities (Held, 2006). The situation calls for the responsibility of other countries to accommodate refugees. One of the biggest problems that the generation of children who form part of Syrian refugees has been facing is the lack of access to formal education, especially given that many of the kids are the breadwinners, whereas others are unable to go to school due to poor health or hunger. In applying the ethics of care theory, it is important for the society to facilitate the meeting of the needs of the more dependent and vulnerable kids to preserve their basic capabilities for them to function better in the society. Volunteering to provide education to the children may go a long way in helping them to improve their situation. The strategy will give the children hope that their future is not lost. They can resume being important members of society even after the conflicts in Syria are quelled.

Undergoing traumatic experiences during childhood is likely to lead to the development of psychological disorders. This situation can be prevented by tackling the problems that the kids face at a tender age (Emond, 2010). If counseling programs by volunteers and humanitarian organizations may be established for the children, they can greatly influence the kids psychological health. The initiatives will be fundamental, especially for kids who have had to witness their folks and acquaintances being murdered (Somanader, 2015). Childrens protection, especially the girls, will be important to reduce the rates of abuse and exploitation of vulnerable children. Finally, there is a lack of proper sanitation amenities. This state of affairs predisposes children to hygiene-related illnesses. The provision of sanitation systems for refugee children will improve their health and the general quality of life (Held, 2006).

Response to Syrian Children Asylum Seekers

Gheaus (2013) observes that the separation between parents and children causes damage to both parents and young people. The primary care bonds are also worsened when the separation is prolonged. Seeking asylum is often an involuntary choice. Excruciating situations compel children refugees such as Mohamed to separate from their loved ones in search of a safe sanctuary. They not only live economically indecent lives but also lack emotional care. Most advanced democratic societies such as the United States, France, Canada, and the United Kingdom have shown a commitment to offering refuge and financial aid to the mounting refugee numbers. However, although most provisions are consistent with the features of ethics of care, they do not fully meet its characteristics. For instance, most countries only focus on providing material needs while ignoring the childrens needs. Thus, in responding to the Syrian childrens refugee disaster, the stakeholders should consider various practices that are in line with the notion of ethics of care. Indeed, if care is applied, the lives of most children who are forced to engage in child labor or flee to peaceful nations will be improved (Steckley & Smith, 2011).

Foremost, countries such as Canada should devise policies that will help Syria to develop a politically and economically stable state. The new economic system should encourage the equal distribution of resources in such a way that most citizens live a decent life. The children should not be forced to move to other countries. Indeed, political and economic injustice is among the main causes of the ongoing conflict in Syria. If peace is restored, then the children will not suffer in refugee camps in foreign countries. Although this strategy may appear as a lasting solution, it is not practical in present Syria, considering that the war continues to persist in the Middle East (Gheaus, 2013).

Canadian authorities should create public institutions that can offer adequate care to the childrens asylum seekers. Ethics of care thinkers have continuously commented on the phenomenon of individualism propagated by advocates of dominant morality concepts (Johnston, 2015). Caring for children is a public responsibility. Consequently, public institutions such as daycare, residential care homes, as well as after-school organizations, may be used to offer adequate care to refugee children. According to Steckley and Smith (2011), the institutions may offer a suitable platform to determine kids who need emotional attention due to their disconnection from parents.

Some of the values that are inherent in public institutions comprise justice and equality among others that are in line with the interests of the children. Feminists assert that care should be offered without considering the distinctiveness of the childrens personhood. Additionally, the institutions should also consider the context of the care. The care offered to children should serve their immediate needs. Schools and residential care homes should also consider the rights of teenagers to ensure that they are fully met. The rights of education and proper sanitary conditions should be offered to the extent that they meet the interests of the children while not straining the provider (Gheaus, 2013).

Conclusion

The population of children refugees who are seeking asylum in peaceful countries is bound to increase with time. As children continue being separated from their parents because of the exacerbating war, advanced democratic societies will have to join the international community in devising ways to provide care to the youthful escapees. Using the ethics of care theory, advanced democracies can devise practices that can help the desperate children, refugees, to receive adequate care as it has been discussed in the paper. There is the need to create public institutions with professionals who can help young people to receive proper care, despite losing their families in the war-stricken country. Notably, care should be offered together with the vigilant application of values such as justice and equality.

Reference List

Cockburn, T. (2005). Children and the Feminist Ethics of Care. Childhood, 12(1), 7189.

