Education Reforms under the Bologna Treaty in Romania

Introduction

The Bologna treaty was characterized by a series of reforms undertaken by 45 European countries. The reforms aimed at creating an integrated higher education era in Europe. The 1999 Bologna treaty presented and emphasized on six objectives which were directed towards the establishment of a European Higher Education era (EHEA) by 2010. Under EHEA, student and staff mobility was to be enhanced and made possible through the support of the national quality assurance agencies, the use of a common credit transfer, consistent degree structures and standardizing qualifications (Guruz, 2008).

The six objectives of the Bologna process were;

  1. Legible and equivalent degrees.
  2. Standardized degree structures
  3. Initiating a system of credits
  4. Increasing mobility
  5. Endorsement of European cooperation in quality assurance with the aim of developing similar criteria and methodologies.
  6. Encouraging the European dimension in higher education.

Increasing Mobility

This reform aimed at overcoming obstacles that were hindering effective mobility of students, teachers, researchers and administrative staff (Mattheou, 2010). The first step was the identification of those barriers followed by the process of trying to find out what can be done to overcome those barriers. One of the barriers was the fear of loosing credit points and time by going abroad (Great Britain: Parliament: House of Commons: Educational and Skills Committee, 2007).

This reform was implemented after they recognized the need for mobility of students, teachers and other staff members. One of the issues that were emphasized under this reform was that at least 20% of students set to graduate under EHEA should have acquired some training or should have studied abroad by 2020. The reform did not specify the period that the student should study hence the students can acquire training for as long as they wish. This meant that by 2020, all students under this area should have extra training apart from that which is offered locally (Daun, 2002).

The reform also looked at the issue of monolingual students. It was noted that most students could not express themselves well in English especially in Southern Europe. This therefore called for urgent address into this issue (Laderriere & Leclercq, 2000). It was deemed important to encourage students to study English so that they can communicate fluently. In this case, student mobility would be emphasized so that language barriers could be overcome in Europe. This would serve as an important approach in increasing the interaction between students and teachers and also the understanding of the students. Most of the training in foreign lands was done in English hence there was a need to equip the students with communications skills in the English language (Castaner & Kopp & Remseth, 2009).

To promote mobility of students, the higher education systems are expected to be organized and their attractiveness is supposed to be increased. Once they attain this, the process of sending their students abroad would emerge successful. Without this, it would be hard to support their students studying abroad (Brock & Tulasiewicz, 2000). The attractiveness of the education system entails ensuring that the learning environments are appropriate so that students can complete their education without any problems. The above mentioned factors therefore serve as important determinants of effective student mobility.

The issue of increasing mobility among students was to be attained if the obstacles were identified. The barriers acted as a major setback to the success of the process. Language, cultural and attitudinal barriers interfere with mobility. Inadequate information on the purposes and goals as well as the administrative factors can hold back the process of mobility (Roman & Goschin, 2007). EHEA has been working hard to ensure that these factors do not stand in the way of student mobility.

Research conducted showed that the trend of student mobility was on the decrease some years back since 63.2% of foreign students did not come from Europe (Bishop, 2006). The low population rates show that most students had opted to study locally. One of the most challenging issues facing the process of sending students abroad in Romania is inadequate financial resources (Bishop, 2006). This makes it hard for system to support local students studying abroad. Student mobility in Romania has also been affected negatively by the quality of education in developing countries. This is because the quality of higher education that these countries have in place is considered lower, also the ability and capacity of the institutions to support the students is also questioned.

Currently, student mobility in Romania is higher as compared to some years back. This could be associated with the ability of EHEA to fight the barriers that have been facing this process. With effective management, the process of student mobility provides favorable conditions for students. This means that both the social and economic factors are good enough to support the students stay in the foreign land (Europe unit, 2009).

Conclusion

Student mobility enables students in Romania to study abroad. Factors that promote this morbidity have to be put in place for the process to be effective. The number of students studying abroad has been increasing over the years. This increase has been supported by the fact that EHEA has put in place strategies to overcome the barriers that come in the way of student mobility. This ensures that students have a good learning environment in the foreign land.

References

Bishop, J. (2006). The Bologna process and Australia: Next steps. Australian Government. 3-7. Web.

Brock, C. & Tulasiewicz, W. (2000). Education in a single Europe. New York: Routledge.

Castaner, L., Kopp, R. & Remseth, S. (2009). Bologna Process 2010 Final Report. 2-5. Web.

Daun, H. (2002). Educational restructuring in the context of globalization and national policy. New York: Routledge.

Europe unit. (2009). Bologna Process ministerial summit in Leuven and Louvain-LaNeuve, 2009. 6-8. Web.

Great Britain: Parliament: House of Commons: Educational and Skills Committee. (2007). The Bologna process. London: The Stationary Office.

Guruz, K. (2008). Higher education and international student mobility in the global knowledge economy. New Mexico: SUNY Press.

Laderriere, P. & Leclercq, J. M. (2000). Strategies for educational reform: from concept to realization. London: Council of Europe.

Mattheou, D. (2010). Changing Educational Landscapes: Educational Policies, Schooling Systems and Higher Education  a Comparative Perspective. New York: Springer.

Roman, M. & Goschin, M. Z. (2007). The Bologna process and the dynamics of academic mobility: a comparative approach. 2-7. Web.

Stock Markets in China and the Reforms

Introduction

The China stock market, which is the Asias second largest by capitalization, is highly underdeveloped and relies on rumors for trading. The market is dominated by state-owned enterprises, which have no credible system of financial reporting and book keeping. The grim picture of this situation is evident from the multiple lawsuits that have been filed by disgruntled shareholders. Surprisingly, the state-owned enterprises are listed for political rather than economic purposes. This market is characterized by rampant insider trading and investors who hold ghost accounts with sinister share dealings. Almost all of the companies that are listed engage in abuse of stock market with the aim of making dirty profits. The domination of shareholding by the state-owned enterprises has compromised the interests of the minority shareholders. This paper is a case study that analyses the conditions of stock markets in China, which is a typical emerging market. It also recommends reforms necessary to achieve development in Chinas stock market.

Conditions needed to build up a stock market in an up-and-coming market

The markets in up-and-coming markets require more complexity to ensure efficiency. Apart from the government-appointed regulators, more reliable mediators such as investment analysts should be introduced in these markets. The private sectors should be given opportunity to participate more in the stock market since the state-owned enterprises do not necessarily finance their operations from equity or debt capital. The companies that are listed should be forced to avail accurate information to be used by both the investors and creditors. The role of institutional intermediaries should be emphasized in these markets, as they play a very critical role in ensuring a balanced market (Gao, 2002).

How these conditions compare with the situation in China

In china, the state-owned enterprises have dominated the stock market, while the private sectors only play a second fiddle  since it is very difficult to obtain capital. The financial reporting is never transparent despite the fact that there are some companies listed in the stock market. The state-owned enterprises struggle to increase their market share rather than profits. The Chinese authorities have imposed limitations on the stock market, hence making it easier for state-owned enterprises to stage-manage the market discouraging the individual investors. As such, the stock market in China has played an experimental role, at the expense of enhancing capital flow or corporate governances.

How likely is China to develop a market with fair trading?

The listed companies have practiced rampant financial fraud, and the large shareholders are wielding their control strengths at the expense of the rights of small stakeholders. To address this problem, the listed companies governance structure should be improved through introduction of independent director system, which will compel companies to appoint independent directors and at least one of them to be a professional accountant. This will go a long way in ensuring accountability and transparency in the stock markets (Choi & Meek, 2010).

