Category: Rape

Rape is an act of violation of a victim’s rights: the rights of total control over one’s own body. It is an immoral act that has severe consequences which reduce the victim to a self-defensive and a self-pity person. This is because the victim involved will always feel misused due to lack of self-defense or her/ his provocative ways that lead to him/her being raped. It is a common phenomenon in the society today to see that the victim of rape will always be viewed as a woman who will most likely be blamed as being the cause of the act. The argument may range from her dressing code to her confrontation or association with the accused. As a result of these reasons in addition to physical and psychological pain, the victim will tend to blame and pity herself as well as become self-defensive.

As mentioned earlier, rape is a serious crime that should never be committed against a person as it is exclusively terrible in its long-time effect. This is because the act’s aftermath is associated with an abiding sense of shame and fear. This makes it complicated when it comes to quantifying statistically the sense of deep violation. In an attempt to minimize the occurrence of rape, there have been massive undertakings involved in data collection and analysis. Surveys have been conducted by society, human-based organizations as well as the defense or security departments in analyzing the magnitude and other aspects related to rape. It is important to note that according to Gensler. Et.al (p. 17), “rape ranges from the broad (coercing an individual to engage in any sexual act) to the specific (forcing a woman to submit to sexual intercourse).” This can be done through force to engage in sexual activities on instances where the physically unable person is unable to resist due to life threats, physical force and use of substances to make someone unconscious or kidnapping among others (Mackinnon, p. 180).

According to a survey by the FBI in the United States, in 1990, 102,560 cases of rape were recorded and an almost equal figure of attempts to rape. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistic, more than 130,000 victims of this data were women. Among these cases, there were about 680,000 ones that were completed forcible rapes. According to American Justice Department, there will always be 8 percent of women who in their lifetime will be rape victims or victims of attempted rape. However, according to Mackinnon (p. 317), “by conservative definition, rape happens to almost half of all women at least once in their lives” (Gennaro, p. 261)

In an attempt to bring out the clear face of rape, there has been an argument by the Feminist activists who claim that the low FBI data does not reflect the right information regarding rape cases. This is because the FBI data only portrays the figure of the reported cases only despite the fact that rape is one crime that is significantly under-reported. In addition, despite the fact that the “Bureau of Justice Statistics National Crime Survey” claimed to have randomly interviewed 100,000 women, this is considered as being flawed since the women were never questioned directly concerning rape. It appeared that only in cases where women were being questioned about general information regarding criminal victimization was the only instance where the interview was operational (Corey et.al, p. 35).

A clear picture of rape is established by a survey conducted by Koss and her associates of “1992 National Women’s Study.” In her survey, Koss, according to Mackinnon (p. 519), “expressed the orthodox gender feminist view that ‘rape represents an extreme behavior but one that is on a continuum with normal male behavior within the culture.” Together with her associates, Koss interviewed more than 3,000 women from college nationwide, in a random selection. These women were subjected to questions regarding sex violation and other sub-questions about the exact nature of the violation. These questions included the possibility of being alcohol influenced their emotions at the time of the event and after the event, whether they were resistant and the type of resistance they applied, as well as what way they can effectively label the event (Banks, p. 46).

In the survey, Koss regarded one being raped if she agreed with one or all of these questions; first, if one had sexual intercourse after being given alcohol though she never wanted to have sex; if a man used physical force, such as arm twisting as a threat and unwillingly you were engaged in sexual intercourse; and if the man used the same physical threats and forced you in the sexual act such other than pennies, penetration of other objects or anal or oral intercourse without your willingness. According to this survey, Koss and her team came up with a conclusion that in this chosen number of women, 15.4 percent were victims of rape, while 12.1 percent were victims of attempted rape. This gave a total of 27.5 percent of rape victims in the survey whose answers fit Koss’s rape description: “penetration by penis, finger, or another object under the coercive influence such as physical force, alcohol, or threat.” According to (McConnell, p. 413).

Nevertheless, rape victims had a different picture concerning the action. Among the women who Koss termed as rape, only a quarter of them agreed they were raped. Koss explains that among the women she considered as being raped, only 27 percent of them labeled themselves as victims of rape. 49 percent considered the situation as a “miscommunication,” 14 percent termed the action as “not a rape but rather a crime,” while 11 percent indicated that whatever happened, they had no feeling of victimization. In addition to her survey, Koss states that sexual victimization included giving in to sex play, such as kissing, fondling and petting among others with the exclusion of intercourse, if they are under pressure and not self-willingness influenced. She recorded that 53.7 percent of her interviewees were sexually victimized (Sttiphan, p. 174).

Further, there has been an indication of an ignored violation of sexual and physical assault of women by their husbands. These have been the most underreported rape cases in the Criminal Justice System. The biggest contributor of this is associated with beliefs that the rape or battered victims are core determinants of their victimization. They are considered as the “askers,” “deserving”, and even “enjoying” their victimization. According to the survey, most of the women who report being raped by their husbands are often ignored or maltreated by justice agencies. Despite this being a form of a moral crime, “marital rape” fails to legally exist. This is so because according to Corey. Et.al (p. 140), “it is considered that a woman cannot be raped by her husband, since the ‘crime’ of rape is ordinarily and legally defined as forcing sexual intercourse on someone other than the wife of the person accused.” It is also considered that “marital rape” implies a cross-road interpersonal communication within the family.

However, sexual intercourse includes force or even one using threat against victims which is unlawful. However, according to the moral theory of Kant’s moral imperative, it is not always right to use a moral system in persuading moral actions. He argues that it is important noting that moral cases are best judged from consideration of the subject. He further argues that the results or the consequences of an action do not necessarily indicate moral deliberation because they are themselves morally neutral. Accordingly, it is only goodwill in a person’s subjective preferences that expresses the moral or lack of it in any action undertaken. From this argument, it is therefore right to say that rape is wrong because it fails to bring out good to both parties involved in the action. During raping action, the offender is centered on maximizing his or her own positive outcome (Gensler. Et.al, p. 417).