Emond, R. (2010). Caring as a Moral, Practical and Powerful Endeavor: Peer Care in a Cambodian Orphanage. London: Oxford University.

Gheaus, A. (2013). Care drain: who should provide for the children left behind? Critical Review of International Social & Political Philosophy, 16(1), 1-23.

Held, V. (2006). The Ethics of Care: Personal, Political, and Global. London: Oxford.

Johnston, T. (2015). Affirmation and Care: A Feminist Account of Bullying and Bullying Prevention. Hypatia, 30(2), 404-417.

Somanader, T. (2015). What You Need to Know About the Syrian Refugee Crisis and What the U.S. is Doing to Help. Web.

Steckley, L., & Smith, M. (2011). Care Ethics in Residential Child Care: A Different Voice. Ethics and Social Welfare, 5(2), 181-195.

In the article titled The human face of the refugee crisis, McDonald-Gibson examines one of many stories of refugees and the hardships they face. Charlotte McDonald-Gibson (2016) tells the story of Eritrean refugees escaping from their country. The primary focus falls on Sina, an Eritrean woman who fled the country due to governmental persecution: her real name is never revealed.

Sinas story is typical for her countrys people: she lived a relatively normal life with her husband until he was falsely charged with a crime of political nature. The crime in question was practicing a religion outlawed by the government. The man did not practice it but was caught with a group of people who did: that was enough to have him imprisoned. He escaped, but the family knew it was a beginning of an end: the government would come for them. Escape was the only option, but their government could reach for escapees long beyond its border. The only option was to contact smugglers who would get them to Europe, the only place where they would feel safe (McDonald-Gibson, 2016, p. 5). Their plan took a dark turn when smugglers turned out to be scammers. The money was gone, and the couple was separated from each other. Alone and heavily pregnant, Sina eventually reached Greece, where she gave birth to a healthy baby. While the woman escaped the horrors of political persecution, she never heard back from her husband. Her path to a new life was far from over.

The author utilizes the tragic story of Sina as a demonstration of how people living in her country have to survive. McDonald-Gibson attempts to highlight the horrors of political persecution and oppressive regime that plagues womans country. To tell what kind of life she had to escape and how dangerous the freedom travel was. The author does not shy away from darker details, making the story feel grim: even though Sina escaped, her husband didnt, and many others did not either, often perishing during the journey. McDonald-Gibson (2016) illustrates it with eloquent and colorful language to highlight the horrors they endured: forced to sleep in their waste, screams would echo around the metal box, or brutal retribution (p. 5). While the language McDonald-Gibson uses is moving, sometimes it makes the story read more like a vibrant tale rather than an article. At the same time, all of it is done with a clear and compassionate goal in mind: to make the reader sympathize with Sina and others.

The articles title is intentional because the author emphasizes the need to see these people as fellow human beings in need instead of a statistic in a news report. By choosing one person as an example, the author gives the refugee crisis a persona, a human face. McDonald-Gibson (2016) makes an effort to make the reader sympathize with those involved in the story and care about their life, suffering, and future by utilizing colorful language, creative tools, and real-life examples.

Reference

McDonald-Gibson, C. (2016). The human face of the refugee crisis. The Guardian. Web.

The concept of a refugee has always been analyzed in the psychological and social spheres of studies aimed at the realization of the inner world of those people, who are in the state of constant cultural shock living beyond the protection of their own countries. It is necessary to stress that the notion refugee means people or social groups living outside of their nationality and country for a number of reasons connected with prosecution fear of religion, race, or political opinion. Psychology investigates the difficulties and inner feelings of refugees who are to flee from their homes based on personal stresses, fears, depressions, or private troubles.

There is an acute need to understand and analyze the state of being a refugee; this process is connected with the investigation of basic causes leading to peoples leaving their lands and facing conflicts and problems in the process of new country and culture adaptation. To be a refugee means to live in ones own world; to protect yourself living in the odd environment and facing intercultural misunderstanding. In order to be aware of the true reasons and causes of people leaving their homes, it is necessary to learn their reasons for forcing them to flee. The state of leaving homeland population, in accordance with psychological researches, always results in the gradual internal pressure of an individual; the state of living in the strange country and nationality is related to the condition of constant tense and depression.

There are a number of factors pushing people to leave their land and reject the protection of native country; it is necessary to underline the idea, that the problems of modernity connected with racial prejudices or gender inequalities in some countries are perceived as the basic causes forcing social groups to leave their homes. Besides, there is a tendency to believe, that constant political interactions on the international level resulting in wars and national instability, lead to the increase of refugee level throughout the world.