Information disclosure is a very important issue, which directly impacts on investors protection and efficiency of security market. Furthermore, practice of transparency in the information disclosure is likely to attract external investors. Therefore, China should increase the number of information disclosure requirements. Also, the courts should allow the shareholders to sue their companies if they lie about their accounts.

A plan of reforms necessary to achieve stock market developments in China

The China security market focuses on the supply side, which includes listing more and better companies and forcing them to adopt better disclosure and corporate governance standards. This calls for the government to now focus on the demand side of the market. The State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) should have independent auditors to chair their committee so they can ensure financial reporting is credible. Control of the capital should be devolved from the Government, which wastes most of it. The regulation and legal environment that foresees the stock market should be reformed, especially to robustly fight insider trading, which is being practiced in large scale. In addition, independent underwriters should replace political committees in the role of approval of IPOs. Finally, China should invent a multi-level system and devise strategies to boost direct financing to fuel development of the bond market. It would be advantageous if the process of bond issuance is market oriented, transparent and open (Gao, 2002).

Conclusion

Chinas stock market is typical of an emerging market, which is grappling with strong domination by the government at the expense of private investors. This situation is endangering the growth of the stock market because the rights of small investors are enormously trampled upon, and transparency is evidently not being practiced. The issue of financial reporting has grossly been ignored, hence putting the wealth of the shareholders at the mercy of a few dishonest and politically connected companies. The Chinese stock market needs some level of sophistication to ensure that checks and balances are put in place to guarantee security of the shareholders wealth. The reforms should be focused on enhancement of corporate governance and structure realignments.

References

Choi, F., & Meek, G. (2010). International Accounting. Upper Saddle River, N. J.: Pearson Education.

Gao, S. (2002). Dow Jones Indexes: China Stock Market in a global Perspective. New York: Dow Jones & Company, Inc.

Global Universities’ Reforms After the 9/11 Attack

Introduction

Cefalu (2014) believes “that 11th September 2001 became a turning point in America’s war against terrorism” (p. 6). The United States was attacked by terrorists, thus forcing the government to identify new measures to protect every American citizen. The country’s effort to deal with terrorism has led to new policies and strategies. The important goal has been to improve the country’s security. New approaches have also been recommended in order to manage every unforeseeable emergency situation. Government agencies monitor the strategies undertaken by different schools and communities in order to deal with terrorism. This paper, therefore, focuses on the major safety reforms adopted by global universities as a result of the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

Building Institutional Capacity

Campus Emergency Management Teams

Several reforms have been implemented in an attempt to develop better safety and emergency policies. The first approach has been to have a powerful Disaster Management Plan (DMP) in every university and college. Institutional capacity has been achieved by establishing an expert Campus Emergency Management Team (CEMT). The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) designs powerful programs that can be used in different learning institutions. The programs are usually aimed at equipping members of the Campus Emergency Management Team with appropriate skills (Kangabam & Kangabam, 2012). Participants acquire “new competencies in fire suppression, disaster medicine, disaster preparedness, team leadership, light search and rescue, and disaster psychology” (Cefalu, 2014, p. 19).

The CEMT team is therefore encouraged to equip different learners and members of staff with appropriate disaster management skills. The team should also be ready to respond to various security threats. The members of the team use the above competencies to support different students whenever there is an attack. Similar teams have been established in different campuses and learning institutions across the globe. Such teams respond to a wide range of disasters. The main purpose of such CEMTs is to implement various lifesaving strategies and actions whenever there is a disaster. This role “is critical because it supports the needs of many victims until professional rescuers arrive on the targeted scene” (Guerdan, 2010, p. 35).

Such expert CEMTs have been able to address various disasters in different parts of the world. The use of these teams has made it easier for many leaders to make their campuses secure. The teams have promoted the required institutional capacities, thus making more colleges secure. For example, St. Mary’s College has “established a powerful All Hazards Emergency Response Plan in order to address the impact of an emergency on visitors, students, faculty, facilities, and members of staff” (Emergency Response Plan, 2015, para. 1). Similar plans have therefore been established on different campuses across the world. Such plans “empower stakeholders, train students, and avail powerful resources that can be using to deal with a major disaster” (Guerdan, 2010, p. 36).

Communicating Campus Emergency Plans to Stakeholders

Institutional capacity has also been established by communicating different Campus Emergency Plans to every stakeholder. Learning institutions have a wide range of stakeholders. To begin with, students and members of staff should be informed about the existence of such plans. Many university presidents have encouraged different CEMTs to equip learners and members of staff with powerful skills (Illinois Terrorism Task Force, 2015). As well, more stakeholders have been informed about such plans in order to present the best incentives. Institutional effectiveness has also been “achieved through collaboration with different community members, politicians, and police departments” (Kapucu, 2013, p. 8). These two stakeholders can make it easier for campuses to monitor the effectiveness of their plans. A positive relationship with different police departments has been observed to produce positive results.

An informed community finds it easier to respond to various disasters. Members of the society can also be supportive whenever there is a disaster. As well, such stakeholders have the potential to present new ideas and resources. Such ideas can make it possible for the targeted institutions to deal with various emergencies. Most of the “successful Campus Emergency Plans involve various players such as the Human Resource (HR), security, health, IT support, and administration departments” (The Role of IT in Campus Security and Emergency Management, 2008, para. 9). Such departments present the best incentives and ideas whenever there is a disaster. Informed stakeholders will, therefore, be aware of the most appropriate strategies. Such responses will make it possible for many learning institutions to deal with every threat.

Budgeting for Personnel and Equipment Requirements

Many universities across the globe have embraced the power of Disaster Management Programs (DMPs). Such programs have different names depending on the targeted goals. Institutional effectiveness has been achieved through continued analysis of the major issues affecting many campuses. Emergency planners use appropriate strategies in order to inform and involve different stakeholders. Campuses and learning institutions are usually encouraged to have proper budgets. This is the case because “emergency planning is characterized by numerous budgetary allocations” (Broad, 2010, p. 6). Such resources are “usually budgetary and personnel in nature” (Kapucu, 2013, p. 4). That being the case, many schools identify the unique roles and obligations of different stakeholders. An agreement is also “established in order to outline the commitment and participation of different response organizations” (Alpert, 2012, p. 5). This strategy makes it easier for colleges and campuses to respond to various threats.

Campuses have also been allocating enough finances for disaster management. Such funds are used to train different stakeholders and CMETs. The institutions also purchase different materials such as fire extinguishers, medical supplies, and food materials in order to be prepared against any kind of threat. Individuals, departments, teams, and communities should also be equipped with the best skills (Schools & Terrorism, 2015). This move has the potential to support the best outcomes. Evidence-based information is collected from past events in order to improve every DMP. These efforts have made it easier for many schools to establish the best Campus Emergency Plans. The provision of powerful equipment improves the confidence of different stakeholders.

Conclusion

This discussion shows clearly that many university leaders have managed to implement powerful emergency and safety policies in their institutions. Such policies and programs are essential towards dealing with every kind of attack. Institutional capacity in such colleges has been achieved through the use of Campus Emergency Management Teams (Alpert, 2012). As well, many institutions communicate their emergency plans to different stakeholders. Budgeting is also done properly in order to acquire the needed materials and resources. Every campus should, therefore, embrace these practices in order to deal with every threat. The strategy will protect more students from unpredicted attacks.

Reference List

Alpert, B. (2012). . Web.

Broad, W. (2010). U.S. Rethinks Strategy for the Unthinkable. The New York Times, p. 6.