Despite the fact that moral systems might by themselves fail to justify how positive or negative action is, it is agreeable that sexual intercourse is two-party goodwill. However, rape fails to present this fact since one party is looking forward to attaining gratification at the expense of the other party’s victimization. Either when taking it from a broad perspective of persuading a person to engage in sexual intercourse, forcefully making a person surrender to the action or in marital rape cases both are done with a motive of gratifying one’s desires without regard of equitable distribution of the rights.

On the other hand, according to natural law, a man has no right to rape a woman as the woman does not belong to him. The rapist’s victim is considered not to belong to the offender because she has not agreed to have sexual intercourse with him or what can be termed as “a relationship with him.” Therefore, they are considered to lack any understanding between them. This is because she has not accepted or has not given herself to have intercourse with the man. The natural law emphasis that the reason she does not belong to the rapist is that according to Sttiphan (p. 27), “her body belongs to her. In addition, her body belongs to her, and it is hers and hers alone to do as she will because she lives in it. In marital rape as well as in other rape cases, it can be said that even though the husband or the rapist possesses the rape victim’s body, it is the victim who lived in that very body even before the event, during the event and it is her who will continue living in it after the event.” This naturally indicates that she has full right to her body. According to Gensler Et.al (p. 51), “this explains why she does not belong to any man that comes along and decides to have her. If they do not have her permission and agreement, then they are rapists”

One of the criticisms against this argument (thesis) might be that, most often, the victims are the callers of the action. This as stated earlier, might be argued to come from their dressing mode, their interactive mode and illegal behaviors such as denial of conjugal rights in a married couple. This is however not a strong stand because every individual has a capacity for exercising self-control, without mentioning that any person has a right over his/her own body. More importantly, from the definition of legal sexual intercourse which calls for agreement of both parties, it is going against other persons’ rights when one decides to take over his or her body control.

Another criticism might state that rape is a phenomenon in the animal kingdom since it is a reproductive strategy. This may further argue that according to Banks (p. 216), it is difficult to determine what constitutes rape among animals, as the lack of informed consent defines rape among humans.” Despite this argument from socio-biological theory, human beings are the only animals that were created with the special instinct of differentiating between what is right and what is wrong. More importantly, they were given the power to influence, as well as to govern their internal drives which causes them to externally act. This enables men to control their sexual impulses and desires which can enable them to avoid rape cases (Guttmann & Thompson, p. 76).

In conclusion, overriding another person’s rights over his or her body control through rape is not only immoral but also an illegal and punishable action. Many of the people who undergo sexual victimization and mostly rape have a hard time progressing on with their life normally due to fear of another attack and shame from the action. The majority of the rape victims are women though there are also cases of rape on men. According to moral theories, any action that involves more than one person needs to be based on agreement on the two parties for equal distribution of the desired outcome. Additionally, it is worth noting that everyone belongs to his/her own body thus has total control over it. Therefore, it is against moral principles to acquire individual positive outcomes at the expense of another person’s victimization, or forcefully undermine another person’s right on her body control as it is rape cases.

Works cited

1. Banks, Cyndi. Criminal justice ethics: theory and practice. New York: SAGE. 2004. Print
2. Corey, Gerald. Et. Al. Issues and ethics in the helping professions. New York: Cengage Learning. 2007.Print
3. Gensler, Harry. Et.al. Ethics: contemporary reading. Routledge. 2004. Print
4. Guttmann, Amy & Thompson Dennis. Ethics and politics: cases and comments. Belmont: Thomson/ Wadsworth. 2006.Print
5. Mackinnon, Barbara. Ethics: Theory and contemporary issues. Belmont: Wadsworth. 2008.Print
6. Sttiphan, Emily. Christian ethics, issues and insights. Waitsfield: Concept Publishing Company. 2007. Print

The Democratic Republic of the Congo, simply known as DRC Congo and formerly Zaire, has been plagued by civil war for the last five years now. This war has cost the country more lives than any other country going through the civil war in the recent past. The three most used weapons of war in the country are starvation, mutilation and rape. The country has, however, attracted massive international concern in the recent past over mass rapes that have been taking place, especially in remote villages. The Rwandan rebels FDLR (Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda) attacked and occupied a Congolese town for four days in late July and gang-raped more than150 women and children (Lorentsson).

Rape is considered one of the most terrible forms of abuse of human rights. Rape is having sex with another person without their consent and is more about power than it is about sex (United Nations Inter-Agency Network on Women and Gender Equality 5). According to a survey conducted in 2009 by the United Nations, rape is a major problem in all the sub-Saharan African countries. In South Africa, 97% of the population considers it is a problem. The statistics show that in African countries it is worse and in countries such as Congo going through a civil war, approximately 250,000 children and women are raped every year (United Nations Department of Public Information 3). So far, Congo’s case has been considered the worst in the world. This is perhaps because of the country’s high levels of impunity, the sheer number of victims, and the fact that these sadistic acts are committed by killers who were responsible for the unforgettable Rwanda genocide.

The first possible solution to the problem is setting up educational and health centers focused on assault awareness and education. Education should include specific counseling and training for girls on what to do if they find themselves in threatening situations. It should also include training parents on lines of communication between them and their children about sexuality. This way, children know when someone is not behaving right towards them.

The second possible solution is fighting the culture of impunity. Perhaps the biggest problem in Congo and most sub-Saharan African countries is the culture of impunity (Lorentsson). DRC Congo has been in the spotlight for rape cases for a long time now. Surprisingly, very few people have been charged or even punished because most of the violators enjoy protection from high-ranking politicians taking advantage of the situation to gain power. It is time to implement the law because most countries including Congo have very good laws against rapes, murder and violence. The country should implement the law without favoritism because the crime rates seem to be reaching explosive proportions. Actually, its weakness as a solution is the fact that some countries do not uphold equal justice; people can easily buy their way out.

