Henry James in 1884 stated that, the supreme virtue of fiction is to produce an “air of reality” or an “illusion of life” James like many other writers valued and embraced an aesthetic of realism (Wharton 3). This form of art valued accurate representation of the psychological and material realities of life. Realism came about as a reaction against Romanticism.
Realism presents things as they happen in real life; they often deal with social problems (Seino 4). In contrast to romanticism, where plays are based on emotions and feelings, realism allows the mind to rule over emotions.
The first major realistic play Wright was Henric Ibsen; Ibsen earned the title “the father of realism.” His plays were often controversial as he wrote on subjects that had not been touched before and considered scandalous, for example, in his play Ghosts, he wrote about the indecent topic(at that time)on syphilis this earned him a lot of criticism leading him to respond by writing the play An enemy of the People(Twain para 2).
Some of these realism writers were interested in exploring problems of inequality within the society they were referred to as “social realists.” This paper discusses the different styles of a realism play or drama.
Discussion
One main characteristic of a realistic play is that they do not have happy endings. In Realistic dramas, the characters employ the use of approximate everyday speech. This style is issued by most modern plays, television shows and movies (Twain para 5).
The realistic play Wrights are not afraid of being a little unrealistic. In the play, An Enemy of the People, Ibsen uses a realistic framework to articulate his ideas on the stage. His character hyper-articulate their ideas to a slightly unrealistic tone, they talk for a very long time about “high minded” ideas in a generally conversational way.
Ibsen’s play An Enemy of the People exemplifies the definition of realism by portraying the irrational tendencies carried by the masses. This play portrays Dr. Stockman, who is the protagonist, as a brave man who tries to do the right thing amid extreme social intolerance (Ibsen).
This play shows the realistic nature of the society we live in; it does not only paint the good pictures in our midst but also shows the negative that the society carries. On its part, A Taste of Honey is set in the 1950s British society. It tells a story of a 17-year old working class girl.
Helen, her mother, is presented as a semi prostitute, who leaves her daughter to go and stay with her younger rich boyfriend Peter. Critics have argued that the play is roughly set on her experience.
Many similarities exist between the play An Enemy of the People and Delaney’s play The Taste of Honey. First of all, both plays portray the challenges faced by the society in tackling day to day situations affecting them. Furthermore, the endings in both plays are tragic as expected of most realism plays.
In A Taste of Honey, the play ends by Helen being thrown out by Peter and moves back to stay with Jo her daughter, While Josephine is pregnant with a sailor’s baby who has gone to sea for six months. She is in labor pains but there is no one to help her as Geoff, her gay friend who came to stay with her when her mother moved, has left after being gotten rid by Helen. Helen cannot help her as she has gone drinking.
Similarly, in An Enemy of the People, the play ends with Dr. Stockman claim being refused by his friends and allies. He is taunted as being a lunatic and “an enemy of the people.”
The exposition of the play, An Enemy of the People, informs us that Dr. Stockman is often on the verge of extreme poverty but has been provided with a nice post by his brother who is the burgomaster in the new bath in town.
However, it should be noted that the original idea of the Baths was Dr. Stockman’s. It should also be noted that, the two brothers share very little in common in the sense that while Dr. Stockman adheres to modernism and has liberal views while his brother is a traditionalist.
This two plays can be contrasted in the sense that one of them is a realism while the other is realism or social realism. The two styles should not be confused with each other even though they are slightly similar to each other. In addition, they were formed around the same time.
Social realism depicts racial, social and economic injustices. This kind of movement portrayed the impoverished working class society. In a social realism play, the audiences witness a movement from the objective towards the subjective representation (Seino 4).
The play A Taste of Honey is a representation of a Kitchen Sink realism play, this type of play developed in Britain in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. In this form of art, the protagonists were mostly described as “angry young men,” their works expressed disillusionment and bitterness with post war English society. Delaney’s play was viewed as belonging to this group, especially after its production.
The characters in social realism /kitchen-sink plays are often depicted as the working class, who spend their time drinking and live in rented houses in a northern Britain setting. The play Wright used this to explore social and political issues affecting the post-war Britain; this genre revolutionized the British theatre.
The theme of alienation has been brought out clearly in both this plays. In A Taste of Honey, essentially, Jo has been abandoned by his mother who moves to a new house just before Christmas and lives with his boyfriend (Delaney Act I scene I).
This loneliness leads to Josephine getting pregnant. While in the play, an Enemy of the People, Dr. Stockman is alienated by his allies and friends for taking a different position on the danger caused by the bath from that taken by the town.
In thinking that the community is behind him and proud of him for his discovery, Doctor Stockman is portrayed as being naïve (An Enemy of the People: Analysis and Summary para 5). He overlooks other factors such as the inconvenience and expenses that will be caused to the town by his discovery. The play Wright, Ibsen, lays his point at the end of the play without any fear.
Doctor Stockman says, “I am the strongest in this town” (Ibsen Act v scene 1, 33), he goes further and says, “I am the strongest man in the world” (Ibsen Act v scene 1 34).
One might ask what the meaning of being strong is. He then further explains the meaning of being strong, that “the strongest man in the world is who stands most alone.” His refusal to be silenced in the bath issue makes the entire town to go against him. He calls them, “the most dangerous enemy of the truth and freedom among us.”
Dr. Stockman is in a weak position, but he has gained an individual identity a trait that many of us fail to acquire. He establishes himself in a world full of fools. Most of Ibsen’s protagonists fail to achieve this same thing.
Conclusion
The goal of the play Wright in An Enemy of the People is to criticize the principles of democracy. He argues that, in matters of right and wrong individual superiority matters more than that of the masses which is mostly guided by the self-advancing demagogues.
One fundamental principle of our democratic culture holds that the majority of the people will make the right decision when confronted with a choice. The popularity of music, movies, fashion, etc. is evaluated based on what the majority of people decide to like. Political issues, from a motion at a school board meeting to a presidential election, are guided by decisions on the majority.
Dr. Stockman denounces his community by stating, “The strongest man in the world is the man who stands most alone” sums up his claim (Ibsen Act v, scene 1, 35).
In A Taste of Honey, the play Wright’s aim is to comment on everyday issues relating to race, class and sexual orientation in the 1950s Britain. She successfully uses her characters to highlight these themes. Her work was mostly viewed as a protest against poverty among the working class youth in Britain.
Works Cited
An Enemy of the People: Summary and Analysis. Web.
Delaney, Shelagh. A Taste of Honey, Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1959. Print.
The Left Realism Theory was propagated by a group of academics in the United Kingdom in 1984, namely Richard Kinsey, John Lea, Roger Matthews, Geoff Pearson, and Jock Young. In the same year they wrote the book ‘What is to be Done About Law and Order?’ They said that criminology errs in assuming crime is not connected to social and economic problems in a society. Their work puts forward the suggestion that the poor are abused by capitalists and also by members of their own class leading to discontent and then crime. It also states that solutions offered when crime occurs only serves to make crime worse (Burke, 2005).
They focused on two main areas in their study. The first was rejecting theories that either concentrate too much on control agencies or concentrate too much on the criminal in trying to ‘understand’ them as being victims of labeling or political reaction to the well-to-do. The second tried to fuse earlier perspectives into a newer, more realistic approach by including other facets of crime such as its social origins (how a criminal develops) or its effect on its victims (Burke, 2005).
In their argument they mentioned three main policies of left realism; demarginalisation, pre-emptive deterrence and the minimal use of prison. In demarginalisation, they advocate for an alternative to prison sentences so that the offender is not completely severed from society. Methods to assist in doing so include giving community service sentences, victim restitution – where the victim is compensated in one way or form or simply releasing the offenders from prison. Pre-emptive Deterrence policy chooses to seek ways to avoid, anticipate or prevent crime in manners other than the usual threat of punishment or having law enforcement. It tries to stress the importance of community organisation toward achieving that goal. The Minimal Use of Prison policy states that prisons should exist to accommodate only those deemed to be the most dangerous to society. It contends that prisons fail to adequately rehabilitate criminals and eventually function either to harden the inmates or break their self esteem leaving them too hopeless or inadequate to serve their communities or themselves (Burke, 2005).
In society today left realism opens the door to looking to new ways of looking at criminology and understanding and controlling crime. An example is that it gives us what is referred to as the square of crime. The conventional triangle of crime had the offender, the victim and the state. The square has now included the civil society. It divides them into two groups with the offender and victim known as the actors at one side and the reactors the (state and civil society) at the other. Any change in one of the four affects the others. It also attempt to explain crime as a result of political or economical disparity among the working class who feel deprived and usually fail to get any redress from those who wield and monopolize political power.