Cefalu, C. (2014). Disaster Preparedness for Seniors. New York, NY: Springer.

Emergency Response Plan: Saint Mary’s College All Hazard Emergency Response Plan. (2015). Web.

Guerdan, B. (2010). Disaster Preparedness and Disaster Management: The Development and Piloting of a Self-Assessment Survey to Judge the Adequacy of Community-Based Physician Knowledge. American Journal of Clinical Medicine, 6(3), 32-40.

Illinois Terrorism Task Force: 2014 Annual Report. (2015). Web.

Kangabam, R., & Kangabam, M. (2012). Disaster Preparedness among the Resident Community- A Case Study of Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, India. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2(3), 1632-1642,

Kapucu, N. (2013). Disaster Resiliency and Culture of Preparedness for University and College Campuses. Administration and Society, 3(1), 1-12.

. (2015). Web.

The Role of IT in Campus Security and Emergency Management: An EDUCAUSE White Paper. (2008). Web.

Earned Value Management: Reform in the Department of Defense

The article written by Paul Solomon focuses on the necessity to change Earned Value Management (EVM) Standard and practices used by the Department of Defense. The scholar believes that federal agencies need adopt the models used by commercial companies. The author identifies several limitations of current approach. Overall, the author’s argument is rather convincing because he provides specific examples that describe the limitation of the existing EVM practices. Moreover, he provides a compelling justification for the future reform of the EVM standards and regulations.

Paul Solomon points out that existing approach to EVM takes into account quantitative aspects of work, but overlooks quality. For instance, earned value is often measured on the basis of software modules that have been completed; however, little attention is being paid to the functionality of this software (Solomon, 2010, p. 19). Moreover, some contractors do not report that they increase the number of drawings without changing functional characteristics of hardware or software. To a great extent, these strategies create the illusion of progress because contractors do not show whether the project is close to completion. More likely, they report the activities that they have already undertaken. In other words, contractors often misrepresent the results of their work.

The failure to use technical performance measures can profoundly affect the Department of Defense because there will be a gap between EVM reported by contractors and the performance of their projects. Secondly, the author argues that existing practices do not take into consideration such a factor as risk. The author argues that risk mitigation plans have to be included in the schedules and estimations of contractors and project managers (Solomon, 2010, p. 20). These are the main problems that the author tries to address.

Paul Solomon believes that the majority of private companies have already rejected the practices used by the Department of Defense and other federal agencies (Solomon, 2010, p. 19). The author believes that the future reform should incorporate technical performance of projects and risk management procedures into EVM. Different approaches have already been adopted by private companies, and they yield better results (Solomon, 2010, p. 19). This importance of this reform becomes more evident if one takes into that the Department of Defense cooperates with hundreds of contractors, and their unreliable reporting will prevent this organization from attaining its goals.

On the whole, it is possible to agree with the arguments advanced by Paul Solomon. Many researchers and project managers insist that Earned Value Management should be based on the measurement of functionality, design, performance, rather than merely quantitative aspects such as the number of code lines that have been written (Solanki, 2009, p. 305). Similarly, the earned value of hardware projects should not be estimated according to the number of drawings; instead one should focus on actual performance of the technology. It is necessary to bridge the gap between qualitative and quantitative aspects of earned value management. Merely quantitative measurement of earned value is not longer acceptable for private companies since such form of measurement is not valid or reliable.

The issues addressed by Paul Solomon are extremely important for the Department of Defense since this governmental agency depends on effective cooperation with contractors. The reform suggested by the author can improve the work of many governmental agencies. Project managers should ensure that the measurement of earned value reflects real, rather than imagined progress.

Reference List

Solomon, P. (2010). Earned Value Management Acquisition Reform. Defense AT&L, 39(6), 16-20.

Solanki, P. (2009). Earned Value Management: Integrated View of Cost and Schedule Performance. Delhi: Global India Publications.

Whether or Not Modern Sport Law Reform Has Gone Too Far

There are numerous sporting activities existing globally. Interestingly, some of them have stringent regulations that govern their execution. On a critical reflection, some sports are quite dangerous and involve massive risks taken by participants. These include cricket, hockey, and skiing among others (Corkery 2011). The chances of getting injured are quite high. Surprisingly, the participants and lovers of such sports hardly fear the risks involved despite the condemnation from some activists. While reflecting on this issue as well as the current sport law reforms reported by IPP regarding these activities, it is agreeable that the modern sport law reforms have gone too far by bestowing the responsibility of injuries arising in sporting on the injured people. It is improper to consider injuries occurring in the sporting events as deliberate. Most of the sport injuries are accidental and might be caused either by an opponent, conditions of the field, high risks in the games involved, and at some points, furious spectators.

Evidently, there are numerous injuries that occur during sporting or recreational activities. All these injuries cannot be claimed on the injured individuals. In some circumstances, a sports person can injure his or her opponent deliberately to prevent him or her from winning. These are accusable incidences before a court of law or any sport tribunal set to solve such matters and establish appropriate penalties (Siekmann & Soek 2012). Additionally, injuries that occur during risky sporting activities like skiing mentioned above should not be blamed on the participants as proposed by the law. For example, while scrutinizing the previous cases regarding sport injuries, it is evident that a resolution can be reached in case a sports person is injured during games regardless of the type.

Critically, blaming injuries on the concerned players is inappropriate. Hence, this law requires a massive reformation since its stipulations are not consumable in the sporting arenas. Instead of inducing and ratifying justice, the law thwarts everything and leaves the injured individuals on their own devices. There are insurers, bodies, or organizations, which compensate individuals who are injured during sporting activities (Corkery 2011). Surprisingly, when the law reform declares such injuries baseless and announces them as responsibilities of injured people, it is quite improper in varying contexts. For example, the case provided in this matter is clear on some stipulation of sporting and declares some compensation to be done to the injured individuals.

Actually, the modern sport-law reform has taken the issue too far as indicated before. There should be a coherent understanding on the matter before it is declared consumable by the public. Evidently, this modern law acts and operates as if the injuries that occur during sporting are due to carelessness of the sporting individuals (Siekmann & Soek 2012). This is an improper assumption that the law seemed to have made. Additionally, there are fundamental legal issues that arise when serious injuries happen in sports. These should be observed cautiously as demanded by the law in such circumstances. Since the modern reforms regard such injuries as the responsibility of the injured parties, it becomes very challenging for people to seek for their legal rights with regard to such matters. The cases provided illustrate this provision with precision. On critical reflection, it is recognizable that sport injuries are unavoidable eventualities, which should be accepted as they come. Conclusively, it is imperative to assert that the recent IPP report on modern sport law reform has gone too far in its entire contexts.

Reference List

Corkery, J 2011, Dangerous Sports and Obvious Risks – Anyone For Cricket?, Bond University, Sydney.

Siekmann, R. & Soek, J 2012, Lex sportiva: what is sports law?, Asser Press, The Hague.

Project Management: Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), Its Accomplishments, Constraints, and Current Reform in Relation to Project Management in the Nigerian Power Sector

Executive Summary

This research work is designed to investigate energy industry in Nigeria, particularly the Power Holding Company of Nigeria’s dealings in terms of project management. Essentially, the study will focus on a variety of issues pertaining the company’s accomplishments, constraints, and current reforms in the power industry.

The study will be titled “Project Management: Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), Its Accomplishments, Constraints and Current Reform In Relation To Project Management in The Nigerian Power Sector”. It is of the idea of finding out how project management has been conducted, challenges involved, and eventually successes achieved.