It should be stressed that some refugees are planning their fleeing from home; some of them do such steps spontaneously, predominantly under the pressure of fear. In the previous century, there were a number of examples, when politically active members of the family had to leave their native land; most causes are connected with the problems and conflicts experienced by the land in the spheres of cultural, political, and economical development. In some cases, refugees can experience the state of a stranger making them refuse to live in the homeland; so, people concentrate on the process of new countries selection being close to their inner world and cultural perception. The causes forming such feelings can be related to exaggerated fantasy or reality experience, complicated inner and outer symptoms, unconsciousness, etc.

Being a refugee is considered to be perceived as living in a state of constant search for oneself, native land, and culture; it is psychologically difficult to experience shocking challenges in the national perception caused by the change of the environment and cultural values. Modern spheres of social and psychological studies are concentrated on the determination op the sharpest reasons for refugees level increase throughout the world; despite individual reasons for leaving the home, there is a number of external factors pushing people to change their place of living, related to political, racial, economical, social and cultural interactions inside the state and on the international level.

The constantly high number of refugees and migrants leaving their homes and arriving in new countries is one of the significant sustainability issues nowadays. It is vital to ensure their basic needs are satisfied, they enjoy an appropriate quality of life, and they are protected. Thus, access to labor money and income sources is one of the most critical issues (Schenner and Neergaard 13). It requires cooperation between the major stakeholders, such as national and local governments, private and public organizations, and refugees.

At the moment, national and local communities recognize the critical importance of the issue and implement some measures to address it. For instance, the current EU laws emphasize the fact that refugees are akin to nationals regarding access to the labor market (Schenner and Neergaard 15). It means that they have the same opportunities to support their families. However, statistics show that refugees have lower chances of finding a job compared to other migrants (Brell et al. 94). It indicates the need for an effective solution.

Resolving this problem is vital as it is linked to the communities health and sustainability issues. The successful integration of refugees into society is key to its further development. Otherwise, there is a high risk of the deterioration of this groups situation and the emergence of numerous conflicts. The rise of crime because of the inability to find a job can also be expected.

The offered solution to the problem implies cooperation between several stakeholders. Government should work with private and public organizations to determine vacancies they have and create specific offerings in the job market. At the same time, refugees can be offered special evaluation tests to determine what posts they can occupy. If additional training is required, it can be sponsored by organizations that need new specialists. It would help to improve refugees access to the labor market.

Works Cited

Brell, Courtney, et al. The Labor Market Integration of Refugee Migrants in High-Income Countries. Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 34, no. 1, 2020, pp. 94-121. Web.

Schenner, Johanna, and Andres Neergaard. Asylum-Seekers and Refugees within Europe and Labour Market Integration. Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research, vol. 25, no. 1, 2019, pp. 1324. Web.

Syrian refugee women are more likely to experience mental illness due to various obstacles and barriers. Some of these barriers are from past physical and mental trauma, feelings of isolation from lost family support, language and culture difficulties, and the social stigma associated with mental illness.

Imagine you’re a pregnant, female Syrian refugee, being forced to relocate from the war-torn country in which you were born and raised. Leaving all your family and friends behind or experiencing the horrific death of a loved one. According to Dench (2012), “Refugees often arrive to Canada with serious health problems as a consequence of the persecution they have suffered such as the physical and psychological effects of torture or rape” (p. 44). Experiences like this can increase a female refugee’s risk for various mental health issues that have long lasting effects. Some refugee women come from refugee camps before relocating to Canada where they can experience various forms of sexual and physical violence, trauma and the death of loved ones (Ahmed, Bowen & Xin Feng, 2017). Female refugees can also arrive to their new country pregnant as a result of being raped, or having been the victim of human trafficking, forced prostitution or slavery (McCarthy & Haith, 2013). Exposures to violence can also put them at risk for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Refugees from unstable homelands are prone to suffering higher levels of PTSD than returning combat veterans and are 10 times more likely to experience PTSD as compared to the general population (Heavey, 2014). Experiencing PTSD while being pregnant could negatively affect the bonding between mother and baby and increase the risk of postpartum depression. Despite witnessing all of the trauma, violence, murders or bomb explosions just to name a few, the refugee is usually not receptive to receiving psychological help. Instead, they would rather just forget about it (Garakasha, 2014).