It tries to perceive the criminal as not someone who is breaking the law merely because he wants to or he can but as a person who refuses to conform to society’s mistreatment of his rights. The criminal here is seen as superior to the non-criminal who does nothing to ‘fight back’ against the oppressors. Left realism also tries to show crime can also be a group or cultural response as opposed to an individual choice. An example is when riots occur because a group of people feel they have been denied a social, economic or political right and lack an outlet through which these feelings of dissatisfaction can be expressed.
References
Roger H. Burke (2005). An Introduction to Criminological Theory: Second Edition. New York, Willan Publishing
U.S. Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas claimed that legal realism was destroyed by its intellectual offspring, the critical legal theory. In particular, the critical legal theory provided the foundation for such approaches as critical race theory and critical feminist theory that seriously questioned a perception of law as an ultimate good for society. In my understanding, critical theories viewed the law as derivative, an extension of hierarchies and configurations of power within society. Therefore, the law is naturally unfair since it is largely bent to benefit the ruling elites. Ultimately, the law is not a superior, standalone concept because it is dictated and written by influential individuals. By swaying public opinion in their favor, elites turn the law into a means of oppression that legitimizes injustice instead of preventing it.
While I agree with the perception of law as a derivative of social, even individual volition, I do not fully share the pessimistic sentiment of critical theories. Most importantly, I believe that law can be a universal human or at least a valuable good. According to Tamanaha, the law can limit the power of the government over individuals by providing a legal framework that restricts officials (137). In addition, the law acts as a foundation of formal legality, a feature that provides security and predictability of dealings between individuals, the government, and members of different communities (Tamanaha 139). In this regard, the law still offers fairness and justice by limiting the government’s ability to create the worst possible, completely unrestricted tyranny.
However, formal legality can become a double-edged sword when imposed from above. In particular, Hobsbawm admitted that focusing on formal legality created problems in communities with important legal norms, such as post-colonial societies (305). To a certain degree, such clashes between the local norms and formal legality based on imported laws point to the validity of critical theories. Colonial empires have attempted to replace the customary law of indigenous nations with legislation that suited their needs, not the needs of local populations.
Furthermore, multiple cases from history demonstrate that law can act as a mechanism of oppression or give an unfair advantage to those positioned at the top levels of social structure. One of the most infamous examples is the slavery codes of the Antebellum South. Even the most lenient slavery codes relegated slaves to property (Fede 244). According to Fede, slave law was fundamentally inhumane as it served to legitimize the violence, brutality, and unlimited authority of slave owners (244). In this case, the law was dictated by an oppressive institution of slavery, which fits the concerns expressed in critical theories.
Finally, elites can use the law to disguise the real state of affairs, giving ordinary people an illusion of justice. This problem is evident in the example of contract law, which has been used as an ideological concept for three centuries. For instance, in the 18th century, the ideological dimension depicted contract as the legal implementation of customary moral and religious principles. In reality, contracts helped establish class domination based on wealth and inherited social position (Feinman and Gabel 383). Similarly, the ideological imagery of the 19th century created the illusion of contracts between free and equal citizens, while in truth, contracts helped create a society dominated by capital owners (Feinman and Gabel 383). In these examples, one can see how law can be used to mislead the masses, a common idea expressed in critical theories.
Overall, the evidence demonstrates that a quotation from Clarence Thomas’s article holds significant merit. Throughout history, the law has been dictated by the preferences of elite classes and powerful nations. The individuals who shaped the law had essentially turned it into a way of legitimizing their dominance. As an extension of society, the law becomes a derivative of the individuals who compose it, especially the ones who have the power to write and interpret legislation. Therefore, critical theories set valid questions, which should be taken seriously if we want to create a more just society.
Works Cited
Fede, Andrew. People Without Rights: An Interpretation of the Fundamentals of the Law of Slavery in the U.S. South. Routledge, 2012.
Feinman, Jay M, and Peter Gabel. “Contract Law as Ideology.” The Politics of Law: A Progressive Critique, edited by David Kairys, Pantheon Books, 1990, pp. 373–386.
Hobsbawm, Eric J. The Age of Capital, 1848-1875. Abacus, 1977.
Tamanaha, Brian Z. On the Rule of Law: History, Politics, Theory. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Throughout the history of mankind the notions of delusions have always been explored. Delusions/ dreams have not essentially hold the same cores but slowly changed with the changes in social understandings, environment and beliefs. It is understood that concept of religion in the US originated from Europe and that Puritans were the initial people who owned land in Americans. (Indians were the original owners). Irving (1996).
It is well know that the Puritans moved to America to flee religious harassment; there dream was to have economic, religious, and social freedoms. In the colonial period individuals were known to be clean and there was no evil that was heard, seen, or said about. As superstition started to come into their daily lives, there were people who started commencing to a new way of life. This brought about the birth of the Gothic era; this meant that the entire splendor that was held in the colonial time was sluiced away with the coming of reality. The main aim of gothic was to unstitch the reality and show how evil the world was. Later on after this notion was overestimated and confusing people began to express themselves devoid of all of the gloom. The new era was later known as realism and its main purpose was to reveal the reality devoid of all of the allegories. Christine (1994).
Pragmatism also denoted the notion of warfare and how the human beings were at the clemency of the environment. This meant that Human beings were no longer the determinants of life but the environment. During this era most women turned to be more open-minded and entities of the old puritan ways. These women no longer served their spouses but searched a new world of enthusiasm; this period later changed and turned to be what is known as post-modernism. Also during this period, the society considered having fun all through out day and night. In this period of Post-modernism people also believed that individuals ought to look into the past for them to be able to save the future. Irving (1996).
It should be noted that the American dream is recurrently worked for except when it doesn’t seem to profit the citizens then what is it good for? In the era of post-modernism people see that the American dream is not limited amid particular individuals or groups but it is generally explored. This dream is based on erratic such as economics, gender, race, social class, and political concerns. The American dream was radically transformed and it unlocked its doors to a community of dissimilar genders and races. Christine (1994).
At this time women were could now succeed and become part of their spouse’s world. In the story the Raisin in the Sun a wealthy Black-American was also introduced, George who took all of the erratic of this redefined dream. This man was in a campus and he was also working towards an improved profession. This young man had class and also a very good educational background. This narrative was an ideal indication on the strengthens of a black-American who is trying to move towards the new redefined dream. Irving (1996).
When it came to economic concerns citizens started leaving the depression and started working in order to stay alive. During this era, the society did not use up their money like the way they did in the 1920’s. But began saving for the fear that a further depression would come. During the pos-modernism era many people paid more attention to political matters and this was because they had a fear of an economic down fall. Post-modernism also gives a special life style that was portrayed in several literature dramas. Many authors express the concept of how the history is apt to haunt the present.
During the post-modernism people see how the some parents appear to loose their minds in the olden days due to the feeling that they weren’t able to achieve several thing while they were young. This turns out to affect the children, when their parents are often attempting to force them to accomplish their dreams; therefore they think that is the only what will make them happy and secure. Christine (1994).
References
Irving Sandler (1996). Art of the postmodern era: from the late 1960s to the early 1990s. Icon Editions, Michigan.
Christine Sylvester (1994). Feminist theory and international relations in a postmodern era. Cambridge University Press, London.
Over the years Hollywood has experienced significant social changes especially in the perception and depiction of women in the film industry. Most American films including the Wild West films presented women as sexual objects to be used by men. During the 1960s when Hollywood films became extremely violent women were always depicted as weak victims (Horton, 2009). Consequently, films with a strong depiction of feminism began to emerge as a way to ensure that women actors were represented fairly. In addition, there was the need to reach out to the female audience especially after developments in the film industry that allowed private viewing (Newton, p. 271). Girlfriends manage to bring about social change not through outright demand of equal rights, but by reaching out to women audiences and by emphasizing the need to be sensitive and mindful of women characters (Lahiji, 2012).
Alison Butler observes Claudia Weill’s movie Girlfriends as one of the small groups of films that “revisit the women’s picture from the perspective of 1970s feminism” (p.36). Claudia Weill alongside such Jewish women filmmakers as Susan Seidelman, Jill Godmilow, Mirra Bank and Donna Deitch is the pioneer in women’s realistic portrayal in filmmaking (Hyman and Moore, p.446). Patricia Erens takes into account the achievements of Jewish women in the film industry. The struggle of Jewish women for recognition is one of the burning issues nowadays. It should be noted that the screen script for Girlfriends was written by the Jewish writer Polan. Claudia Weill was one of the most famous Jewish women directors who has made a great contribution to the realistic depiction of women in modern movies (Erens, 2012).