The objective of the study will be to highlight the importance of PHCN, its achievements since formation, investigate the growth or decline the power sector, investigate challenges faced, and study the current reforms being undertaken, as well as their benefits. Relevant data for this research topic will be sourced from a number of sources both primary and secondary sources.

A descriptive method of study will be employed for this research. Questionnaires will be issued to the staff in the organization, where 210 people will participate. A sample of 140 will be drawn from this population. Chi-square test will be used to test the validity of the hypothesis.

Background

The inability of most of the countries in Africa to provide access to power to most of its citizens has been considered as the curse on development (Okoro, & Chikuni 2007 p. 125). Energy is particularly crucial for any country that wants to achieve sustainable development.

Many developed cities across the world have seen those kinds of tremendous growths because of availability and access to energy (Barnett & Rolando, 2002, p. 177). The availability to a number of sectors of the country always determines the rate and level of development of that country. Energy is an indispensable element of transforming a subsidence economy to a service-oriented or production economy (Ekpo, & Iyoha 2007, p.127).

Energy has vast impact on education, manufacturing and production, service health, transport, housing and other demography. The need for safe and reliable source of energy has inspired countries to establish companies that would enable them to produce, and distribute energy. One of such companies is the Power Holding Company of Nigeria (Ekpo, & Iyoha 2007, p.127).

Lack of access to these energy sources can cause and increase in poverty. For instance, people would spend a lot of time seeking cheap and available sources like firewood and charcoal for cooking and lighting (Barnett & Rolando, 2002, p. 177).

These cause so much emission hence not friendly for the environment. Furthermore, cheap sources can cause health risks for instance use of paraffin and coal, as they require exceptionally large ventilation to burn.

The best energy alternative has been electricity as it is clean and remarkably efficient. Its development in Nigeria goes back to the late 19th century. During that time, in 1898, the first electricity generating company was built in Lagos.

According to Okoro and Chikuni (2007), “Distribution of power was a bit poor until 1950s since, the pattern of electricity lines was a few individual electricity power undertakings scattered across urban centres” (p.125). Few of those undertakings were public works departments, and municipal councils (Ekpo, & Iyoha 2007, p.127).

The power Holding company of Nigeria (PHCN) reserves the authority to produce and distribute electricity. The company has an installed capacity of 4,200 MW, a target it never reaches. At the best moments, the company produces 3,300 MW. Only 40% of the population has access to electricity, and it gets worse in rural areas where only 10% of people have access to electricity (Hall 2006, p. 7; Ariyo, & Jerome 2004, p.5).

Research Aims

The goal of the research will be to investigate the accomplishments, challenges and the current reforms that PHCN faced during its project management endeavours. This case study helps in understanding how the organization has been performing since its inception in terms of power production and distribution in the country.

Specific aims of the research included the following:

  1. To investigate the importance, achievements or the benefits of PHCN formation.
  2. To examine the growth and decline of the power production and distribution.
  3. To investigate the current reforms in the power sector and recommend appropriate strategies that could better in the current power production and distribution.

Objectives

The objective of the study was to analyze the project management of the PHCN in Nigeria. The other objectives of the research will be;

  1. To study the various regimes the power sector has gone through and the accomplishments achieved by each of these regimes.
  2. To determining the impact of the formation and functioning of PHCN on the power sector in Nigeria.
  3. To investigate the strengths and challenges of PHCN in all sectors of PHCN.

Questions Significance

This research will be immensely beneficial to every sector in Nigeria’s economy particularly the PHCN and its management need to establish a policy, which will ensure efficient and effective power production and distribution (Ibitoye, & Adenikinju 2007, p. 501). The study will help to highlight the challenges that plague PHCN.

The state owned organization (PHCN) will be able to use this research to assess its efficiency and means of working so that it can make amendments in its project management strategies where necessary. This viewpoint will help managers to develop ideas and solution to the said challenges hence coming up with the best ways to manage its projects.

The study hopes to arouse more study into the functional departments of the company by scholars hence broadening research resources. Therefore, the research will be of immense benefit to managers and researches as a point of reference for study and decision-making.

Literature Review

To be able to understand the position of Nigeria’s power sector in a practical context, it is pertinent to have a brief review of the PHCN developments to offer more insight in the industry since its inception (Ibitoye, & Adenikinju 2007, p. 501).

Brief History of PHCN

Decree number 24 of April 1972 formed the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA) formed following the merging of the Niger Dam Authority and the Electricity Corporation of Nigeria (ECN) (Hall 2006, p. 7). The 2005 unbinding of NEPA led to the formation of Power Holding Company of Nigeria.

NEPA had been established to maintain efficient and coordinated power supply to every part of the country. Regardless of the problems that NEPA faced after its formation, the organization was able to make significant developments in the country’s socio-economic development. This saw Nigeria advance unusually fast into the industrial society.

Importance of PHCN

The power production and distribution industry in Nigeria is under the management of the Power Holding Company of Nigeria. The power sector has seen a number of transformation thought that has not been enough to increase its supply of power to the people and still the supply fall below 40% (Okoro, & Chikuni 2007 p. 125). However, some few merits of PHCN have been identified as follows:

The power holding company of Nigeria has significantly improved the electricity billing system and clients can now settle their bill conveniently and via a much easier process (PHCN 2004, p.1). As a result, bank revenue-collection system was introduced to complement the collection of cash from the PHCN counters.

This program has enabled facilitation of prompt and regular settlement of the monthly power bills. This has been made possible by the fact that customers are no longer required to travel out of their residential areas to towns to pay electricity bills (PHCN 2004, p.1).

Customer service has improved due to institutionalization of the business. There is full and accurate settling of bills and the staff is more motivated to do their job (PHCN 2004, p.1).

Company Background in Various Regimes and Achievements

Supply of electricity commenced after formation of two small generating set to light up Lagos. By 1951, ECN was established by act of parliament to oversee the distribution. The Niger Dams Authority (NDA) was established after construction of a hydropower station of R. Niger in 1968, to distribute power (ESI 2004, p.18). The two bodies merged in 1972 to become NEPA.

NEPA was unbundled to institute power reforms to be renamed Power Holding Company of Nigeria in 2005 (Ekpo 2008, p.78). NEPA was state owned organization vertically integrated power management firm. The organization has the authority to produce, transmit, and distribute electricity.

As a public utility company, NEPA has been able to tap the country’s large water potentials to increases power production (Anoruo 2004, p.2). The NDA was able to construct vital dams in Nigeria including Kainji, Afam, Delta, Jebba, Egbin Shiroro and Sapele power stations (ESI 2004, p.18). The Sapele and Afam thermal stations also add to the energy source in Nigeria.

NEPA was able to fulfil its role of developing and maintaining an efficient and coordinated distribution of power through the federation (Anoruo 2004, p.2). NEPA enjoyed the quasi-commercialization status and building six main power stations increasing generation of power to 3,450 MW (Adoghe 2008, p.78).

However, even with these achievements, the population and power needs grew exceptionally fast in Nigeria that the company could not meet the target. It hence needed more power stations to boost production (Anoruo 2004, p.2).

Because of the unbundling process, NEPA became PHCN following the Power reform bill signed into law by President Olesugun Obasanjo (Jenide 2005, p.6). The policy decree provided the legal and regulatory guideline for the new strategies of commercial power generation and distribution. Private companies were also allowed to be involved in the production, transmission, and distribution of power.

PHCN made some advances even amidst myriads of problems (Ariyo, & Jerome 2004, p.6). The organization saw more additional thermal stations constructed. As already highlighted in previous paragraphs, thus body saw the development of better billing system increasing collection and making billing more efficient.