Being torn away and forced to relocate from your country can result in feelings of isolation. There can be a loss of family support especially during the postpartum period which makes the female refugee feel socially isolated, lonely and bring up feelings of uncertainty which can lead to a decline in the refugee woman’s physical and mental health (McCarthy & Haith, 2013). Language difficulties can also prevent the female refugee from participating in social activities which brings about further isolation. Additionally, the common roles of the female refugee change drastically in their new country. Consequently, they feel powerless because of the loss of their social support network, leaving them more dependent on their significant other thus increasing the risk of abuse (Ahmed et al., 2017).

A majority of Syrian refugees are of the Muslim faith, and for many of them, there is a deep stigma associated with mental illness (Ahmed et al., 2017). It is believed that healing should come from religious faith. Mental illness can be seen as a lack of faith or a shift from the right path as well as a personal flaw, which can bring shame upon family and friends (Ahmed et al., 2017). This stigma can be a huge barrier for seeking mental health care. Being shamed for mental illness can be very embarrassing, putting the female refugee at risk for sexual violence, harassment and depression.

Furthermore, there are many cultural and ethnical barriers in caring for a female Syrian woman. Researchers found that, “Given their experiences, refugee women may distrust care providers, be resistant to North American healthcare practices and procedures and face communication barriers with their providers” (Winn, Hetherington & Tough, 2018 p. 2). In turn, the pregnant refugee will be less likely to seek the help they need. Not participating in prenatal or postpartum care could negatively affect the mother and babies’ physical and mental health. The communication barrier these women face can make even the simplest tasks in life seem overwhelming. Imagine trying to find a job, transportation, navigating the healthcare and dealing with legal responsibilities without knowing the language. This can wreak havoc on a female refugee’s overall mental wellbeing. Discrimination against the Arabic ethnicity can also play a negative factor due to the false belief that most Muslims are terrorists. Being treated poorly because of one’s ethnicity may cause a major amount of stress and could result in an individual becoming more isolated as well as developing a greater risk for maternal depression. Another cultural barrier a female refugee may face is acculturation or the fear of losing one’s culture and traditions which can cause the refugee much stress and hinder them from obtaining healthcare services (Garakasha, 2014).

There are many barriers to obtaining local, state and national healthcare services that a pregnant or postpartum refugee may encounter. Language issues are a deterrent in whether they choose to seek healthcare. In a recent study of health service utilization by Syrian refugee women, it was found they were not consistently provided interpretation services nor were qualified interpreters even available (Guruge et al., 2018). In a 2018 interview with various health care providers discussing barriers to healthcare for pregnant refugee women, researchers found inadequate resources available for pregnant refugee women in Calgary (Winn, et al., 2018). The participants in this study also reveal how complicated the healthcare system can be for these patients to figure out, especially if they have lack of a support group as well as language difficulties (Winn et al., 2018). A further barrier to healthcare for pregnant refugees is the specific category in which the refugee is admitted into Canada. “Those who come as claimants have a lot more barriers I think in Canada, than you know, private and government sponsored refugees” (Winn et al., 2018, p. 7).

Some strategies for successfully communicating with a Syrian, female, refugee patient is making them feel comfortable and not overwhelmed because they may likely have had a very difficult experience relocating from their home country. Being non-judgmental is also important because it makes the nurse more approachable. If English is their second language, the nurse should try to have an interpreter in the room with the female refugee (Heavey, 2019). This will help facilitate communication back and forth between the patient, doctor and nurses which can help decrease the patient’s anxiety and frustration. Having an interpreter present will also help develop the doctor to patient relationship, and the patient will be more willing to attend prenatal and postpartum appointments, as well as, participate in patient teaching regarding maternal depression signs and symptoms. A possible strategy to help with the language difficulties and understanding would be to have the patient repeat back the information that the doctor has given them, draw maps or use visual aids (Winn, et. al., 2018).

Being culturally competent is also very important to the nurse when it comes to communicating with the female refugee. This means being respectful and responsive to their health beliefs and practices, as well as their cultural needs, which will help the nurse interact more effectively with the female refugee. The family dynamic is important to know so the nurse can better communicate with the patient and their family members. Syrian families are very close knit and patriarchal. Consequently, the eldest male has the final decision-making authority and is seen as the family protector (Center for Disease, 2016). Therefore, when asking for a decision regarding a medical issue, it should not be a surprise that the husband makes the final decision regarding his wife’s care.