Girlfriends are considered to be both “woman-directed and an overtly feminist film” (“New Women’s Cinema and the Buddy Movie”). The success of this film is obliged to the realistic technique of Claudia Weill on the one hand and the good performance of Melanie Mayron on the other hand (Anderson, 2012). There are a lot of other films which are called by Haskell as “trickle of feminist-inspired movies”: A Woman Under the Influence (John Cassavetes, 1974), Alice Doesn’t Live Here Anymore (Martin Scorcese, 1975), The Turning Point (Herbert Ross, 1977), An Unmarried Woman (Paul Mazursky, 1978) and others (Nash, p.17). Claudia Weill’s Girlfriends may be the subject for the separate research as far as this is one of the first films touched upon a feminist problem and depicts women from a realistic point of view.
Weill covers three burning issues in her realistic movie: the problems of relationships with men, the importance of friendships between women and the difficulties of combining these things with holding down a job (Butler, p. 37). The sincere display of all sides of the relationships, both good and bad allows the female audience to relate with the movie’s characters. On the other hand, the movie also evokes sympathy from the male audience. The realism in this sense allows the female to identify with the characters in the film on the one hand and helps to avoid criticism that would emerge from the male audience (Rosa, 2010). There is no confrontation and the movie allows the male audience to follow the narrative without feeling condemned. In essence, the film diverts from the conventional acts of feminism portrayed in films directed by women. In giving the male audience the chance to participate in the film without condemnation, the film creates an opportunity to bring out some gender concerns in the film industry.
According to Kuhn the credibility of Hollywood female films in portraying realism depends on the ability of the audience to identify with the films through the texts (133). Weill manages in using narration as a way of inviting the audience to identify with the characters of the film (Rosa, 2010). The incorporation of a woman’s narrative voice improves the credibility of the film and allows the audience to look at the film more objectively, and free of prejudice and emotional influence. By identifying with the spectator, Weill intended to emphasize the need to be sensitive and mindful of the female audience. On the other hand, the female spectator is also able to affirm the victory shared by the female characters as a way of promoting feminism subtly.
Although the film manages to draw empathy from the audience to the characters, Weill avoids portraying the characters as perfect. The women are portrayed as being powerful but they are not without fault. According to Kuhn, the film’s portrayal of female characters can be compared to the film 1977 Julia directed by Fred Zinneman’s (p. 134). The openness portrayed in both films allows the audience to witness the contradictions in the woman’s life and make their judgements. Kuhn continues to explain that whether the openness was deliberate or not, the effect it had on the social institutions in Hollywood were profound (p. 135). However, one does not fail to appreciate the use of realism by the director to bring out the personalities of the women in the film in an unbiased way.
Although most analysts have termed the film Girlfriends as a non-feminist film, in my opinion, the film has subtle feminist attributes aimed at bringing about institutional social change in a non-confrontational way. The way the author approaches female friendship is accommodating and even fun for the male audience. The inclusion of relationship conflicts also allows for the audience to look at the film in an unbiased way. In addition, the author also allows the female audience to identify with the characters and the narrators and finally characters’ portrayal is sincere. The film portrays the need for female characters to be mindful and inspires the audience to be unbiased from a social and commercial perspective (Tibbets,1978).
The modern globalized world can be regarded from different perspectives, but it is evident that countries interact and evolve. Realism is still a popular theoretical paradigm to address concepts and issues related to the global economy and the global political economy. This theoretical framework is deeply rooted in the ideas of Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and List (Frieden & Lake, 2003).
Realists emphasize that the world economy is anarchic and the nation-states struggle for survival. Frieden and Lake (2003) note that realism is based on the idea that nation-states are major actors while other theories focus on the individual (Liberal paradigm) or classes (Marxist approach). According to realists, the global economy is a zero-sum game as some countries gain more wealth and power while periphery states continue experiencing losses. Many researchers have criticized the realists’ claims for their pessimistic perspectives, but it is necessary to note that the approach provides insights into the way the modern world economy develops. It is possible to consider major realists’ claims to understand whether the global economy is a zero-sum game.
Financial Arena
The distribution of power can be regarded as one of the central claims of realists who stress that nation-state struggle for dominance and these efforts lead to a zero-sum game. This claim is sound as the struggle for power and dominance is apparent in various areas. One of these areas is the financial market where investment has become an important tool to acquire more power. Keohane (2009) states that China’s entry into the global market (as well as the financial sphere) can be illustrated with a metaphor of an “elephant jumping into a small pond” (p. 41).
The effects of this entry are considerable as China (the nation-state as well as individuals) invests in various projects across the globe. These investments increase the country’s weight in the economic and political arenas. China is becoming one of the key actors in the international arena through its financial potential as well as its political efforts. This country is a member-state of major international institutions that are favorable platforms for the spread of its influence.
International Organizations
The struggle for power and dominance as the key driver of international relations is also obvious. Realists claim that states’ survival is at stake, and they try to gain more power to affect the way international relations develop. For instance, the voice in the international arena is regarded as one of the most potent tools to gain or retain power. Vestergaard and Wade (2013) argue that western states try to retain their power through dominance in numerous international organizations.
The researchers note that the World Bank is one of the battlefields where western countries manage to have the strongest voices. The distribution of votes reflects the way power is distributed in other organizations as well as the global political and economic arenas. Western countries have had more resources and, hence, they now have the most votes and can (and do) shape the organization’s agenda.
Such international organizations as the World Bank can also be an illustration of the way the zero-sum game is the basis of the global economy as seen by realism proponents. For instance, China is becoming one of the key players in such international entities as the country has more funds to obtain more votes (Vestergaard & Wade, 2013). It is clear that the more votes China gets, the fewer votes other countries (both developed and developing) can gain. In other words, China receives gains and accumulates power while other countries (usually developing) lose certain points and the opportunity to influence the decision-making process.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is another organization where western countries (especially the USA, the UK, Germany, and so on) have the last word and lead the decision-making process (Woods, 2007). The organization is aimed at becoming a restraining force that could ensure equal opportunities for all states. It was aimed at restricting the influence of developed countries. Nonetheless, developed countries still make major decisions that often result in the zero-sum game outcomes where some countries gain at the expense of other states. For instance, the organization provides funds to developing countries that are in a particular developed country’s sphere of influence, which often means that other countries lose opportunities.
International Relations
Notably, the way nation-states act in the international arena is of specific interest as it is another illustration of the soundness of the realist perspective. The World Trade Organization (WTO) can be seen as another example of the zero-sum game. The Doha Round negotiations reveal the essence of countries’ policies and inclinations to gain as much power as possible. Gallagher (2008) notes that developed countries try to retain their power through various initiatives introduced in the international arena. The negotiations on agricultural issues unveil these attempts as the proposals would benefit developed countries.
At the same time, the costs (or rather losses) of developing countries were significantly higher than potential benefits. Seeing that, developing countries were against such agricultural incentives. These negotiations illustrate the realists’ views on the constant struggle for power. Thus, wealthy states try to retain power and dominance while less well-off countries try to gain more power to survive and keep their sovereignty.
Some researchers criticize realism for its pessimism and inability to explain the nature of international relations especially when it comes to close collaboration and international institutions. For example, Walter and Sen (2008) argue that realists are too concerned about “economic conflict and protectionism” and fail to interpret “cooperation is driven by mutual self-interest” (p. 10). Nonetheless, the realism paradigm manages to explain these phenomena and trends as the so-called self-interest is what realism proponents call the struggle for power. International organizations mainly serve the interests of the countries that created them (Woods, 2007).
The distribution of power within the organization is similar to the one in the world political and economic spheres as the richer and more developed a country is the more power it can gain. It has also become quite clear that the incentives of international organizations (WTO, IMF, and so on) lead to benefits for developed countries and losses for developing states, which is a conventional illustration of the zero-sum game. Wood (2007) states that there are some attempts to implement changes in various international organizations, but these efforts are insufficient and are unlikely to create a more favorable atmosphere for periphery nation-states.
Personal Opinion
In my opinion, realists’ perspective is sound and well-grounded as it is possible to find illustrations of their major claims. Thus, the major driving force of the global economy and politics is the struggle for power and dominance. States try to gain the power to make sure that their interests are met in the international arena. At present, all (or almost all) the countries are involved in the global trade that can be regarded as an opportunity to accumulate resources (money, technology, labor force, and so on) and develop.