The PHCN is now separated into six power generation companies and eleven power distribution companies. All these firms will be privatized (Ikeme, & Ebohon 2005, p.1214). Logistics and union problems are some of the huddles delaying the process.

Reforms and Constraints

The inability of the PHCN to achieve the target power target has inspired reforms. The law initiating these reforms was signed in 2005 – the Nigerian Electric Power Sector reform act. The decree stipulates that there be a Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commissions (NERC) (Jenide 2005, p.7).

The commission will function to regulate the energy system ensuring that there is efficient, fair, and organized competitive power market while at the same time shielding the public interest (Ikeme, & Ebohon 2005, p.1214).

NERC has been privatization of the utility company. This has been slow to take off since the public feels that; unguided privatization will cause skyrocketing prices making poor people more vulnerable (Chikwendu 2006, p.45). Something the organization should be seeking to increase. The famous power sector reform has been seen as an effort to propel the economy in some direction.

The problem is, however, whether timing is correct (Jenide 2005, p.7). Some critics doubt whether the process was given adequate thought and scrutiny.

The reforms are intended to improve the power sector to a level of attracting private sector participation, enlarge production capacity, improve service delivery making them more efficient, and encourage capital investors. However, even within the construction of new power stations, the reforms have not seen the expected results yet (Ezigbo 2004, p.104).

Hypothesis

Based on the research objective developed for this study, the following hypotheses will be used;

  • Ho – the various regimes PHCN has gone through have not attained significant benefits.
  • Ha1 – the PHCN has had a positive impact on Nigeria’s power sector.
  • Ha 2 – the PHCN has had benefits to Power sector despite challenges.

Proposed Data Analysis Plan: Theoretical Framework

For quite a long time, Nigeria has not seen the development and advances it expected to see in its energy sector even with several reforms it established. Theoretical frameworks will be used to investigate a number of topics that may have caused or resulted into the benefits seen with each regime of power management.

The method is beneficial in that it will help in critical evaluation of the theoretical assumption; it will connect the investigator with existing knowledge then guide him/her to a new discovery based on the hypothesis. The main questions of why and how are answered allowing the researcher a straightforward description of a phenomenon observed like poor power generation amidst reforms.

Methodology

Research design: The study shall employ a descriptive survey method for investigation. It is deemed paramount to determine the process and method of study, since it will offer better background information to the readers enabling them to do better evaluation and understand how conclusions were deduced. Both primary and secondary sources of data will be used for the study.

Primary data will be collected via interviews of the PHCN employees while secondary data will include literature on PHCN from the library and the internet. Population of study will be employees of the company and some consumers of electricity. Data collection method will be a questionnaire.

Anticipated Problems and Timetable (Gantt chart)

The researcher anticipates few problems with regard to conducting the study. He anticipated lack of access to some important information from company employees as government utilities are cautious with giving out information. Financial and time constraints are likely to limit the study.

Research Timeline
Task Time
Defining The Topic and Consulting Supervisors Mar 4 – Mar 6 2012
Developing Research Questions collection of literature Mar 5 – Mar 15, 2012
Preparation of the Research Proposal Mar 18 – Mar 25, 2012
Presentation of The Research Proposal Mar 26, 2012
Literature review or Secondary Research Mar 28 – Apr 4, 2012
Finalization Of Research Methods And Plan Apr 4 – Apr 8, 2012
Presentation of the Proposal to University Research Department for correction and approval Apr 10, 2012
Submission of Proposal To Ethical issues regulatory agency Apr 11, 2012
Organizing Travelling, Obtaining Contacts, and Making the Budget For Research Apr 12 – Apr 13, 2012
Receiving Authorization From Ethical issues agency Apr 15, 2012
Carrying Out Pilot Research and Writing Up the results Apr 16 – Apr 13, 2012
Revising Research Methodology In Light Of Pilot study Jun 14, 2012
Carrying Out of the Research Jun 15 – Jun 29, 2012
Analyzing the Findings And Mapping Out the Presentation And Thesis Jun 30 – Jul 6, 2012
Writing the First Draft and consulting with supervisor Jun 7 – Jun 10, 2012
Writing the Final Draft Jun 11 – Jun 13, 2012
Consulting with Examiners and time for the Supervisor And Research Office to Make Consultation with Examiners Jun 14 – Jun 18, 2012
Preparing the Final Thesis For Submission and time for the Supervisor to evaluate Readiness For Submission Jun 19 – Jun 21, 2012
Submission of the Thesis Jun 24, 2012

Conclusion

Conclusion For a number of years, regardless of the consisted investment by the government into the power sector, the country has experienced power outages and the public is not convinced that this is normal there are complaints that the tariffs reduced compared to cost of power production.

To end all these problems, the state instituted power reforms and the main one has been the privatization of the state owned PHCN. This measure is intended to curb production, stop financial losses, and make efficient power distribution.

Reference List

Adoghe, A. U., 2008. Power Sector Reforms in Nigeria – Likely Effects on Power Reliability and Stability in Nigeria. Web.

Anoruo, C., 2004. Unbundling and Its Dynamics. NEPA News.

Ariyo, A., & Jerome, A., 2004. Utility Privatization and the Poor: Nigeria in Focus. In HBS Global Issues Papers NO.12.

Barnett, S., & Rolando, O., 2002. Operational Aspects of Fiscal Policy in Oil-Producing Countries. Working Paper No. WP/02/177. Washington DC: International Monetary Fund.

Chikwendu, C., 2006. Engendering Nigerian Energy Policy. Paper Prepared For The UN Commission On Sustainable Development. ENERGIA – International Network on Gender and Sustainable Energy. Leusden.

Ekpo, I. E., & Iyoha, M.O., 2007. Nigeria’s Power Sector: Progress, Problems and Prospects. The International Journal on Hydropower and Dams, 14(6), pp. 127.

Ekpo, I., 2008. Challenges of Hydropower Development in Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources paper No. 262, pp.76-80.

ESI, 2004. Attracting Investment and Sustaining Development. Privatizing the Nigerian Electricity Sector. Web.

Ezigbo, O., 2004. Nigeria: Expanding NEPA’s Generation Capacity: Dream or Reality? This Day Newspaper, pp. 104.

Hall, D., 2006. Water and Electricity in Nigeria. Web.

Ibitoye, F. I., & Adenikinju, A., 2007. Future Demand for Electricity in Nigeria, Applied Energy Journal, 84(5), pp. 492-504.

Ikeme, J., & Ebohon, O. J., 2005. Nigeria’s Electric Power Sector Reform: What Should Form the Key Objectives? Energy Policy, 33(9), pp. 1213-1221.

Jenide, A., 2005. Understanding the Electric Power sector Reform Act. The Guardian, 6, pp. 6-9.

Okoro, O. L., & Chikuni, E., 2007. Power Sector Reforms in Nigeria: Opportunities and Challenges. Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, 18(3), pp. 123-132.

PHCN, 2004. Customer Service Charter: PHCN Nigeria. Web.

Business Administration Education Reform in Teaching Style

Full bibliographic information of source

Bai, Y., & Wei, C. (2018). Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 18(5), 2124–2133. Web.

Stated research question and thesis

The paper addresses the stimulus that big data can give to the reformation of business administration teaching, learning, and academic research (Bai & Wei, 2018). The authors expect to find evidence on big data being a major driving force in this field.