When applying strategies for incorporating cultural information into the nursing process, the first thing the nurse should do is become culturally informed by researching the Syrian culture so as to know more about their preferences, attitudes, and expectations regarding cultural norms and healthcare in general. According to the website, www.cdc.gov, under Syrian Refugee Health Profile (2016), there are many reasons why Syrian patients, or their families, may become more likely than the general U.S. patient population, to prefer a provider of the same gender or to request a long hospital gown for modesty. The nurse should be sure to make meal requests in accordance with Islamic dietary restrictions during hospital stays or even request family members to bring specific meals. Also, the nurse should be aware that specific medical practices may be refused during certain periods of religious observance such as the month of Ramadan. During the nurse’s assessment and while gathering your data, be sensitive to the fact that the female refugee may not be open to questions regarding issues of sex, or sexually transmitted diseases. Syrians are also more likely to decline consent for organ donation or autopsy (Center for Disease Control, 2016). Implementing these cultural norms regarding care for the female refugee may help to put her at ease, decrease her stress level and feel more respected as an individual. Cultural competency is an integral part of holistic patient care.

A nurse’s role in reducing health disparities in Syrian female refugees at risk for mental health issues starts with being patient, listening, and providing extra time to establish a safe and trusting relationship to help them overcome any fears of seeking healthcare for themselves. Again, being culturally competent and respecting the cultural background and practices of the patient is important and will help put them at ease. The nurse should always have interpreters available if possible, to assist them in navigating through the unknowns which is also part of being a patient advocate. Introducing them to other Syrian refugees that have been through the same circumstances can be beneficial to their mental health, as well as connecting them with a mental health specialist, that speaks their Arabic language.

In conclusion, I admit when I see a person of Arabic descent the first thing that comes to my mind is “terrorist” even though I know deep inside that this isn’t the case. This has been instilled in me since watching the news about terrorists, starting on Sept 11, 2001, which has dominated the television for well over a decade. I don’t want to be the kind of nurse that treats someone differently because of their ethnicity or culture. I don’t want to see all Syrians through the same distrusting lens. It’s always good, as a nurse, to be self-aware which involves not only examining one’s culture but also examining perceptions and assumptions regarding your patients’ culture. Developing self-awareness can bring my own bias into light and shed a light on how this might affect me personally and my work.

Reference

1. Ahmed, A., Bowen, A., & Feng, C. X. (2017). Maternal depression in Syrian refugee women recently moved to Canada: A preliminary study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 17(1). doi:10.1186/s12884-017-1433-2.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Syrian Refugee Health Profile. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/immigrantrefugeehealth/pdf/syrian-health-profile.pdf.
3. Dench, J. (2012). Recognizing refugees as human beings. Canadian Nurse, 108(8), 44. http://ezproxy.library.skagit.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=c8h&AN=108105093&site=ehost-live. Accessed March 13, 2019.
4. Garakasha, N. (2014). Working with refugee young people: a nurse’s perspective. Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, 32(2):24-31.
5. Guruge, S., Sidani, S., Illesinghe, V., Younes, R., Bukhari, H., Altenberg, J., Rashid, M., Fredericks, S. (2018). Healthcare needs and health service utilization by Syrian refugee women in Toronto. Conflict and Health, 12(46), doi:10.1186/s13031-018-0181-x.
6. Heavey, E. (2014). Female refugees: sensitive care needed. Nursing 2019, 44(3), 28-34.
7. McCarthy, R., & Haith-Cooper, M. (2013). Evaluating the impact of befriending for pregnant asylum-seeking and refugee women. British Journal of Midwifery, 21(6), 404-409. doi:10.12968/bjom.2013.21.6.404.
8. Winn, A., Hetherington, E., & Tough, S. (2018). Caring for pregnant refugee women in a turbulent policy landscape: perspectives of health care professionals in Calgary, Alberta. International Journal for Equity in Health. 17(91). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-018-0801-5.

INTRODUCTION

A refugee crisis refers to the movement of people from one country to another at a massive scale. Historically, we can see that from the migration of the French Huguenots during the reign of Louis XIV in 1685 to World War II from 1939 to 1945 till today, people have been displaced from their homeland as a result of war and persecution. According to a report produced by the statisticians of the UNHCR in 2016, 65.6 million people have been displaced globally. The UNHCR claims that if the displaced population was to form one country that country would be the 21st largest in the world. Keeping these figures in mind it can easily be deduced that when the huge populations of refugees reside in the host countries they do affect the economic sustainability of the countries.