Developed countries have considerable resources and can often affect the decisions made in the international arena. At the same time, developing countries are trying to resist developed states’ attempts to restrict their sovereignty. I do not believe countries cooperate to achieve a certain equilibrium that will be beneficial for all. Countries compromise and sometimes share their power, but it often turns out that richer countries always gain more and reach their long-term goals.
Conclusion
To sum up, it is possible to note that realists’ perspective manages to explain the processes that take place in the economic and political arenas. Nation-states are major actors that try to gain or retain power. Developed countries try to retain their dominance, which is already quite a difficult task as such emerging economies as China are becoming influential players. At the same time, it is also clear that the more power a country gains, the less power other countries have.
Thus, resources are allocated to favor developed countries and states within their sphere of influence. International organizations that are often designed to ensure equal opportunities for countries and fair practices fail to meet these goals. Developed states often have the strongest voices in such international entities and periphery countries often have to follow the rules created by and in favor of well-off countries.
References
Gallagher, K. (2008). Understanding developing country resistance to the Doha Round. Review of International Political Economy, 15(1), 62-85.
Frieden, J.A., & Lake, D.A. (2003). International political economy: Perspectives on global power and wealth. New York, NY: Routledge.
Keohane, R.O. (2009). The old IPE and the new, Review of International Political Economy,16(1), 34-46.
Vestergaard, J., & Wade, R. (2013). Protecting power: How western states retain the dominant voice in the world bank’s governance. World Development, 46, 153-164.
Walter, A., & Sen, G. (2008). Analyzing the global political economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Woods, N. (2007). Global governance after the financial crisis: A new multilateralism or the last grasp of the great powers? Global Policy, 1(1), 51-63.
Architecture can be seen as an art than as any other practical matter. This is because it abridges the meaning of an item and its being through the concepts of historical and current symbolism and realism while bringing out the in-depth socio-cultural aspects of the work. It acts more as an index of the creator’s mind whose interpretation is solely dependent on the viewer. Such elements as smoke signifying presence of fire, clouds meaning rain are all architectural impressions historically and currently used in designs and works of art. The various creations can therefore be considered as symbolic as well as realistic architecture.
Elements of Architecture
Conveyance of Meaning
The function of a work can be revealed to the viewer rather than be inferred through symbolism. This is a case in which something can be said to look like another that is obviously known (Goodman, 1985). For example, a structure can be made to look like a dungeon, a hotel or as a school. It can be said that the structure tends to ‘speak’ to the observer (Valery, 1957).
Expression of Meaning
In this case a structure reveals a certain mood through its appearance. The expressed qualities can be those of gloom, royalty, lightness or even heaviness.
Relational Element
The relationship of a structure can also gives its meaning in which case, the surrounding and its relationship with it such as the decoration and its stylistic features gives the functional meaning of the structure and a sense of order as observed by Donougho (1987).
Symbolic Element
This is the use of iconography where an icon is used to convey information. It must however be reinforced that architecture is not keen on the use of representational art although this can not be ignored especially in the bid to marry the historic elements of architecture with the modern through scholasticism.
Understanding Symbolism
Symbols have been used in architectural work for their ornamental and numerical value visibly or in hidden form. The current trends however, as Clark (1987) observes, are tending from iconography (artistic form) to iconology which considers the general values embodied in the artistic form from a world view including the general attitudes and values.
In unearthing the meaning behind the use of symbolism in architecture the findings of anthropologists have been used in which the general structural arrangement was used to decipher the cross-cultural meaning in a community. The use of this method however gave very little hint on the reality which left the interpretation of the symbolism complicated. An example is the Indian circular-arranged huts whose symbol might have been interpreted to mean comfort, although someone else might have taken it to mean a sense of insecurity. As such, anthropological findings required theoretical approach of account which could be philosophically, psychologically or aesthetically oriented, as Donougho (1987) observes. This leaves very little truth of the architectural work communicated other than what is seen.
Symbolism in Communication
The thing behind the hidden symbols in architecture therefore is the unknown message communicated through the language unknown to the observer. What remains for the modern architect is to find out whether the symbol in the art has any relevant linguistic value in it. That points at a fact that not every architectural work, whether historic or modern, has linguistic worth as a communicator. Whether a code in a structure hints at anything other than its civic ordinance must be sufficiently backed for authenticity.
Although architecture has all along been considered as a language of communication, it goes without question that there is need to understand the message being conveyed, the target audience and finally the source of the information before we can qualify the architectural work as communicating or not. This indeed highlights the limitations of architecture as modes of communication since they may not clearly reveal the message, the vocabulary or translation to other known languages so much unlike the analogical and homological approach. According to Donougho (1987), much is yet to be done to give architecture the linguistic value given the afore-mentioned short-comings a fact that could be behind the struggle between symbolism and realism.
Current aspects of Architecture
The Hybrid Aspect
The modern or current architecture has all its roots in the classical architecture. It has been transferred as well as borrowed from different places to suit the specific needs and demands of different societies. As intermingling occurs in the world through globalization are the changes in architecture.
Taking the example of Australia, the society was indigenously nomadic with structures of temporal nature until the 19th century when the British and western invasion introduced the western culture and architecture. This currently is witnessed in the structural designs as well as their way of life and language which are mainly British. The current architecture and symbolism is therefore what can be termed as hybrid since it is a mixture of traditional works of different socio-cultural backgrounds and ideologies.
The Realism Aspect
The other distinguishing feature about the current architecture is the element of realism. Realism stemmed up in the 19th century during the time of belief in all knowledge derived from scientific methods of solving human issues. This brought the rejection of the subjective and imaginative architecture in favor of the objective realism which brought the objective rather than the imaginative description of the known and observable world through painting. Realism is therefore seen as a divergence from theorized autonomy which understands architecture and demonstrates its clear distance from a degraded and redundant life, as suggested by Hays (2000), which was evident in the use of bright colors over a white background to reveal depth and brilliance paintings.
According to Hays (2000), realism reveals architecture as a natural and direct reflection of its socio-economic foundation. This makes architecture easier to analyze due to its objectivity as compared to the subjectivity of the historical architecture. The ability of an architectural work to communicate can therefore be easily seen in realism rather than in utopian architecture.
The Scholastic Aspect
The connection between symbolism and realism as architectural tools is scholasticism which is an attempt by the medieval architects to bring together ancient classical architectural philosophy with realism of the medieval time.
According to Fahlbusch and Bromiley (2001), scholasticism was resisted by the reformists who wanted to do away with the ancient traditional practice which according to them, did not match the change in air at the time. It goes without question that bridging the medieval and ancient architecture faced challenge of resistance to change from both ends. The conservatives of the ancient not wishing to forfeit the joy derived from the ancient imaginative architecture while the reformist architects pushing for realism and the objective architecture. This was the first scholasticism.
The second one was witnessed in the 16th century as a result of Protestantism which at the time insisted on the return to the original bible language.
Scholasticism has witnessed several stages through the years to the recent neo scholasticism which brings in relativity of architectural transformation and seeks to restore the medieval architecture. It brings together the subjective and the objective architecture. This marriage seems to get favor due the need of compromise as well as the desire to preserve the ancient architectural facts although with difficulty.
Scholasticism: Realism to Symbolism
As aforementioned, scholasticism tends to take architecture back to the medieval and ancient-time architecture which was subjective and imaginative in nature as opposed to the objective and analytical current architecture.
The scholasticism presents a struggle pushing the present day realism back to symbolism. This historically stretches across many cultures and social groups ranging from the secular to the religious world. In his work, Cabe’zon (1998) seeks to highlight some important characteristics of scholasticism that brings out its analytical form. He refers mainly on the cross-cultural tradition of the Catholic Church. Some of the characteristics include: an Immovable sense of tradition, specification of the sacred language, proliferative tendency, completeness and compactness, epistemological access to the world, systematic approach, rationalism and self-reflexivity. A good example is the cavernous and cinderblock construction of the Most Precious Blood Church which was built in 1954.
There has been obstacles both ideological and social cultural which are represented by ideological rationalism and a globalized economy. However, there has been withering of Catholicism due to continuous erosion from the impending forces of secularism, consumer culture and the bad picture of the due to priest sex abuse scandals.
Although the above mentioned concepts of refer to the Catholic Church, it is true that they cut across many cross cultural architecture in the world. They can form a basis for studying other cultural aspects because concepts can not be separated from one another and neither can they be treated independently (Ignacio, 1998).