Major argument and refutations

The authors suggest that big data and university education are interdependent, indicating a need for concurrent development. The researchers establish that there are several ways in which big data influences business administration education. First, it helps overcome time and space limits, providing the increased influx of students (and, simultaneously, data) through online education. Secondly, it allows the facilitation of individual educational experience through adaptive learning. It also enhances opportunities for comprehensive data sourcing for teaching purposes. Big data appears to be an important impetus for management, research, and service reform in education.

Implications of research

As for practical implications, big data can be of major help to students by assisting in university application decision-making by providing comprehensive information on tuition fees, graduates employment rate etc. Moreover, adaptive learning ensures that students have specifically tailored academic experience along with better tools for self-awareness. It might also be of major help to teachers by giving them better performance evaluation and academic failure risk assessment tools.

Critique of author’s work including methods

The paper lacks a methodology section hindering an objective interpretation of the results. Compared to some other studies, it does not attempt to provide specific guidelines and recommendations as a part of the conclusion (Huda et al., 2017). However, this paper’s advantage is that it covers a broad range of educational aspects big data can be employed in.

Research questions raised

  1. What are the relationship between big data and higher education?
  2. What kind of reforms in business administration education can big data stimulate?
  3. What are the implications of applying big data to business administration education in terms of teaching, learning, and management reforms?

Quotes that can be used towards mentorship and business

“The big data provides new teaching methods such as multimedia web-based teaching, remote teaching and computer-aided teaching for the university education, thus promoting the popularization of the university education and breaking down the limitation of time and space” (Bai & Wei, 2017, p. 2127).

“Government policy and financial support, promotion by business groups, strategic insights of the universities and colleges as well as social needs of big data professionals are the four aspects that influence the big data’s deep development in higher education.” (Bai &Wei, 2017, p. 2128).

References

Bai, Y., & Wei, C. (2018). Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 18(5), 2124–2133. Web.

Huda, M., Maseleno, A., Shahrill, M., Jasmi, K. A., Mustari, I., & Basiron, B. (2017). Exploring adaptive teaching competencies in big data era. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET), 12(03), 68-83.

Revolutions and Reforms in Egypt and the Arab World

Revolution and evolution are two words which always sound similar but are different in meaning. Evolution refers to a slow and gradual change of situation, circumstances or a society. A human being is said to have undergone evolution to become what he is today.

Revolution on the other hand refers a change that is fundamental which occurs in both the structures of an organization as well as the power aspect. Reform is another aspect that has constantly been spoken about and refers to improving or making better by bringing about some needed changes which have the effect of removing any faults or loopholes that may have been in existence. Simply put therefore, reforms seek to improve the existing systems while revolution seeks to totally do away with existing systems and introduce new ones.

There are those who support revolution while others are in support of reforms. It has been argued that a revolution is better than reforms as a revolution is more effective. This discussion looks why revolutions are better than reforms with keen focus being paid on the most recent revolutions in Egypt and the Arab world.

Looking at the current turn of events in Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Syria and other Arab countries, it has become apparent that revolution is the way to go. Revolution simply means that the old systems of governance that have caused the people so much misery must be done away with and in their place new structures of governance and power be introduced and this is the main concern of revolution.

Looking at the case study of Egypt, Hosni Mubarrak had remained in power for many decades and was very oppressive to the ordinary citizens. It would have been highly illogical to argue that the systems that Mubarak had introduced most of which had grounded to a halt be reformed. It is quite obvious that you cannot raise the dead back to life which is what reformists try to achieve (Salzman 91).

By advocating for reforms, you are simply acknowledging that the institutions in place have failed and that something needs to be done to them so that the may function. Such an argument is not only a waste of resources but also a method of fooling the public. Since reforms are about putting patches to those areas that do not seem to be functioning while retaining the same systems, the people are continually made tolerant of the situation which they are obviously not happy with.

The French Revolution is a perfect example. During this time, the efforts of reformers if there were any at all were not recognized because they did not have any effect at all.

What happened therefore was that the leadership continued to ensure oppression up to a point where the people could take it no more and this saw a revolution which was supported by close to 97 % of the population in France (Simpson 24). Reformers have a tendency of creating assumptions that everything is alright and that just a few things here and there which need to be fixed and everything will be good to go.

There is an element of pretence among reformers and this means that whenever people complain of bad governance, they are silenced through the patching up trick. If this continued for a long time, there will be a build up of emotions among the masses and this is what leads to revolutionaries when people cannot hold it up no more.

Another reason why revolutions are preferred over reforms is the fact that reforms limit opportunities, be it in terms of leadership, job opportunities as well as economic prosperity (Pei 198). This is because reforms tend to retain that which in existence and only improves it a little and therefore recycles the same people, same institutions, same organizational structure, same old thing but dressed differently.

They say that a zebra with or without stripes is still a zebra. The meaning of this phrase is that if there was a way one could get rid of the stripes that zebras normally have, this will not make a zebra cease from being the animal that it is just because it is without the stripes. The same application to our institutions that if an institution or the organizational structures that have been out in place have failed to work (Luxemberg 73).

Revolutions are also the best way to remove from power dictatorial regimes like those of Hosni Mubarak formerly of Egypt and Colonel Muamar Gaddafi of Libya. Usually, such leaders have exceeded their terms of power and they are still not willing to leave power the constitutional way.

Furthermore, they have destroyed or institutions through abuse of power and the people feeling the greater impact of this abuse are the common citizens (Jones 195). What better way of dealing with such leaders other than to cause revolt and have the leave power by force.

The case study of Zimbabwe is a perfect example. Robert Mugabe has been in power since Zimbabwe attained independence and has done nothing continually destroy the economy of this once prosperous country until the currency of this country has totally value. He will not agree to leave power even when they go to the polls and he is defeated. Such a president can only be ousted from power through revolution and not through reforms. Revolution is therefore the best way to bring about the much-needed reforms in a society.

Works Cited

Jones, Paulo. Reform and revolution in France: the politics of transition, 1774-1791. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Print

Luxemberg, Rosa. Reform or Revolution. London: Pathfinder Press, 1973. Print

Pei, Minxin. From Reform to Revolution: The Demise of Communism in China and the Soviet Union. New York: Harvard University Press, 1998. Print

Salzman, Neil. Reform and Revolution: The Life and Times of Raymond Robins. Kent: Kent State University Press, 1991. Print

Simpson, James. Reform and cultural revolution, Volume 2. Oxford University Press, 2004. Print

Social Security Strategies Reform Plan

Introduction

Social security is significant in the economic and social sustainability of every economy’s population, more so in making retirement decisions. For many employees, social security implies greater resources on reaching the age of eligibility for benefits than they would have had otherwise. For some other workers, social security means waiting until eligibility for benefits before retirement can be afforded. Retirement incentives are affected by the details of the rules determining benefits, for instance, since benefits are paid as an annuity, the perceived payoff to continued work depends on life expectancy. It also depends on the extent to which workers appreciate the insurance benefits inherent in annuities. The relationship between the size of benefits and the age at which they start determines the retirement incentives; social security matters for the labor supply of younger workers whose take-home pay is reduced by payroll taxes. Moreover, the effect of social security on their labor supply also depends on how they perceive and appreciate the way that current earnings increase the retirement benefits that they may eventually receive (Koitz 46).

Social security affects the level of savings employees undertake to provide for their retirements, while its impact on government finances can affect the government’s contribution to national savings. Beyond its impact on labor and capital supplies, social security plays a significant role in the allocation of risks in the economy, for instance, by holding assets, a partially or fully funded social security system spreads the risk in returns to capital over a wider population. By having a system that is not fully funded, social security spreads the risks to cohort-wide wages over more generations than current employees. Consideration of policy recommendations for social security must go beyond normative economic analysis to also consider politics. Moreover, due to its high visibility, legislative consideration of social security lends itself to thinking about the links between policy recommendations and political and economic outcomes (Diamond 2).