The third possible solution to the problem is improved levels of literacy and socioeconomic status. Most men commit rape because it gives them a sense of power. Poverty, unemployment, low socioeconomic status, and lack of skills make men frustrated and leave most of them feeling intimidated. Some of them will therefore get involved in such activities to vent their frustrations and achieve a sense of power. By improving the socioeconomic status of countries such as Congo and improving literacy levels, it will help men keep busy, be able to reason rationally, and improve their levels of self-esteem by being able to provide for themselves and their families. Availability of jobs will reduce the number of young people joining militia groups. The solutions have the potential to not only minimize rape cases but also help the country develop its economy and improve its living conditions.

In my opinion, the most effective solution to the problem in Congo is setting up educational and health centers focused on assault awareness and education. Education should include specific counseling and training for girls on what to do if they find themselves in threatening situations. It should also include training parents on how to educate children about sexuality. This way, children know when in risky situations. Training and awareness is the best solution since it addresses the problem more comprehensively. It deals with prevention, education, helping victims recover psychologically, and building support systems for them and their families. However, on its own, it might not be able to solve all the problems. The concerned authorities should therefore focus on it but ensure the other suggested solutions are in place to support it.

Rape as an abuse of human rights is reaching explosive proportions as the number of victims increases every day in different countries. It is increasingly ruining many lives, regardless of their age, sex or background. The recent mass rapes in the DRC Congo is a tragedy that has elicited fresh debates about the world’s commitment towards fighting the issue and calls for more measures to prevent any other country from going through such an ordeal. The United Nations especially is under fire for having peace soldiers a few miles away from the town at the time and not coming to the villager’s aid. Rape is used as a weapon of war in the Congo and the situation seems to get more and more horrible. Establishing educational and preventive measures all over the world should be encouraged to sensitize and society as a whole.

Works Cited

Lorentsson, Jennie. There is Almost Total Impunity for Rape in Congo. 2010. Web.

United Nations Department of Public Information. Women and Violence. 2010. Web.

United Nations Inter-Agency Network on Women and Gender Equality (IANWGE). Violence Against Women a Global Phenomenon. 2010. Web.

Have you ever considered the ethicality of the rape penalties? The rape penalties are very highly debatable subject in terms of ethics. Is it right or is it wrong, adequate or inadequate? Many people that are pro-severe penalty have several reasons to support their opinion. However, those who are against the severe penalty feel that they can support their beliefs firmly as well.

Rape as a force making for social injustice includes consideration of the professional criminal and his family. Rarely is such an individual an able provider for those who are rightfully dependent upon him or a stable married man. Convicts are public dependents, and in most cases, so also are their families.

A majority of unmarried men are dull-normal or positively feebleminded. One of the chief ways by which mental defect causes rape is by the debauching of daughters, the breeding of illegitimates and the unrestrained increase of the families of the feebleminded shy men. If the feebleminded could be cared for as the welfare of Society demands, the most serious aspect of the problem of illegitimacy would be solved automatically. So here again, rape as such is not an outstanding cause, it is an attendant circumstance in the operation of mental defect, of overcrowded living conditions, of the alcoholism of parents and their neglect of children.

Penalty is a form of deterrent to rapist, for a major wrong-doing that they have committed. However it is clearly certain that the use of the some penalties is an extremely disputed issue in terms of ethical issues. Whether or not it is ethically, or morally right for a rape that they have been convicted of has been argued upon for decades, and will most likely continue to be for many years to come. The questionnaires containing a number of questions in relation to the above topic and they include:-

• What is your Age? ——————————————————-
• What is your sex? ——————————————————-
• What is your occupation? ———————————————-
• What is your locality? ————————————————–
• What is marital status? ————————————————-
• What is your family composition? ————————————–
• Have you encountered any rape case?
  • Yes
  • No
  • If yes please explain under what circumstances———————————————————-
• Do you feel you have sufficient resources in life to keep it running smoothly?
  • Yes
  • No
• What is rape in your opinion? How would you define it? ———————————————-
• Are you content with your current penalties for rape cases?
  • Yes
  • No
• What sort of penalties consider for rape cases?—————————————————————————
• Do you feel that the current penalties for rapists are for correcting or punishing the rapist?
  • Punishing correcting
  • Explain your view opinion of the role the penalty should play——————————————————–
• Do you wish that penalties should change to stiffer?
  • Yes
  • No
  • If yes explain————————————————————————————————–
• Can the current police gathering evidence system be used as adequate without any substantial changes while collecting rape case evidences?
  • Yes
  • No
  • If no explain ——————————————————————————————————
• Do you have adequate education about effects of rape on the victim?
  • Yes
  • No
  • If yes explain ————————————————————————————————————————
• Do you think commercial workers can be rape?
  • Yes
  • No
  • Explain ——————————————————————————————————————————————–
• Should rapist with HIV/AIDS be given the same penalties as other rapists?
  • Yes
  • No
  • If no explain———————————————————————————————————————————–
• Do consider child rapists as equal as adult rapists?
  • Yes
  • No
• Do consider child defilers as equal as rapists?
  • Yes
  • No
• If yes should they be penalized the same way?
  • Yes
  • No
  • Explain ———————————————————————————————————————————————–

The people cooperated well and answered most of the questions included in the questionnaire. There were only a small number of people who were confused regarding one or two questions; otherwise on the whole there was a good feedback from the survey group.

For many years, rape has been described in survey reports using different perspectives. The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, released in 2015 by the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, is the latest summary report about rape victimization that provides a clear description of this kind of crime. The findings from this survey report conformed to what I believed earlier because it describes rape as an action done through physical force (Smith et al., 2018). This is said to be demonstrated through violence, being held, or pinned down. This essay explores my perspective about rape and how it relates to the discussions provided in the 2015 sexual violence survey report.

My earlier belief about rape was that it involved a forcible anal, oral, or vaginal penetration similar to the definition provided in the summary report. However, this information is not entirely right, according to the textbook, because some cases do not involve the exertion of physical force (Alvarez & Bachman, 2019). For instance, when an underage girl is asked for sexual favors by someone who helped her and she subsequently agrees, it will be considered a rape.