Arguments may arise in the authenticating architectural work as to whether or not to accept it. The heart of the matter is that as much as the current trends of the world are, the needs for an objective scientific work should be favored as it has a rationalistic approach but the strong force of the symbolic architecture can not be ignored. Symbolism serves as a pointer in the present world to the ancient world and serves as a storehouse accommodating the present and the past in a tolerated yet firm way. It gives the foundation for the study of cross-cultural architecture and helps in bringing out the linguistic aspect of architecture.
Referring to the Australian example, we see a general trend that has seen the transitional move from a nomadic and rather temporal kind of life to a more settled and permanent life style through cross-cultural interaction. looking at structural designs the society has seen the development from the temporary wind breaker shelters(the wiltjas) made of paper bark to better round shaped and grass thatched houses as the family sizes increased. The construction material in this case varied from the whale bones to animal limb bones for framework depending on the availability of the material as some could use mud and grass for water proofing their dome-shaped houses.
The advances have seen to the development of structural design from the spinifex shelters made of spinifex and hummock grass and originally common in the western desert to the development of the stone houses by the indigenous stone engineers by use of stones in building weirs, fish traps, canals, ovens as well as ceremonial stone layouts. This led to the camp architectural designs as the need to stay in larger groups came. The camp towns were made using barks, bags, tin metal, wood and corrugated iron sheets. the developments gave a hint to the indigenous architects of the 20th century who incorporated traditional cultural symbols and styles with the modern residential architecture. They seek to bring together identity and architecture through the aboriginal ancestors.
This view can be enhanced as we consider the Brambuk cultural center in Australia which through its architectural design gives a focus into many years of tradition and culture. The structural design reveals the culture of the indigenous surrounding people through the undulating roof style with the cockatoo symbol typical of the Koori communities which have the characteristic totemic symbol. The architecture also unites the ancient tradition with the modern through its modern timberwork in its finishes. The architectural work gives a smooth relational effect with its surrounding natural setting.
Eleanor Rosch, a renowned meditation mistress argued that members from different cultures have tended to group similar objects in similar manner suggesting the mental representations of the basic objects. On this argument it can be deduced that architecture offers a good platform for understanding the cross-cultural differences and uniqueness while still bringing out the unifying elements of human sociology through symbolism.
The joy of architecture is its acceptability and conformity with the prevailing trend while preserving tradition.
It must also be noted that the historical distance between the ancient architecture, medieval times, the scholastic time and the scientific age play a very important role in the determination of the acceptability of an architectural work. This goes beyond individual appeal to the work to the relevance as well as the significance of the information being relayed to the audience.
Historical effect of medieval architecture
It might not be proper to end my argument without reference to the historic changes that faced the religious circles of the historic time. According to (Duby, 1981), the changes that were occurring during this time came in as a culture shock from mainly the west particularly from the French exploits and revolutions. The serenity and orderliness of the time was threatened by the coming of the preachers of the ‘truth’. The threat was equally leveled on the Christianity order of the time which had upheld poverty as the key to salvation. The anxiety left many with unending question of who to be in charge of the sovereign authority to rule the world: whether the church or the reigning king. The opposition created an easy avenue for the ‘false prophets’ to spread their agenda which out rightly opposed the sitting authorities of the king and the church.
It is important to note cultural changes came in suddenly and within a very short historical time such that there lacked a smooth transition as it is characteristic of many pre historic and historic events. This could be the reason of continued resistance to adopt either of the architectural strains namely: the symbolism and realism. This gives an easy avenue for the flourishing of the scholastic architecture as the other two oppose each other.
Conclusion
Amidst all the confusion and anxiety, the south European’s Romanesque art found a comfortable place and became , by the end of the twelfth century, the most convincing visual propaganda using the Gothic art cathedrals (Duby, 1981) as their powerful tool resulting in the Catholic church.
What is termed as the world of architecture can be seen through this view, as a peaceful world that was disturbed by a rude wave of change that left it in chaos that up to now has not fully settled even with the efforts of the subtly compromising scholasticism. The verdict that can be passed, subject to criticism, is that anyone whose wish is to understand architecture and the sociological structures and relationships as well as the trends of thought should first take time to explore carefully the complexity of culture in an elaborate manner. Of particular interest is to understand the place of scholastic architecture in our present society a fact that can no longer be brushed away as it abridges the symbolic and the realistic architecture.
References
Cabe’zon, J. I. (1998). Scholasticism: cross-cultural and comparative perspectives. State University of New York. New York.
Clark, K. (1960). The Nude. Penguin. Middlesex.. Pennsylvania.
Duby, G. (1981). The age of the cathedrals: art and society 980-1420. Taylor & Francis. Chicago.
Fahlbusch, E. and Bromiley, G. W.(2001). The encyclopedia Christianity. Eerdmans.
Goodman, N. (1978). Ways of World-making. Hackett Indian- Apolis.
Hays, M. (2000). Architecture Theory Since 1968. MIT Press. Columbia.
Valery, P. (1957). Eupalinos or the Architect in Dialogues: Collected Works of Paul Valery. Vol 4. Princeton University Press. Princeton New Jersey.
Critical realism came into existence as German philosophers attempted to deal with idealist philosophy that was common towards the end of the 18th century. It became popular among proponents of the American philosophy movement in 1916. The intention of introducing critical realism was to combine idealism with the perception that human beings could know the true nature of their world through new realism, which argued that the external world was not different from the way it appeared. Critical realism emerged in 1966, after Ian Barbour, a philosopher discussed theological and scientific realism (Clark, 2013).
Critical realism has several major themes. The first one is that it acknowledges the presence of a reality that is not influenced by human perception and conception. The mechanisms that explain the reality affect what human beings observe. Naturally, the underlying mechanism is the natural laws whose effects are visible. Critical realism is also applicable in social contexts although it is difficult to make predictions. The involvement of human beings in the creation of social rules leads to constant changes. Critical realism provides a description of past or current events but does not create certainty about the future (Critical Realism, 2013).
Critical realism is criticized since it is not clear whether experimental results can provide theories in a natural setting. Mere observation of particular results does not confirm that theories advanced in an attempt to explain what leads to the results are empirically accurate (Response to Critical Realism in Defense of Integral Theory, 2012).
How to Measure Creativity
There are different indicators that can be used to measure the creativity of an individual. The first indicator is inquisitiveness. An inquisitive person is a person who questions, investigates, explores, and challenges assumptions. Such a person does not accept things as they are told to him/her but goes ahead to look for the truth. The second indicator of a creative person is persistence (Mary, 2012). This refers to the ability to withstand difficult situations, tolerate uncertainty, and dare to do things that other people shy away from. A persistent person is not discouraged by small things but rather uses the experience to move on.
The third indicator of a creative person is the imaginativeness. An imaginative person explores different possibilities, makes links, and uses intuition to try to understand complicated matters. The fourth indicator that can be used to measure creativity is the ability of an individual to collaborate with others. Collaboration involves making a product public, accepting feedback, and showing cooperating with different people (Nilsson, 2012).
Threats to Team Creativity
Team creativity is very important in any organization because it enhances business growth. However, it is threatened by the following factors. The first threat to team creativity is conformity. This occurs when members in a certain group have a feeling that other individuals in the same group might criticize their suggestions. It occurs despite the fact there are clear instructions that prevent such occurrences. The second threat to team creativity is production blocking.
This interferes with team productivity in two major ways (James, 2003). The first way is that it disrupts the manner in which the idea generation is organized due to long delays. The second way through which production blocking interferes with team creativity is by reducing the freedom of generating ideas due to unpredictable delays. The third threat to creativity is performance matching. This occurs when team members match or equate their performance with the performance of an individual who is the least productive (Promoting Creativity, 2009).
References
Clark, A. (2013). Critical Realism. Web.
Critical Realism. (2013). Web.
Mary, R. (2012). Creativity and Innovation in the Workplace. Web.
Art has a long history of being involved in the achievement of political goals; consider the monumental imperial advertisement of power and control of resources represented by the huge Colossus of Rome[1]. In the early 20th century, what was termed realism was not the direction that popular art movements were taking.
However, what was termed realism seemed to serve the aims of totalitarian movements at the time[2], despite the fact that no art is truly realistic and all art represents a set of choices from all the visual detail available.