HINDRANCE TO STABLE ECONOMIC GROWTH

Refugees have come into countries which already have a huge population to support with the limited monetary resources. 400,000 Rohingya Muslims have left Myanmar because they are being targeted as part of “ethnic cleansing”. Bangladesh has closed its borders to these refugees due to the fact that all the refugee camps are occupied and it cannot afford to provide them with more settlement facilities. Before a country takes in refugees it must take into consideration its own economic position and ensure economic security to its future generations. “The government will have to revise the budget and increase the allocation. Otherwise, projects will be shelved and expenditures will be cut,” said former finance adviser of Bangladesh Mirza Azizul Islam.

The countries who have accepted refugees are facing adverse consequences because money is required to fulfill the needs of the refugees. As stated by the United Nations, the financial needs of Syrian refugees increased from $0.8 billion in 2012 to $7.4 billion in 2015.

When economic pressure proliferates, countries are forced to take loans. Government of Jordan decided to integrate refugees into the mainstream society as a result of which the country took $147 million from World Bank as loan. It should be noted here that these loans need to be returned and any mismanagement of funds can make repayment impossible thus putting the country’s international reputation at stake. As in the case of Tanzania, World Bank had offered it “$100 million, split between a loan and a grant” to develop a sustainable approach to the inflow of refugees from Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. However, Tanzanian President John Magufuli rejected the offer on the basis that the country would have to borrow money and this cannot be borne by the economy.

In 1979, during the Soviet invasion in Afghanistan, arms and ammunition were provided to Pakistan to train the Afghanis to counter attacks from USSR. These guns were illegally smuggled into Pakistan by the refugees. Killing and kidnapping along with drug trafficking became common. Pakistan became one of the world’s leading countries for drug trading. During a raid at Jadeed camp explosive material and weapons was recovered. The refugees have been harassed in various ways which has portrayed Pakistan as a state which has failed to protect the refugees it is hosting. To counter this threat to law and order, money that would otherwise be used for development projects is being spent to strengthen the security forces. The security situation in addition to the attitude of the forces towards refugees will surely increase the risk of foreign investors withdrawing their money from Pakistani industries.

Pakistan is currently hosting 1.4 million Afghan refugees. It has become difficult for the present wealth of the country, GDP being 283.66 billion dollars, to support the population. “Pakistan cannot afford to host Afghan refugees any longer and has spent more than $200 billion in the last 30 years on them,” said Minister for States and Frontier Regions Abdul Qadir Baloch.

I have noticed that in our society many economic problems have emerged which had not been there in the previous years. Inflation rate is increasing rapidly as population growth is increasing. Arrival of refugees is one of the reasons of population increase which has led to an increase in demand of goods. The gap between supply and demand leads to inflation. The prices of goods are raised making it difficult for the locals as well as the refugees to afford the necessities of life.

CHANGE IN EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE

Creating employment opportunities for the refugees places an additional burden on the budget of the host country. In order to keep the situation under control, countries have placed legal limitations regarding the recruitment of refugees in the formal sector. This encourages them to seek illegal employment in informal economy where the labor is exploited. In Colombia there are about 300,000 Venezuelan refugees out of which approximately 100,000 have crossed the border illegally therefore they will not be granted with work permits. Such refugees opt for jobs that do not actively contribute to the economy of the country therefore it is quite possible that with the increased population the country’s system might collapse.

Other countries have agreed to provide refugees with adequate employment opportunities. This allows refugees to contribute to the economy and minimize the effects of population growth. Several steps have been taken in countries including Netherlands and Mexico to integrate refugees in the labor market. But at the same time it should be considered that these refugees will compete with the nationals for the jobs available. There will be a noticeable reduction in wages as more labor will be available meaning that the per capita income will decrease. Hence, revenue from tax collection also reduces. Unemployment being rampant, there will be a fall in economic growth. World Bank Group has revealed that economic growth fell under 2 percent in 2014 in Lebanon due to the inflow of Syrian refugees. Unemployment soared to 20 percent as the supply of workers increased. The only statistics available were of 2014 but surely now in 2019 these rates have increased even more. If economic growth fells further the country will not be able to promise a good quality of life to its citizens.