Contemplation of the effects of social security on the labor and capital markets involves the study of multiple links and subtle interactions. For various reasons including missing markets, time-inconsistent behavior, and asymmetric information, normative analysis of social security must be approached as part of the second-best theory, not as an application of the Fundamental Welfare Theorem. In this research paper, I will propose a new work support system that will enhance and improve the living standards of employees. This has resulted from the fact that the current plans have been politicized and as a consequence, many workers have lost huge sums of money to politicians. A new work support system is needed that will have clear strategies on how to overcome political influence.

Workers and redistribution

Many workers are living between dependency and self-sufficiency. However, irrespective of all the significant efforts that have been made, the workers cannot earn enough to support themselves and their families. Nevertheless, the policymakers have not ignored the plight of the workers who ought to struggle to meet their life demands. Several recent federal policy amendments have multiplied and enhanced the opportunities for needy workers to combine earned income with means-tested tax-transfer benefits. I wish to propose a State-level policy choice, which if adopted by the state government can o create and expand the programs to assist needy workers. The program will be referred to as a work support system. Three main groups are going to be served by the work support system: low-wage workers, low-income workers as well as people making the transition from welfare to work. It has two related goals: to discourse welfare dependency and to help needy workers escape poverty and achieve self-sufficiency.

The work support system will be formed through influential social policy trends. The devolution revolution will empower the nation to make significant policy choices, especially in the areas of cash welfare payments, child care grants, and medical assistance programs. Consequently, there will be significant variation in the nature and generosity of the work support system from one state to another. Policymakers can use program benefits as leverage to encourage people to behave responsibly. Although personal responsibility is demanded in many areas, such as education, child support, and teenage pregnancy, the notion expressed most often is an expectation that able-bodied people must work. By connecting the receipt of means-tested benefits to earned income, the work support system is intended to encourage and reward work. Furthermore, the system will link the well-being of needy workers to the performance of the economy, especially to the employment prospects of workers at the bottom of the labor market (Stoker and Wilson, p. 7).

Features of the new work support system

Despite the influence that devolution and personal responsibility have had on the structure and development of the former work support system, in many ways the system’s recent history contrasts with the welfare policy trends the dominated the 1990s. After the welfare system is reformed by the devolution of policymaking authority to the states, the new work support system will be influenced by devolution, the expansion of national programs, and the creation of federal mandates to the states. The new work support system is intended to overcome the effects of devolution by lying strategies that will accommodate the expansion of national programs.

Although welfare benefits will be reduced at the state and federal levels, many work support benefits become more generous. Decisions to enhance benefit generosity will be made by both the federal and the state governments. Furthermore, cash assistance benefits from the work support system will be made more generous. Many states will use their discretion to enhance the value of the means-tested benefits they provided to needy workers.

Whereas welfare recipients will be disciplined by reforms that create work requirements and time-limited benefits, they will also grant privileged status as work support beneficiaries. People who make the transition from welfare to work will enjoy exclusive eligibility for some work support benefits as well as priority eligibility for others.

I advise the welfare recipients to leave the welfare system and enter the labor market to earn their keep. However, the opportunities to combine means-tested benefits with earned income will be expanded and enhanced (Stoker and Wilson, p. 7).

Support For a New Work Support System (social security plan)

Reflects of Dependency and Self-sufficiency

Many workers live between dependency and self-sufficiency since the income and benefits they receive from the labor market are not sufficient to support their families. These workers are beyond dependency because they work, but they earn less for them to be self-supporting. They require materials support to make ends meet, and the work support system that I am proposing provides that help in various diverse methods. The programs that compose the system are not welfare traps; work supports will combat poverty in addition to promoting self-sufficiency simultaneously by redistributing income through work.

Redistribution through work may be a proactive idea to some readers because it challenges influential views of dependency and self-sufficiency. There are some links between participation in means-tested programs the irresponsible, antisocial behaviors the result in dependency and perpetuate the cycle of poverty. Work, on the other hand, is associated with self-sufficiency. Even though some welfare clients use means-tested benefits as a way to evade work responsibilities, it is also true that millions of needy working families combine means-tested benefits with earned income to mitigate the limitations of their earning power. The distinctive nature of redistribution through work is reflected in the welfare dependency literature.

Means-tested programs contribute to dependency when receiving benefits is an alternative to work. However, when means-tested benefits complement and support work, the link between participation in means-tested programs and dysfunctional, antisocial behavior is broken. This link defines the underclass and the welfare dependency problem. As eligibility for means-tested benefits is linked to work requirements and as means-tested benefits become available to needy working families, it is no longer plausible to consider means-tested programs and work as alternatives. Recent policy changes have subjected welfare programs, like cash assistance and food stamps, to ever-demanding work requirements. Similarly, programs that provide child care and medical assistance support people who are moving from welfare to work.

Although workers strive to be self-sufficient, the income and benefits they command in the labor market may not allow them to be fully self-supporting. When work is not enough, a work support system or program can help needy working families to make ends meet. In this perspective, work supports contributes to self-sufficiency. This is a point where a family is minimally self-sufficient when the combined income and benefits it receives from work and work support programs meet its needs. As work support programs become more generous, opportunities for needy working families to escape poverty and privation are created. By combining means-tested benefits with work, the work support system can alter the established relations among work, and poverty in addition to creating new possibilities for redistribution in many states (Livingston, p. 32).

Nature of the problem: work, welfare, and poverty

Workers are less likely to be poor than non-workers. In America, families with at least one worker had a poverty rate of 7.6 % in 2001 as compared to a poverty rate of 30.5 % for families in which no one worked. This relationship is consistent irrespective of the family type, showing that work is a powerful means of avoiding or escaping poverty. However, it is a fact that many poor people work and many workers are poor. The working poor is people who spend at least 27 weeks in the labor force (working or looking for work), but whose income falls below the official poverty level. The work support program will help such workers in sustaining their families and meeting other financial demands. The work support system which is a new social security plan will raise the standard of living of such people by enabling them to acquire material wealth or meet health bills in addition to sustaining them when they grow old and retire (Livingston, p. 32).

Women, young people, and members of minority groups are more likely to be among the working poor. In addition, those with low educational achievement or work in the service sector are also more likely to be among the working poor. Therefore, a new social security plan (work support system) will greatly assist these categories of people to overcome some of the burdens of life that they experience (Diamond and Orszag, p. 164).

The new work support system will help many families as there are families that are above the poverty level that are eligible for a variety of means-tested government benefits and still struggle to make ends meet. The federal poverty standard is too low to identify all of the working poor, because it does not account for the additional expenses incurred when working, such as for child care and transportation. The standard also excludes those that are looking for jobs. This makes it essential to have a work support system that will assist them in various ways including financial support. Low-income working families are likely to have young children. They are also likely to be headed by a person with low educational achievement. Such families are also not likely to be having secondary workers who can support them. Once a work support system is put in place, such families will manage to get an extra coin or material wealth that can help them meet the demands of life. A third of all workers are low earners. The majority of the low earners have limited education, having attained a high school diploma or less. Women and members of minority groups are more likely to be low earners (Stricker, p. 226).