Nevertheless, the objections of the Nazi regime to all the non-realist artists is understandable in light of the Third Reich’s goals and methods of achieving them. They were trying to influence people to do things that were difficult and morally ambiguous, if not downright horrible.
To accomplish this, they needed powerfully effective images that everyone could understand without laborious or inconvenient verbal explanation. The artists that the Nazi regime disapproved of had the opposite aim in creating art.
They were seeking to create art that was a vehicle for personal expression. Given this attitude, it is no wonder that non-realistic artists were suppressed. Useful examples of these two divergent approaches are found in the art of Fritz Erler and Otto Dix.
The term ‘realism’ has meant different things over time. It meant something different in the 1800s than what it suggests today.
Before the early 1800s, most painting tried consciously to show everything in as beautiful, serene, classically pure a fashion as posssible, even if this meant deliberately changing things around in the picture, as, for example, advised by an accepted authority of the time, Roger de Piles[3].
Starting with the Romantic movement in art, there was a gradual reaction away from a classical idealization of the subject, whether a person, a scene, or a landscape.
The gritty reality of the world became more acceptable and desirable in art. An example is the often gory work of Théodore Géricault, a proponent of Romanticism, such as his Raft of the Medusa[4]. This work, and by extension, much of the effort of the Romantic movement, was described as an,” extended, no-holds-barred quest for truthfulness and intensity” [5].
However, up until the period of the Impressionists in the mid to late 1800s, there was a generally shared goal of depicting the world as most people could recognize it. For example, a person had two eyes symmetrically laid out, sky was more or less blue, and trees were more or less green.
With Impressionism, Cubism, and their successor art movements, this all changed, dramatically. The depiction of objects in the real world was no longer safely to be assumed. Buchloh describes this process of movement away from figurative art as follows:
“the perceptual conventions of mimetic representation – the visual and spatial orderign systems that had defined pictorial production since the Renaissance… systematically broken down since the middle of the nineteenth centry”.[6]
Buchloh is drawing attention to a phenomenon that even non-artists can observe. It seems reasonable to assert that all art imposes a warping of physical reality to some extent. Simply by trying to depict a three dimensional world on a two dimensional surface, there is inevitable distortion.
The tree is not the picture, nor vice versa. It cannot be. The simplest tricks of perspective, such as foreshortening, or narrowing two parallel lines down to a vanishing point, demonstrate this. In any work of art, a process of transformation has taken place as the scene or object is translated by the artist onto paper or canvas or marble.
A recent news story humorously and clearly demonstrated this: A quirky installation artist in Philadelphia, who apparently regularly enrobes local landmarks with knitted textile art, tried to measure the famous statue of Rocky Balboa for a sweater.
She discovered the that the proportions of the eight foot tall statue were wildly different from those of an actual real person’s[7]. However, photos of this statue do not strike the viewer as bizarre. The artist clearly altered the real proportions of the subject in a way that looks normal from a distance.
Thus, even in representing a real-world subject with the aim of fidelity, the process involves the abstraction, or pulling out, or alteration of certain elements and the de-emphasizing of others.
This may be used to indicate, for example, that the subject is a distance away, or to allow the viewer to distinguish the subject from its background. This is a matter of making sure that the viewer can see the forest for the (edited) trees.
Thus, when anyone is uses the term realism in art today, they are speaking relatively. A formal definition of realism describes it as,”Fidelity to nature or to real life; representation without idealization, and making no appeal to the imagination; adherence to the actual fact.”[8]
It requires some visual training to understand any two-dimensional representation, as students learn in History of Art classes. It is relatively easier for someone trained by experience at decoding two-dimensional representations to recognize a realistically painted subject.
Nonetheless, when we use the term realism today, implying that the subject of the work of art is able to be recognized for what is intended, we understand what is meant. This term is probably widely and intuitively understood in our era.
The Nazi regime, like many other oppressive governments, sought to use all available tools to alter people’s opinions, direct their behavior, or change the entire form of government. Art was just one of these[9].
Their goals were often violent and involved hurting other people, such as Jews, gypsies, and the crippled. These folks had often been neighbors and colleagues.
This is a course of action that could inspire ambivalent feelings about cooperating, in many people. The ugliness of the Nazi’s goals, and the negative reaction of the rest of the world, like made it desirable to communicate their intention as much as possible without words.
If the Nazis had said in plain terms that they were going to kill with poison gas millions of harnless people, it would have sounded harsh.
But if the Nazis could make the German people feel that they were threatened and that the threat should be removed in whatever way was most effective, the government could get better cooperation. This threat, as we now know, was blamed on non-German elements in society, especially the Jewish population.
As it happened, the rise of the Third Reich coincided with the development of a new concept in the new sciences of psychology and psychiatry. The idea of archetypal images was pioneered by Carl G. Jung[10]. Jung suggested that the human mind shares a collective unconscious.
This collective unconscious contains within it patterns that reliably generate images, or archetypes everyone can recognize. This, Jung asserts, is true over time and across the globe. He suggested that an example of the expression of archetypal images can be found in many myths, for example the myth of the Hero[11].
Clearly this is a great convenience for a regime that hopes to affect the population’s ideas and attitudes without actually coming out and saying what they want. Jung himself believed that the trends in Germany leading up to the war were an expression of archetypes that had been repressed.[12]
While evidence for specific use of Jung’s ideas in creating Nazi art is not readily available, it is interesting that Jung and a relative of one of Hitler’s close advisors, Goring, shared the editorship of a psychiatric journal[13]. This suggestst that the Hitler regime was well aware of Jung’s work and ideas.
If the Hitler regime was using archetypes, or even telling a story, they needed for viewers to recognize the message. This is more difficult to accomplish in non-realistic form. This is because the messages that the Nazis were attempting to propogate had to do with human issues and concerns, such as motherhood, or attachment to a place, or pride in one’s heritage, for example.
At the time, artists – those who were innovating and at the cutting edge of their field – were not oriented towards telling stories or sending explicit or implicit messages. They were not oriented towards, “the direct creation of universal beauty”, but instead, “ the aesthetic expression of oneself”, as Mondrian put it[14].
The movement away from the subject entirely was seen, as expressed by Mondrian, as an evolution of art, and highly desirable Mondrian says that, “by its existence non-figurative art shows that ‘art’ continues always on its true road. It shows that ‘art’ is not the expression of the appearance of reality…nor of the life that we live…” [15].
This process of making art something that needed only to please and express the artist’s own feelings, can and did result in art that was and is less accessible to many viewers. Buchloh asserts that this inaccessibility was an irritant. He asserts that there was pressure at the time from viewers (the public) against the abstractions that had dominated the art world.
Discussing the swing back to figurative art after the first World War, he says, “And how did this shift come to be understood as an autonomous achievement of the masters, who were in fact the servants of an audience craving for the restoration of the visual codes of recognizability, for the restoration of figuration?”[16]
The leading lights of the art world were not sympathetic, to these consumer longings, if the views of Mondrian are typical. Mondrian, in defending non-realistic art, criticized those who had made, “no effort to know pure abstract art”.[17] These people, he asserted, were against the, “progress of the elite”[18].
The implication of this attitude on the part of the artist is that it requires specific and rather sophisticated training on the part of the viewer to appreciate the pure abstract art. Mondrian’s atttitude implies that if a viewer is not willing or able to invest this effort, then their opinion is not worthwhile.
Thus, the viewing public that shook their heads in puzzlement at abstract art were dismissed. All these attitudes are very self-centered, and not at all in tune with nationalistic self-sacrifice.
Unfortunately for artists with this seemingly self-centered approach and obliviousness to whether or not the art was being understood, the Nazis, like the Russian revolutionaries, explicitly wanted art that supported their goals, a “heroic realism”[19]. They were concerned about a national elite rather than a class elite[20].
In Hitler’s words, “For the artist does not create for the artist, but like everyone else, he creates for the people.”[21] Hitler explicitly referred to this isssue of comprehensiblity in the following statement of intention:
‘Works of art’ which cannot be understood in themselves but for the justification of their existence, need those bombastic instrucitons for their use, finally reachign that intimidated soul, who is patiently willing to accept such stupid or impertinent nonsense – these works of art from now on will no longer find their way to the German people.”[22]
The Hitler regime went to extremes in implementing his extreme intention. To see how these conflicting ideas of art for the artist’s sake, and art for the good of the regime played out, it is useful to examine two artists who addressed similar subject matter. They were, however, far differently regarded and treated by the Third Reich.