The person, in this case, will not have to use force but rather manipulation or blackmailing. Giving consent towards a sexual contact does not imply that it will not be considered an abuse. As much as the report supports my view, it further contradicts it by explaining that rape is a forceful penetration without consent (Smith et al., 2018). I believe consent must not apply in this case because it changes the whole meaning.

To sum up, most of the report’s findings conform to my earlier beliefs, including the one described above. Nevertheless, some claims are quite different from my earlier opinion about rape. Therefore, it is evident that this type of crime is an issue that still needs further research and modification of its definition to fit all the aspects surrounding it. It should also be described in terms of the age of the victim involved.

References

Alvarez, A., & Bachman, R. D. (2019). Violence: The enduring problem. Sage Publications.

Smith, S. G., Zhang, X., Basile, K. C., Merrick, M. T., Wang, J., Kresnow, M. J., & Chen, J. (2018). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey: 2015 data brief–updated release. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Introduction

Background of the Study

According to Spencer (2016), rape is a type of assault, which involves involuntary sexual intercourse with victims. Most rape cases entail physical assault whereby a perpetrator exerts a corporal force on the victim. However, they may also include sexual exploitation, whereby a perpetrator defiles a person who is incapable of giving valid consent, such as a mentally incapacitated, unconscious, or underage person (Helman 2018). Both women and men can be victims of rape but the latter is considered the biggest perpetrator of the crime (Spencer 2016).

Broadly, there are three types of rape: stranger rape, marital rape, and date rape (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher 2019). Stranger rape is defined by its name because the victim and the assailant have no prior relationship. However, marital rape cases occur among people who know each other. Comparatively, date rape cases happen when “familiar” people sexually assault their victims (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher (2019). For example, it could occur among friends, colleagues, or even someone known to a victim for only a few hours while having a drink. Generally, perpetrators of rape know their victims (Helman 2018).

Rape has a significant psychological impact on affected people. For example, most of them suffer from trauma or posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD) because of psychological torture (Spencer 2016). Serious cases of sexual assault may be detrimental to a person’s health because they predispose them to sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (Thompson and Ortiz 2016). Some rape cases may also result in unwanted pregnancies.

Rape incidences vary across jurisdictions, but there is a consensus among researchers that most of them are underreported (Helman 2018). For example, it is estimated that about 95,000 cases of rape occur every year and only 15,000 of them are reported to the police (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher 2019). These statistics mean that thousands of rape cases are unreported every year, highlighting a fundamental problem with how society views the crime. In some countries, there is a low level of awareness about the assault because some rapists intimidate victims, while others are subdued into accepting the crime through informal mediation or threats from family members (Helman 2018). Nonetheless, the stigma associated with rape is one of the most common reasons for underreporting (Thompson and Ortiz 2016). In America, it is estimated that 1 out of 5 women will be raped in their lifetime, and out of this number, people known to the victims will assault about 41% of them (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher 2019).

Rape incidences are linked to several factors associated with the victim’s circumstances, institutional factors, or the characteristics of the perpetrator (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher 2019). For example, post-assault mistreatment is an institutional factor and one of the leading catalysts of high rape incidences because it enables perpetrators to avoid justice (Ağilkaya-Şahin et al. 2015). It happens when people intensively scrutinize or judge victims of sexual assault as opposed to the perpetrators (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher 2019). If the examination leads to a criminal trial, it may also lead to the loss of privacy for some of the victims because the case may undergo public scrutiny. In some cases, this process may lead to the undermining of a victim’s credibility (Ağilkaya-Şahin et al. 2015). Consequently, rape victims may suffer psychological damage because of cyber-bullying, slut-shaming, and verbal attacks (Thompson and Ortiz 2016). These effects may force some of them to shy away from reporting rape in the first place.

Several researchers who have explored the psychology of rape suggest that the crime is complex (Ebrahim 2019; Ağilkaya-Şahin et al. 2015). Consequently, theories have been formulated to explain its occurrence. For example, some psychologists have used the sociobiological theory of rape to explain why perpetrators engage in it (Thompson and Ortiz 2016). This theory underscores why rape occurs from an evolutionary perspective. Notably, its proponents claim that the assault is a genetically advantageous adaptation embraced by perpetrators of the assault to gain an unfair advantage over their victims (Ebrahim 2019; Ağilkaya-Şahin et al. 2015). Some renowned biologists, such as Randy Thornhill, popularised the theory by drawing comparisons between human and animal behaviors (Nunes et al. 2018). From their experiments, they observed several incidences of forced sexual penetration among chimpanzees, ducks, geese, and other animals and compared the same behaviors to human actions (Nunes et al. 2018).

The similarities between animal and human behavior have not been the subject of contention in scientific circles but the willingness of some biologists to compare animal behavior and human conduct has been the source of debate for most observers (Ebrahim 2019; Ağilkaya-Şahin et al. 2015). Consequently, some critics say the sociobiological theory lacks scientific rigor and fails to respect religious or ethical principles because it undermines human virtues and nature, which guide sexual relationships (Hester and Lilley 2018). Nonetheless, the main goal for formulating these theories is to improve the effectiveness of rape prevention as the best way to curb the vice.

Understanding the psychology of rape is one of the most significant issues discussed in scientific research. It relies on cultural innuendos, which affect how people view the crime. For example, in some cultures, people do not deem rape as an atrocity on a victim but rather on his or her family (Ağilkaya-Şahin et al. 2015). These cultural underpinnings of the rape culture stem from conditions in the ancestral environment, which make it possible for perpetrators to “get away” with the assault (Hester and Lilley 2018). For example, some societies overlook rape cases involving high-status men in society because such perpetrators have little fear of reprisals (Thompson and Ortiz 2016). Comparatively, some studies show that low-status men in society engage in rape because they do not fear reprisals from society because the act is reproductively beneficial to them (Nunes et al. 2018). Similarly, some communities rarely investigate rape cases involving disabled women because of the belief that their kin was indefensible (Thompson and Ortiz 2016).