Most low earners suffer from both low wages and limited work opportunities. These same low earners are responsible for providing a significant contribution to total family income in low-income families since more than a third of such families have young children to support. With these kinds of problems not only in America but in other countries, new work support systems that will help these families meet their life demands will be of great importance. The work support system will help meet the school fees of the young children of these families, in addition, to helping put food on the table. There are health-related problems that do arise when a family is not able to meet all of its basic needs. These problems then result in the family spending more money on medication. A work support system that will have a medical care section will be of great help to the workers.

There is of great importance to developing a work support system that will look into the welfare of women and young people since they are the most affected groups. It is found that women and minority groups are the ones that have low educational achievements and there is a great need for them to be assisted to meet their needs. Low educational achievement limits their ability to find profitable employment and to advance through the ranks when they are working (Bovbjerg, p. 21).

Labor market

Other than reforming the social security plan, there is a need to expand the labor market by expanding the economy. Economic expansion will benefit poor as well as near-poor workers. Economic growth promotes employment opportunities. The poor and the near-poor are more likely than others to be unemployed or underemployed; economic growth will expand their opportunities and assist them by providing regular work, the opportunity to earn income. The economic growth will be accompanied by better terms of medical care which will go hand in hand with the new work support system in raising the living standards of workers and especially the low earners.

The aspect of the new work support system (social security plan)

The new work support system (social security plan) will aim at moving beyond the fringes of libertarian discourse. It will be able to incorporate individual accounts. The new system will incorporate the options of the private sector. Once the system is incorporated, we anticipate that by 2016, the benefits paid out by the program will exceed payroll taxes and these benefits will exhaust the Social Security trust fund and its interest earnings by 2038, at which point incomings receipts will be sufficient to pay for a bit more than two-thirds of promised benefits.

The new system will include the private sector since private accounts are funded through the redirection of existing payroll taxes. This will hasten the time at which the exhaustion of the trust fund will occur. This is because the funds that go into these private accounts are reserved for the account holders until their retirement and cannot be used to pay for present benefits. The new work support system will be able to lay strategies that will overcome the long-term deficit. This long-term deficit is caused by the future decline in the ratio of workers to retirees. Though at the moment the current social security is running a surplus and the deficit is small, the prospects of increased taxes and an increased number of retirees might call for reform of the current plan. The structure of this new work support system will employ measures that limit the political influence from the politicians as it is evident that most of the plans that have been discussed in the past have failed because of political influence (Leimgruber, p. 42).

As opposed t the Medicare program which bears only the cost of a specified population, the largest and most expensive elderly group, this system or program will have a fiscal standing that is far more sensitive to the age profile of the population. There is a great need to deviate from politics since they have collapsed many other plans that otherwise would have been of great help to the citizens. The social security plan will enable workers to save money and the beneficiaries will receive a fixed amount that will help them purchase either private or public medical cover. This fixed amount can be taken as the government’s defined contribution for Medicare coverage and how quickly it grows over time will be crucial in determining what proportion instead falls on beneficiaries. The contributions will be required to grow at a faster rate than premiums of health plans so that the financial protection offered by the new system will not constrict in the future (Hacker, p. 329).

Social security will be privatized to overcome the powerful policy-feedback effects that have made the retrenchment of the program perilous in the past. The policy feedback has hindered so many other plans that would have helped workers and non-worker in the country. This is due to the political influence that they have faced when restructuring them. However, once this new security plan is privatized; there will be minimized the influence of politics in the way it will run its operations. This will help the plan to survive future turbulences of politics as it will not be run by political agendas. This means that even when there will be new governance, the plan will hold to its mission and will have a high probability of remaining in the course despite changes in politics.

Transition

The proposed new social security plan will cover their medical bills as well as their work-related financial problems. Thus it requires a good plan for an effective transition. The transition will take place in three main phases. The first phase will be civic education for the workers. This education is geared to generate a clear understanding of how the system will work and benefit the workers.

The second phase will be to endorse the plan in working areas. This will involve several steps to make sure that the workers do not lose when shifting to the new plan. Heir shares from the former system are going to be transferred to the new system. Our committee has sophisticated computerized systems that will enable this transition.

The final phase will be to introduce the new system in the hospital and healthcare systems. This phase is intended to cater to the hospital bills that are outstanding for the new members of the plan. I wish to stress that this is not a political game and no propaganda will be entertained.

Conclusion

In modern times, people from all over the world have become aware of the importance of social security to an extent of even establishing privately funded plans to complement the government-sponsored pension plans. Even though there are significant aspects of all evolutions, every state that makes such a changeover encounters a distinctive difficulty, more so based on the endowment of that country in terms of demographic, economic strength, as well as opportunities expected from the rule of law. Indeed, “in the United States, the actuarial projection that the social security trust fund will be depleted by the year 2030 has fostered an interest in options to shift from the pay-as-you-go system to a funded or privatized system” (Feldstein 215). Moreover, the limitations of the pay-as-you-go scheme have influenced people to change to partly or fully funded schemes, and in particular with individual funded accounts.

Works Cited

  1. Bovbjerg, Barbara D. . DIANE Publishing. 2005. Web.
  2. Diamond, Peter A and Orszag, Peter R. Virginia, Brookings Institution Press. 2005. Web.
  3. Diamond, Peter A. . NY, Oxford University Press. 2002. Web.
  4. Feldstein, Martin. . London, University of Chicago Press. 2000. Web.
  5. Hacker, Jacob S. . NY, Cambridge University Press. 2002. Web.
  6. Koitz, David. California, Hoover Press. 2001. Web.
  7. Leimgruber, Matthieu. , 1890-2000. NY, Cambridge University Press, 2008. Web.
  8. Livingston, Steven G. California, ABC-CLIO. 2008. Web.
  9. Stricker, Frank. . California, UNC Press. 2007. Web.
  10. Stoker, Robert P. and Wilson, Laura A. . Virginia, Brookings Institution Press. 2006. Web.

Positive Reforms Pushed Forward by Progressive Activists

Introduction

During the progressive era, many significant reforms were achieved, contributing to successful social growth. Legislation that regulates working hours conditions was pushed forward for the benefit of employees. Additionally, living conditions in urban areas were improved through environmental reforms. Furthermore, the consumers had their rights protected against exploitative corporations. Although the progressive activists addressed pressing social issues, they failed to positively advocate for some issues and neglected them altogether.

Discussion

Conservationists are crucial for environmental conservation, but their efforts were misguided in some ways. The conservationists failed to understand the crucial role of local communities in biodiversity. Instead, they assumed that local people were destructive to biodiversity conservation. Consequently, they pushed for communities’ relocation and a ban on activities such as hunting and gathering. Historically, the local communities hunted animals and gathered wild plants and fruits, while conserving the environment. Therefore, environmental and biodiversity conservation should be advocated for while addressing the local communities’ activities.

Dignity is a natural human right that every person should enjoy regardless of their ethnic background. The progressive agenda included legislative reforms that augmented racial equality and respect for human dignity. Although the agenda led to positive social changes, racial preferences and privileges for selected ethnic groups were apparent. For instance, in the Southern U.S., the Jim Crow laws enhanced racial segregation. Meanwhile, the court systems made racially biased rulings. It was more likely for an African American to be imprisoned than a White. While the reformists described the laws as progressive, racial justice was altogether ignored.

Conclusion

The movements during the Progressive Era had positive and negative impacts on society. Acknowledging the positive and negative influences of the Progressive Era is important in several ways. The positive impacts allow society to reflect upon progressive social issues and make further improvements. Understanding the negative impacts helps society in avoiding issues that may lead to social conflict. Instead, society is encouraged to avoid issues that may negatively influence social harmony. Therefore, society should learn from the positive and negative movements during the Progressive Era for effective social growth.