Both were actvie in and after the first World War. Both artists included war and battlefied subjects in their works. Both were, in retrospective, competent technically. Fortunately, works by both of them survive. It is interesting that two pictures of the same subject, created within seven years of one another, should be looked at so differently by the Third Reich.
Fritz Erler (1868-1940)[23], who (although he did distort reality) depicted soldiers as heroes, was approved of by the regime. Otto Dix (1891-1969)[24], who distorted figures to look like monsters, but depicted soldiers as well, was not approved of. They were both technically very competent.
Erler produced a number of war bonds posters for the first World War. One, entitled Helft Uns Siegen, shows an idealized soldier gazing into the indeterminate distance with eyes that glow internally. He is a strapping, well-fed, heroic fellow, with his gas mask down around his neck, alertly at ease after the attack.
He appears fully human, despite those wierdly glowing eyes, oddly elevated mood, and unseen visual point of focus. He is a fellow you would happily share a meal with or for whose benefit you would happily buy a war bond, if you were a loyal German.
Although this picture dates from 1917, Erler had a continuing career. Erler was highly thought of by the Hitler regime. This is attested to by the fact that he was rewarded for his complimentary perspective on the German soldier with at least one commission for a portrait of Hitler. This was a signal honor [25] for any artist or photographer in Germany.
The most famous surviving such piece painted by Erler is probably his Portrait of The Leader. This shows Hitler as the genius and sponsor of art and architecture[26]. The Kunsthalle, Hitler’s most ambitious architectural design that was implemented, is shown in the background. Hitler appears before a heroic statue of a mounted horseman.
It is useful to compare Erler’s work to that of another favorite of the Third Reich’s, Arno Breker. Whereas Erler’s soldier did not look classically beautiful, and in fact has features which are somewhat coarse, Breker seemed to consciously hearken back to Roman and Greek models.
This must have flattered the regime with references to an earlier, very powerful empire. Arno Breker created sculptures of naked men that were heroic in size, and in mood.
They were chisel-faced, with clearly defined muscles and extreme poses. In spite of his close relationship with Hitler’s government, he worked to help artists who were out of favor[27], indicating that the political beliefs and artistic production were not inextricably linked.
Looking at an artist who was decidedly not in the good graces of the Third Reich, we see a very different approach from either Erler or Breker. Otto Dix, who served in the German army in World War I, was another artist who portrayed soldiers in the action of war-time. He produced a terrifying etching of soldiers wearing gas-masks.
It is entitled Stormtroops Advancing Under Gas[28]. The soldiers look like imps or goblins, or at best, children in Halloween masks. They weapons make a diagonal cross-hatch in the composition, with their bayonets pointing in one direction, and some sort of blunt instrument and fists pointing in the other direction.
They have no grace, and seem to waddle or stumble in the midst of the confusion and terror of battle. Their forms and proportiions are distorted and they are almost cartoonlike. They appear less than human, and unrecognizable as one’s neighbors or son.
When one compares the sturdy and heroic soldier in Erler’s work, and the cartoon-like figures in Dix’s work, it is easy to see why the German government objected to being portrayed that way. Hitler did not want soldiers depicted as space aliens or evil dwarves.
He wanted handsome heroes, preferably looking like the heroes of ancient Greece and Rome. Dix was certainly not showing that – he was showing what it felt like to be on there on the battlefield with stormtroops and mustard gas.
Both artists actually distorted reality, but Dix did it in such a way as to insult the soldiers, while Erler did it in such a fashion as to make them look inspired.
They were both drawing on archetypal images, but Erler’s was evoking the hero, like Theseus after slaying the Minotaur, while the other (Dix) was evoking something more like the Furies descending on a hapless mortal, in the form of stormtroops.
Given the aims of the Nazi regime, it is entirely comprehensible that one should have been rewarded and the other discredited. Clearly, the approach that Erler takes to the subject of the German soldier is more complimentary.
Dix, on the other hand, is obviously critical in his attitude towards war, and its methods. He was also openly critical of the major players in the Third Reich. A painting of his entitled The Seven Deadly Sins actually caricatures Hitler as a baby (mustacheless) demon. He painted this after he was discharged from the art academy in Dresden[29].
In our own lifetime, the governments of both South and North Korea have used images to control thinking and behavior[30]. This is an interesting phenomenon in light of the overt attempts by previous totalitarian regimes to harness art for their own aims. It is also interesting in light of the power that popular media has today, even in supposedly free societies.
Art has been a tool of governments since the earliest times. Until the middle of the 1800s, there was a shared expectation that art would represent things in the physical world as they appeared to most of the viewing public. The term realism, however, referred to different things before then.
No matter whether the approach is Neo-classical, grittily Romantic, oddly Mannerist, or Impressionist, all art distorts the physical truth of its subject matter. There is unavoidably a choice of what to include and what not to include. Thus, when governmental regimes that say they want realism are actually saying that they want the prerogative to choose which distortions they permit.
Fritz Erler’s particular distortions, which contributed to a heroic image of the German soldier, served the Nazi purposes. His representation was less beautiful than that of Arno Breker, a sculptor of very different style who also found favor with the Nazis. On the other hand, Otto Dix’s idiosyncratic distortions, which made the German soldier look like a troll, was decidely not what the Nazis were looking for in their public messages.
Given that the regime wanted art for propaganda, and self-praise[31], it is easy to see why they preffered Erler’s sturdy heroes to Dix’s goblins.[32] They wanted the German people to identify with healthy and strong images rather than with ugly representations of themselves.
Such use of art to control opinion is still used today in regimes such as the North Korean’s. We need to be cautious, still, even in democracies, that we do not allow art to become the uncontrolled tool of government propaganda.
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Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich. “On Proletarian Culture.” In Art in Theory: 1900-2000, by Charles Harrison and Peter Wood, 402. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
Medweth, Mark. “Jung and the Nazis.” Personality and Consciousness. 1996. Web.
Mondrian, Piet. “Plastic Art and Pure Plastic Art.” In Art in Theory: 1900 – 2000, by Charles Harrison and Peter Wood, 387-393. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
Newsweek. “North Korean Propaganda Art.” Newsweek, May 27, 2010.
Platner, Samuel Ball. “Colossus Neronis.” In A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, by Samuel Ball Platner, 130-131. London: Oxford University Press, 1929.
Wilkin, Karen. “Romanticism at the Met.” The New Criterion 22, no. 4 (2003): 37-42.
Footnotes
Such a piece had no function other than overwhelming the viewer with how strong the emperor must have been to have created such an object. The Colossus was a bronze statue 120 feet high, and the Emperor Nero had it erected solely to honor himself and make himself seem more impressive. Subsequent emperors modified it to suit their own purposes, changing the face, and adding rays around the head, for example. The gigantic sculpture gave its name to the Coliseum.Samuel Ball Platner (as completed and revised by Thomas Ashby). “Colossus Neronis”. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. (London, Oxford University Press 1929). Page 130A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, London: Oxford University Press, 1929.
Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia. “AKhRR Declaration”, Harrison, C. and Wood, P.. Art in Theory: 1900-2000. (Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2002). Page 403.
De Piles, Roger. “The Principles of Painting”, in Holt, Elizabeth Gilmore, ed. A Documentary History of Art: Michelangelo, the Mannerists, the Baroque, and the Eighteenth Century. (Garden City, Doubleday and Company, 1958), page 180.
Géricault, Théodore. “The Raft of the Medusa”. 1819, Musée du Louvre, Paris.
The New Criterion. “Romanticism at the Met”. December 2003. The New Criterion. 22 no4. Pages 37-42.
Buchloh, Benjamin. “Figures of Authority, Ciphers of Regression: Notes on the Return of Representation in European Painting”. In Frascina, Francis; Harris, Jonathan. Art in Modern Culture: an Anthology of Critical Texts. (London, Phaedon Press, 1992), page 222.
Crimmins, Peter. “Gritty in Pink”.
Brainyquote.com. “Realism”. Brainyquote.com.
Lenin, Vladimir. “On Proletarian Culture”, in Harrison, C. and Wood, P.. Art in Theory: 1900-2000. (Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2002). Page 438.
Jung, Carl. “On the Concept of the ‘Archetype’”, in Harrison, C. and Wood, P.. Art in Theory: 1900-2000. (Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2002). Page 379.
(Jung 2002, 380).
Medweth, Mark. “Jung and the Nazis”. Personality and Consciousness. 1996.
(Medweth 1996).
Mondrian, Piet. “Plastic Art and Pure Plastic Art”, in Harrison, C. and Wood, P. Art in Theory: 1900-2000. (Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2002). Page 388.