In some jurisdictions, authorities have a low willingness to investigate rape cases that occur during war or conflict because of the belief that they have few negative repercussions on the society and that the situational factors permitting its occurrence are unavoidable (Ağilkaya-Şahin et al. 2015). Researchers who have investigated this school of thought argue that the crime may be a conditional strategy perpetrated by any perpetrator under specific circumstances that allow an assault to occur (Thompson and Ortiz 2016; Nunes et al. 2018).

The cultural connotations of rape stem from a larger body of theories, which have investigated the normalization of rape through societal attitudes (Stephens et al. 2016). For example, some pervasive sexual behaviors and norms, such as the objectification of women, may foster a rape culture (Thompson and Ortiz 2016; Nunes et al. 2018). A recent remark made by former American President, Barrack Obama, highlights this fact when he said,

For anybody whose, once normal everyday life was suddenly shattered by an act of sexual violence – the trauma, the terror, can shatter you long after one horrible attack. It lingers. You do not know where to go or who to turn to…and people are more suspicious of what you were wearing or what you were drinking as if it is your fault and not the fault of the person who assaulted you (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher 2019: 1).

Indeed, unlike other forms of interpersonal crimes, rape is one of the most common types of sexual assault where people often debate whether the victims should be blamed for the crime, or not (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher 2019). Consequently, victim-blaming is one of the most commonly investigated issues in research studies that have explored the psychology of rape (Papendick and Bohner 2017; Singleton et al. 2018).

In some societies, the trivialization of rape also influences how people react to the practice (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher 2019). The denial of the effects of rape in some communities is also representative of the rape culture and it explains the atrocity in certain social settings, such as in prisons or during times of conflict (Gravelin, Biernat and Bucher 2019). In this regard, the concept of a rape culture could exonerate perpetrators and allocate blame to the society that enables it to happen.

Communities that are likely to tolerate sexual assault often deem the crime a prerogative of men (Thompson and Ortiz 2016; Nunes et al. 2018). This belief system also permeates to the enforcement of rules or laws pertaining to the violation because it influences how police officers treat rape victims. Furthermore, the reluctance to investigate rape cases partly highlights the hesitation of authorities to destabilize male patriarchal norms in society. Some sociologists explain the link between rape and cultural norms by suggesting that non-consensual sex shares a strong correlation with the cultural values of a society (Stephens et al. 2016). Beliefs and value systems that surround the rape culture are also partly informed by patriarchal worldviews that are often masked in misogyny and normalized norms about sexual inequality (Thompson and Ortiz 2016; Nunes et al. 2018). These beliefs typically permeate throughout different generations of people and may have unintended social consequences, such as the institutionalization of social acceptance of rape as an “ordinary” occurrence (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher 2019).

The institutionalized myth about rape partly explains why some societies tolerate it because there is an underlying assumption that victims probably “deserved” it (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher 2019). The commonality of beliefs is hinged on the assumption that rape victims may have been “bad” or “misbehaving” when they were assaulted (Spencer 2016). Such beliefs create the perception that they are “different” from the general population. Stated differently, it promotes the concept of victim exclusion in society, which later manifests in the belief that rape only occurs to specific types of people. The underlying assumption is that rape is not a random occurrence because its victims probably did something to warrant the assault, such as “welcoming” the rapist, dressing provocatively, or acting inappropriately (Spencer 2016). When such beliefs are pervasive in society, they have a common effect on victims by making them feel ashamed of being violated (Helman 2018). These feelings may prevent them from going to authorities to report the incident. Certain societies also use male aggressiveness as an excuse for condoning rape, thereby justifying or normalizing the crime (Helman 2018).

Normalized beliefs about rape draw attention to the just-world hypothesis, which is a common school of thought that explains the rape culture (Ağilkaya-Şahin et al. 2015). It stems from the view that people’s fate is a product of their actions. Therefore, what happens in their life is morally fair and just because occurrences befit the consequences of human actions (Cuevas and Rennison 2016). In addition, it promotes the view that cultural perceptions of rape affect people’s willingness to intervene when rape occurs. Nunes et al. (2018) say that such cultures always thrive when a society has a general belief that rape is not a “big deal.”

Research Gap

Studies that have examined the role of culture in understanding rape psychology have had conflicting and confusing findings because they tend to group all types of sexual assault in one analysis. For example, Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher (2019) say that there has been confusion among studies, which have explored victim-shaming for rape cases that were perpetrated by acquaintances and those done by strangers. This study strives to bring clarity to the debate by exploring the role of two factors (just-world beliefs and rape myth acceptance) in predicting people’s willingness to intervene when sexual assault occurs. Based on this discussion, this study will highlight the societal attitudes surrounding rape by consulting academic knowledge in this area of study.

Its findings will be vital to our understanding of people’s attitudes towards rape and sexual assault. Concisely, by gaining a proper understanding of this crime, authorities would be better able to address it and the society as a collective unit would make better decisions to prevent its occurrence at family or community levels. In addition, victims could also be better empowered to seek justice because there would be no social stigma associated with sexual assault when people have a better understanding of their role in abating the crime. The variables of interest in this study will be an individual’s willingness to intervene when sexual assault occurs, just world beliefs, and rape myth acceptance. These variables will be operationalized as follows:

• Dependent Variable: Individual’s willingness to intervene when sexual assault occurs
• Independent Variables: Just world beliefs and rape myth acceptance

Theoretical Framework

Just world beliefs and rape myth acceptance are two extrinsic variables that will be tested in this study to understand whether they influence an individual’s willingness to intervene during a sexual assault. Coupled with a person’s readiness to intervene when sexual assault occurs, these two sets of variables represent institutional, situational, and individual factors influencing rape occurrence. For example, individual factors, such as a person’s upbringing, could affect their motivation to intervene when a sexual assault occurs. Comparatively, institutional factors may influence people’s beliefs, norms, and, by extension, how they react to a sexual assault. Lastly, situational factors share a close relationship with rape myth acceptance because people often want to know the circumstances that led to rape in the first place. Consequently, situational factors are integral in understanding rape myths. These three levels of factors influencing people’s perceptions of rape form the overall conceptual framework for this investigation.