In Pakistan, due to the fact that the Pakistan-Afghanistan border is unmonitored many Afghan refugees have entered the country illegally. It is not possible to give an accurate figure of the number of illegal refugees because of unsatisfactory management conditions. According to the Foreign Act of Pakistan anyone who lives in Pakistan without legal permission will not be employed in the formal sector. So these refugees have to work as manual laborers and garbage collectors. Some of the Afghan refugees have joined the carpet weaving industry where they form more than 70 percent of the workforce. Others have established the gemstone trade in Peshawar due to which Pakistan has been able to receive US$27.562 million in terms of foreign exchange in the last five years (till 2016). Afghan refugees pour 34 billion Pakistani rupees ($325 million) into Pakistan’s economy.

In Peshawar I have seen shops devoted to household goods such as crockery that are set up by Afghan refugees. They are generating considerable amount of money. So it can be deduced that in Pakistan a huge amount of profit is being made due to the efforts of refugees which is not the case in other countries including Colombia that has been discussed previously.

BURDEN ON SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND RESOURCES

The social infrastructure is also burdened as it has been developed keeping into consideration the national population of the host country. Overcrowding becomes a common element in hospitals and schools. In Mafraq, Jordan it has been seen that in some classes there are as many as 55 students in one classroom. Refugees who arrive from war torn areas usually require health assistance. A recent Danish study found that among a group of newly arrived refugees, 65% had one or more severe somatic health problems, ranging from liver carcinoma to tuberculosis and diabetes. These statistics show the extent to which the health facilities are burdened. Funds have to be allocated to improve the facilities further straining the economy.

In Pakistan, consumption of wood is also increasing as refugee camps are being converted to villages. One of the owners of a firewood stall in Mansehra said “We used to sell over 1,000kg firewood daily when Afghan refugees were here but now, our daily sales have reduced to 200 kg or even less than that.” This indicates that a major portion of the wood was being utilized by the refugees. Refugees are potential buyers for Pakistani goods and resources. However, exhaustion of such natural resources is not conducive to infrastructure expansion.

Nevertheless, the opportunities being provided to the refugees can be utilized by the nationals as well. A small example can be seen in the radiotherapy machine worth Rs. 710 million that has been provided to the Shaukat Khanum Hospital by the UN Refugee Agency to facilitate refugees along with the host community.

In my opinion, infrastructure is vital for economic development. Poor infrastructure also reduces the incentive of investors as they are in search of promising markets and this can lead to a significant decrease in foreign investment. Afghan refugees who were previously ordered to return to their home country have been promised citizenship. The organizational structures of Pakistan are poorly managed and the existing facilities are overburdened. So a plan needs to be devised for refugee settlement.

POSSIBLE COURSES OF ACTION

In order to develop a sustainable approach towards the world’s refugee crisis it is necessary that the skills of the refugees are refined through proper training. In Pakistan, 74 per cent of refugees are under 24 years of age. Given the demographics of the Afghan refugee population, youth empowerment is a possible solution for the problem. Interactive sessions can be organized by inviting experts and volunteers to mentor the refugees and to provide them with a platform to voice their opinions and ideas. They can also be integrated into the small scale industry to produce goods that have high demand in the international market. Carpets and footballs are some goods that can be produced using cheap machinery and manual work. Additionally, the developed countries who have sustained their economies for a long period of time should share the responsibility of the refugees with the developing countries who are hosting most of the refugee populations. They can conclude treaties and pacts regarding funds that need to be provided to the host countries. In February 2016, several countries including Germany, the United Kingdom, Kuwait and Norway met in a conference in London and promised support to Jordan in providing funds to create employment opportunities for the Syrian refugees by giving $1.7 billion in grants.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, I believe that the refugee crisis does have a negative impact on the sustainability of host communities but the crisis cannot be declared as the sole reason why resources and finance of a country cannot be sustained. Due to the in depth research of the issue, I have really understood the reason behind the refusal of various countries to accept refugees and how their refusal has led to the development of anti-refugee sentiments. Initially, I also believed that a huge refugee population can never have favorable impacts on the host country but after studying the positive impact of Afghan refugees on Pakistan, I figured out that the refugees can be made productive for the benefit of the country if the global community as a whole carries out planning and organization to transform the negative effects into positive ones. The whole concept of a refugee crisis can be revolutionized if only the governments of countries are able to balance the situation and channelize investment to sectors that would exploit the talent of the refugees and tap their aptitudes so instead of making the conditions difficult they could actively participate in bringing about a change.