(Mondrian 2002, 389).
(Buchloh 1992, 222).
(Mondrian 2002, 389).
(Mondrian 2002, 392).
(Lenin 2002).
Griffin, Roger. “Nazi Art: Romantic Twilight or Post-modernist Dawn?”. Oxford Art Journal, vol. 18, no. 2, November 1995. Pages 103-107. (Griffin 1995).
Hitler, Adolph. “Speech at the opening of the Great Exhibition of German Art”. In Harrison, C. and Wood, P. Art in Theory: 1900-2000. (Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2002). Page 441.
(Hitler 2002, 440).
Spartacus.com. “Fritz Erler”. 2011.
Art in the Picture. “Otto Dix”. 2011.
Of the importance of portraits it has been observed that, “Hitler knew the importance of his image. Photographs of him could be released only with his personal approval. Art was even more carefully watched.” German Propaganda Archive. “Hitler in Nazi Art” 2011. German Propaganda Archive. 2011.
Erler, Fritz. “Portrait of the Leader”. 194X.
Prometheus. “Arno Breker Biography” Prometheus.
Dix, Otto. “Stormtroops Advancing Under Gas”. 1924. Drypoint etching and aquatint. National Gallery Of Australia, Canberra, Australia.
Judith H. Dobrzynski. “Sex, blood and War From Weimar Anti-Nazi Otto DIx”.
Lankov, Andrei. “Propaganda in DPRK: Ideas and Methods”. 1995. Dirkburghof.com.
Florida Center for Instructional Technology. “Nazi Approved Art: A Teacher’s Guide to the Holocaust”.
This sort of preference is expressed in modern North Korea, as noted in the following description:“On the whole, paternalist ideas about “the ruler – father of the nation”, typical of the Confucian philosophical tradition, are the norm in North Korean propaganda. In propaganda stories one can find in North Korean magazines and school textbooks, Kim Il Song depicted as a fatherly figure, a wise and attentive parent caring for his people. In one story, he stops his limo to give a lift to an old woman, in another he personally oversees how a medical help is delivered to a young worker hurt in a factory incident, and in a third he inquires about the living conditions of a handicapped veteran. These stories about the Kims number in the many hundreds, and are constantly repeated in the media and textbooks, read aloud at meetings, or portrayed in paintings. Some of these stories are not simply Confucian in spirit, but are often remakes of popularstories from the Confucian mythology.” (Lankov 1995) A graphic example is found with the other pictures.
Literature has offered man opportunity to present real life scenarios in a dramatized manner to entertain, educate, caution, or just inform society members the realities of life. Novels, poems, short stories, proverbs, drama and other genres of literature have been popularly used by people as a way of presenting life situation to people in an entertaining way (Galvan 23).
Drama became very popular in fifteenth century, when William Shakespeare was very active on stage. Their performance had to be watched live on stage for there was no means through which it could be recorded for future use. This changed with invention of tape recorders. Through this, actors could have movies recorded for future use.
The inception of Hollywood completely changed the world of drama. It enabled recording of plays as movies in tape recorders (Dawidowicz 45). Many actors and movies gained fame as one could watch them from different locations, provided that the tape player and the recorded tape are available. “Girlfriends” was one such movie. Launched in 1970s, this thriller brings to focus, the realities of the world.
Realism from “Girlfriends”
This is a creative movie developed in 1978, directed by Claudia Weill. The movie is not only interesting but also very educative as it is a representation of a real life situation. This documentary is done in such a way that it presents the realities of the world in a simple but clearly structured manner.
The story gives us a representation of life in America in the seventies. Based in a society that was development conscious, this documentary provides a picture of American society and the place of women in this society. This piece of art is designed in a manner that presents how the society members viewed women and how women viewed their position amongst themselves.
We are introduced to two friends, Ann Munroe and Susan Weinblatt. They both stay together in a house they have let. They have a strong emotional attachment towards each other. They share their secrets and as we see them initially in the movie, their world seems to be tied together.
They have the feeling that their friendship has a strong bond and that their destination is bound by this love they have towards each other. Although very decently presented without any scene that appears to be immoral, the documentary presents several themes that are intended to show that this United States of America is loosing out on morals. This movie presents us with the following themes as the story unfolds.
The two main characters are self supportive, though Susan is more successful. They therefore have the feeling that they should be free from anyone’s instructions. They want their own space where no one has control over them. This seemed to be working well with them till one of them, Ann, meets a man who according to her is caring and very loving.
This man is an engineer. She realizes what she had been missing. It comes to her realization that she may not be in a position to live without a man in her life. She tells her friend of her decision to marry. Her friend Susan is against this as she feels that they should just concentrate on their career other than marriage.
This illustrates the increasing habit of staying without marrying that many women in this society have developed. They have the feeling they can live normally without having to marry. However, the author appreciates that at times this decision may not be easy as some of these ladies may find it difficult to cope without marriage. Without suspecting it, they find themselves married when they least expect.
The two ladies are very fond of each other. They have very strong attachment, and though we are not openly told about it, this relationship leans towards being romantic. The director presents this theme with a lot of decorum, but from the way the two are relating to each other, we are left with little doubt of making such a conclusion.
On this society, there was a steady rise of homosexuality. Although both are presented as being heterosexual in all respect, we are left guessing that there is a possibility that they could be engaged in such acts. It is during such time that this habit gained popularity among many individuals in this society. Because of fear of intimidation and public ridicule, such individuals would engage in such acts in secrets so that other society members do not realize this.
This documentary paints the relationship that existed between men and women of this society. As we can see from the discussion between Susan and her girlfriend Ann, women were never expected to be in places of authority in this society. They were expected to be at home to take care of children.
However, this book presents a crop of women who decided not to bow to this intimidation. Though the environment is not supportive towards them, they strongly believe that they can make it through in life, if only they have the determination to do so. Susan finds herself in a situation where she has to choose between her profession and a marriage life.
Her friend Ann had made the decision to get married and she felt very lonely in the process. However, she now has to choose between the professions she had dedicated much of her time to and a married life which comes with reduced freedom. Unlike her friend who resigned to her fate, Susan is very strong willed and believes in going after her dreams at whichever cost.
She sticks to her profession and her determination to succeed grows with every passing minute. Although we see her fall to the force of love as the story progresses, it is evident that she is a success in her profession. The American society had started witnessing such women who would do all that it takes to achieve their goals in the corporate world.
The director of this movie also presents us with another theme, the modern corporate women. This theme is presented through Susan. Currently, women strongly believe in gainful employment irrespective of their husbands’ earnings. They have developed the attitude that they have the capacity to provide for themselves.
At first, Susan fell in love with Ceil. This affair, though short-lived, presents this lady as a focused person who is not easily swayed from her set ambitions. When she later meets rabbi, her focus is still not lost. She tells him all she had wanted to become, but because she was a lady, the societal discrimination could not allow her. Rabbi has very little option but to congratulate her for her achievements. This shows that the society is changing. Women can now be seen as people who can achieve a lot in life, just like their male counterparts.
The shooting of this movie was done with relatively lesser sophisticated photographs compared to what is normally used in the Hollywood movies (Tibbett 274). This has made the color of the movie less glamorous.
At some points in the movie, it is evident that the angle at which the photographer took was poor, resulting in poor image quality. However, most of the scenes in the movie are standard, especially the part where Susan sees off rabbi at night when he came to visit her at her work station. The background is so serene and very romantic. The sound quality is also of good standard.
This documentary full of originality, but is overly dramatized. Though it is easy for the audience to relate to it, the some of the scenes are overdramatized. The reaction of Susan towards the message about Ann’s marriage is not realistic. Though it presents the feelings of Susan pretty well, it lacks a sense of reality.
It appears to be more of a drama within a drama. An audience may not directly see such a scene happening in real life. However, the movie is generally presented in a very thrilling manner, with a message that clearly paints the society of America in 1970s.
It is a very captivating movie, with characters that understand their roles and plays them well. The message is brought in a clear and interesting manner. The director has succeeded in not only captivating the audience with this interesting movie, but also pressing the importance of a society that is liberal to all genders.
Works Cited
Dawidowicz, Paula. Literature Review Made Easy: a guide to success. Iowa: IA Publishers, 2010. Print.
Galvan, Jose. Writing Literature Reviews: a guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences. Michigan: Pyrczak press, 2006. Print.
Tibbett, John. “A Matter of Definition.” Out of Bounds in the Girl Friends Sep. 26, 1978: 270-276. Print.