Previous research studies that have explored the psychology of rape have also used this conceptual framework to predict rape cases. For example, Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher (2019) have used this model to investigate victim-blaming and shaming as an impediment to rape prevention. Figure 1 below outlines the conceptual framework.

Figure 1 above suggests that the three levels of external factors influencing people’s perceptions of sexual assault are not mutually exclusive but interdependent (Gravelin, Biernat, and Bucher 2019). Therefore, it is vital to investigate situational and institutional factors affecting rape when predicting people’s motivation to stop sexual assault. Similarly, it is difficult to understand situational factors influencing rape occurrence, such as rape myth acceptance, and ignore the role of institutional factors (such as beliefs, norms, and laws) or individual influences on the crime. Based on the conceptual framework described above, the statement of research and its supporting objectives that will guide this investigation appear below.

Statement of Research

Investigate the effects of just-world beliefs and rape myth acceptance on an individual’s willingness to intervene when sexual assault occurs.

Research Objectives

1. To find out people’s perception of consent and its effect on an individual’s willingness to intervene when a sexual assault occurs
2. To examine the extent that victim-blaming influences an individual’s willingness to intervene when a sexual assault occurs
3. To predict the impact that people’s perception of aggressor’s motives will have on their willingness to intervene when a sexual assault occurs

Research Questions

1. How do people perceive consent and its effect on an individual’s willingness to intervene when a sexual assault occurs?
2. To what extent does victim-blaming influence an individual’s willingness to intervene when a sexual assault occurs?
3. What is the impact of people’s perception of a motive to rape on their willingness to intervene when a sexual assault occurs?

Hypotheses

• H1: Just world beliefs and willingness to accept a rape culture influence an individual’s willingness to intervene when a sexual assault occurs
• Ho (Null hypothesis): Just world beliefs and willingness to accept a rape culture have a neutral effect on people’s willingness to intervene when a sexual assault occurs
• H2: Just world beliefs and willingness to accept a rape culture do not influence people’s willingness to intervene when a sexual assault occurs

Overall, this investigation will be a quantitative study and the researcher will test the hypotheses outlined above by analyzing data using the statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) technique. Particularly, the researcher will use the ANOVA test to undertake this function because it is predicated on the presence of two or more independent variables, which have the same mean (Blanca, Alarcón, and Bono 2018). The independent variables are just world beliefs and rape myth acceptance, while the dependent variable is people’s willingness to intervene during a sexual assault.

Methods

As highlighted in the introduction section of this paper, the aim of this study is to investigate whether an individuals’ level of rape myth acceptance and just world beliefs affects his or her willingness to stop a sexual assault. This section of the paper discusses the techniques used to answer the research questions. Key sections discuss the research design, participant information, materials used to undertake the study, and procedures followed in data analysis. The research design is described below.

Design

As highlighted above, the dependent variable was an individual’s willingness to intervene during sexual assault and the independent variables were just-world beliefs and rape myth acceptance. The researcher assessed the relationship between these two sets of data using the quantitative technique. The justification for selecting this method was enshrined in the generation of quantitative data from the questionnaires. Furthermore, the quantitative research method was consistent with the SPSS technique, which is the main data analysis instrument. Lastly, the researcher adopted the quantitative technique in the study because other researchers have reliably used it to investigate the relationship between different sets of variables.

Participant Information

The researcher conducted this study at Coventry University. Therefore, participants were sourced from the same institution. Sixty-six students took part in the investigation and their response rate was 60%. A small number of informants were selected because it took a long time (about 45 minutes) to complete one questionnaire. Therefore, having a larger number of participants could have taken the researcher a lot of time in data collection. Nonetheless, the researcher sampled the participants randomly to eliminate bias. Their ages ranged between 18 and 45 years and all of them were pursuing either an undergraduate or master’s degree at Coventry University. As will be explained in the ethics section of this paper, all the informants took part in the study voluntarily.

Data Collection

The researcher used questionnaires as the main data collection method. This instrument contained different questions relating to the respondents’ perceptions of sexual assault. For example, the researcher asked them to state their views regarding whether a drunken woman deserved to be raped for being inebriated. To answer such a question, the respondents had to state whether they agreed or disagreed with such a statement. The Likert scale was the unit of measuring their views. This investigation happened in a secure institutional environment and at a time that was convenient for them. Lastly, the researcher gave the respondents an option to email the researcher if they had any questions pertaining to the investigation. The interview technique was an alternative method of data collection but it was rejected because of the high number of students sampled.

Data Analysis

The researcher used SPSS software to conduct data analysis. Particularly, the one-way of analysis variance (ANOVA) technique was used to predict the relationship among people’s willingness to intervene during a sexual assault (this was the dependent variable), just world beliefs, and rape myth culture (independent variables). The justification for using the ANOVA technique, as the appropriate test, was premised on the fact that the study had multiple groups of independent variables. The data preparation process included an examination of missing values and data. The information used was free from such errors and contained consistent data, relative to the collection metrics.

Reflexivity

The researcher conducted this research based on the need to understand the role of just-world beliefs and rape myth cultures in influencing people’s willingness to intervene during sexual violence. Not only is rape understudied but also marred by varied opinions and stereotypes. The researcher is a student at Coventry University where the study is domiciled. The focus on rape is a personal interest and not necessarily informed by experience. Therefore, no conflicting interests or biases were attributable to the researcher’s background.

Ethics

• Withdrawal from the Study: The research respondents could withdraw from the study without any repercussions. However, to do so, they were required to provide their unique participant code to a specified email address provided in the consent form.
• Privacy and Confidentiality: Although the research participants were encouraged to give candid information about the research topic, they did not have to state whether they had a personal experience with rape. Therefore, they had an opportunity to speak freely without any fear of judgment. In addition, information relating to the research respondents was anonymous and reported using a coded participant number. It de-identified personal information relating to each informant and facilitated the process of data analysis, which will be discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter.
• Consent: The research participants had the liberty to participate in the study, or withdraw from it at any time without repercussions. Those who gave their free consent signed the form. It stipulates that they understood their rights when participating in the study and affirmed their willingness to speak candidly about the research topic. In addition, the informants were notified that the data developed from their views could be used to reproduce alternative academic documents, such as journals.
• Data Management: The researcher processed the data by observing the standards outlined in the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) 2016. The provisions of the data protection Act 2018 were also observed when processing the informants’ views. Lastly, the researcher stored the information obtained from the research respondents in a computer and secured it using a password that was only privy to the investigator. After completing the dissertation, data was destroyed.

Evaluation of Research Quality

Before undertaking this investigation, the research proposal was subjected to a careful evaluation process by Coventry University’s staff. Consequently, the institution’s ethics committee approved the project before it commenced. In addition, the researcher used the member check technique to safeguard the credibility and reliability of information obtained. This method requires researchers to share data with the respondents before publication. By doing so, the informants had an opportunity to scrutinize the final data and examine whether they reflected their views. This technique helped to improve consistency in the presentation of information.

Results

As highlighted in this study, the dependent variable was an individual’s willingness to intervene during a sexual assault, while the independent variables were just-world beliefs and rape myth acceptance. The researcher collected the respondents’ views using a survey questionnaire. A multiple regression analysis was also undertaken to investigate the effects of the independent variables on an individual’s willingness to intervene when sexual assault occurs. The results showed that the model could predict 56.7% of the variance. In other words, just world beliefs and rape myth acceptance could foretell an individual’s willingness to intervene when sexual assault occurs 56.7% of the time. This finding is highlighted in the equation below.

F(2,26) = 9.34, p =.001.

Table 1 below formed the framework for developing the above findings.

Table 1. ANOVA findings (Source: Developed by Author)

A model summary of the findings is highlighted in Table 2 below.

Table 2. Model Summary

Table 2 above affirms the above-mentioned equation because the R-square points to the proportion of variation that just world beliefs and rape myth acceptance would influence an individual’s willingness to intervene during a sexual assault. The “R” value highlighted above (.647) suggests a strong relationship between the dependent variable (willingness to intervene) and the independent variables (just world beliefs and rape myth acceptance). Therefore, the model developed could strongly predict the relationship between the two sets of variables.

According to Table 3 below, perceptions of whether rape had occurred or not had the strongest correlation with infidelity (B =.611, p<.05), while the likelihood to ask for verbal consent and the perception of whether a victim “asked” to be raped had the weakest correlation because both their p values were (B =.293, p<.05). The final predictive model is highlighted below.

Willingness to intervene score = 30.657 + (.611* it was not really rape) + (.293* Likelihood to ask for verbal consent) + (.611* “It wasn’t really rape”) + (.339* fairness) + (.298* “If she lies”) + (.293* “If she asked for it”)

Table 3. Coefficients (Developed by Author)

The findings highlighted above show that the null hypothesis (Ho) and H2 were rejected in favour of H1, which suggested that just world beliefs and willingness to accept a rape culture influence an individual’s willingness to intervene when a sexual assault occurs. These findings are discussed below.

Discussion

As highlighted above, the findings of this study support the hypothesis that just-world beliefs and willingness to accept a rape culture influence an individual’s willingness to intervene when sexual assault occurs. This hypothesis is consistent with previous findings because researchers have often linked cultural factors with people’s perceptions of rape.

For example, Bevens, Brown, and Loughnan (2018) explored the role of cultural beliefs and practices in influencing people’s tendency to blame victims for being raped and found out that these influences significantly predicted people’s perceptions of sexual assault. If the same findings were linked to this study, the role of just-world beliefs in influencing people’s perception of rape suffices because beliefs are products of culture.

The findings highlighted in this study also draw attention to several theories that have been used to understand the psychology of rape. For example, they highlight the principles of the rape perception framework, which describes the role of individual and situational factors in creating the right environment of rape to occur (Flowe and Maltby 2018). Nonetheless, it is difficult to dismiss the role of institutional and societal factors in this investigation because they largely explain why the respondents expressed a strong willingness to intervene during a sexual assault.

Relation to Conceptual Framework

Subject to the tenets of the conceptual framework highlighted in the introduction section of this paper, gender roles and the role of the media in shaping people’s perceptions of human relationships are offshoots of the institutional and societal factors influencing people’s perceptions of rape. A broader assessment of the respondents’ views draws attention to the interplay between institutional, societal, and individual factors in influencing people’s perceptions of rape. Alternatively, the rape myth acceptance paradigm which has been used as an independent variable in this study has a direct link with gender roles in present-day society because past studies have established a link between people’s willingness to blame victims for being raped and their endorsement of traditional gender roles (Bevens, Brown and Loughnan 2018). Stated differently, people who endorse traditional beliefs about gender roles in society are likely to blame victims for being raped.

In this investigation, it is also important to evaluate the role of benevolent sexism in society and its influence on people’s perceptions about gender relationships. The findings depicted in this paper show that there is a gradual shift in attitudes among the sample population because their views generally tend to differ from traditional conceptions of male and female relationships. For example, most of the respondents claimed they would not exploit an opportunity to rape a girl if they were drunk and would confront a person who wants to do that.

Issues of consent and perceptions of the victim’s role in the rape ordeal also differ significantly from traditional patriarchal norms about gender roles because a majority of the respondents did not believe it was the victim’s fault to be raped. Therefore, their views are postmodernist. If their sentiments were examined in relation to the theoretical data provided in the introductory section of this report, the findings of this study appear to contradict notable theories, such as the sociobiological model, which attributes rape to genetics and male dominance. The respondents’ views did not support this school of thought because the informants showed little regard for male dominance in explaining sexual liaisons.

The above analysis shows that social factors influence people’s perceptions of rape and the institutional beliefs on the same issue because the justice system has to respond to the times better than it did in the past. Consequently, today, authorities have to listen to these rape allegations afresh and investigate them because the public mood no longer supports a “bury your head in the sand” approach where victims shy away from reporting cases or seeking justice. Therefore, the institutional factors influencing rape occurrence are products of societal factors influencing people’s perceptions of sexual assault.

The above insights have a direct relation with this study because they show the consistency of the findings with current attitudes regarding sexual assault. Stated differently, contemporary attitudes about rape are misaligned with an acceptance of rape culture because people are willing to intervene and stop atrocities meted on victims. Therefore, the public mood about rape is instrumental in seeking justice for victims because it could influence how fast relevant authorities dispense justice or even whether the public would be interested in hearing the case in the first place.

The relationship between the societal and institutional factors influencing rape is also linked with individual factors impacting the same behavior because when perpetrators realise that there is a consequence to action, they change their behaviors (Nyúl et al. 2018). Therefore, there is a greater personal deterrent to engaging in rape because the society is challenging traditional patriarchal norms, and men are being forced to take personal accountability for their actions. The study by Nyúl et al. (2018) points out the same fact because it highlights several incidences where prominent people have received public empathy or lenient jail times even after being successfully convicted of rape. To demonstrate this point, the researchers gave the example of a Hungarian swimming coach who was found guilty of sexual assault but received public empathy after conviction (Nyúl et al. 2018).

Overall, this study shows that a perpetrator’s level of success could affect people’s conception of rape. A review of these findings vis a vis the conceptual framework of this study shows that individual factors also have a significant impact on how society and institutions address rape cases. Stated differently, people’s perceptions of an individual’s personality may significantly undermine their objectivity when evaluating rape cases. Nonetheless, the study by Nyúl et al. (2018) demonstrates that the findings of this study are consistent with those of other researchers.

Relation to Past Studies

It is important to interpret the findings of this study cautiously because it was conducted in an institutional setting. Furthermore, it represented the views of a young population of students, who often tend to have liberal views about male and female relationships compared to older generations. The location of the study, which is Britain, could also have an effect on the findings because the United Kingdom (UK) is a western country, and its views on gender roles are largely influenced by the quest for equality between the sexes. This perception is different from non-western countries, which may still hold traditional views about gender relations. These varying perceptions of male and female roles may have a significant effect on how people perceive rape because a liberalist is likely to be more empathetic to victims compared to a traditionalist. Researchers, such as De Vries et al. (2014), who investigated adolescents’ views about forced sex, have explained this difference through cultural orientations. The South African study demonstrated that local cultural beliefs have a significant effect on people’s perceptions of sexual-based violence and forced sex (De Vries et al. 2014). The study also pointed out that the local South African culture demanded women to be submissive and silent even when there is an unfair power balance between the sexes (De Vries et al. 2014). This inequity in gender relations was deemed a significant influence on people’s perceptions of forced sex, thereby reinforcing the findings of this study.

The same findings support the views of other researchers who have investigated the influence of rape myth acceptance on people’s judgement regarding sexual assault. For example, the study by Nyúl et al. (2018) demonstrated how people have double standards when it comes to rape cases involving celebrities or public figures that are alleged to have raped another person. The authors suggest that the prominence of such people often creates a debate regarding whether the victim is lying or not. The debate arises from suspicion that the alleged victim may be fabricating the allegations to get public sympathy or money from the celebrity (Nyúl et al. 2018).

The recent case involving Robert Kelly, a renowned celebrity musician, which was characterized by statutory rape allegations, highlights the conflicting views people have when celebrities are involved in sexual assault incidences. The public had conflicting views regarding whether Mr. Kelly was guilty of the crimes he was accused of regardless of the witness statements and documentaries produced to affirm the same view. The case involving Bill Cosby, a celebrated comedian in America, also juxtaposes the debate regarding sexual assault because there was also public debate regarding whether the victims were telling the truth or lying just to get publicity. Although the comedian was found guilty for the crime and sentenced to jail, his case demonstrates the role of situational factors in influencing people’s perception of rape because it was tried during the “me too” era where women were being encouraged to expose powerful men in the entertainment business who were sexually exploiting or harassing them.

Harvey Weinstein is perhaps the most notable accused person in the “me too” movement who was accused of sexual assault. He was a powerful Hollywood media mogul and his case is a leading example of the power people or society have in influencing rape arbitration cases or even associated trials. In scientific circles, this case birthed the Weinstein effect, which is premised on the willingness of people to come out and expose sexual harassment cases involving powerful men not only in Hollywood but also around the world.

The “Me too” movement that followed the Weinstein case exposes the role of situational factors influencing people’s willingness to report rape cases or acknowledge its occurrence in the first place. In other words, the movement stemmed from an important time in American society that forced people to introspect about the prevalence of sexual abuse in society and decide to take action about it. The movement birthed a period where people were more willing to listen to such cases objectively and allow victims to seek justice without much cynicism about the truthfulness of their experiences, as was the case in the past.

The period of social reckoning is important to this study because it highlights how societal influences may shift people’s perceptions of sexual assault, regardless of when the crime occurred. For example, Cosby’s case involved rape allegations that happened more than a decade before he faced trial. The victims did not seek justice when the crimes occurred because it was “not the right time,” as they would have possibly experienced some resistance from the society because of the high profile stature of the accused person (Nyúl et al. 2018). However, the “me too” movement paved the way for the victims to share their experiences because people were more aware and willing to do something about the atrocities. This paradigm shift in societal views about rape highlights the principles of the conceptual framework of this study, which suggests that societal factors play a significant role in how people accept the occurrence of sexual assault or even their willingness to address it.

The link between just world beliefs, rape myth acceptance, and people’s willingness to intervene during a sexual assault is also consistent with research investigations that have shown how societal attitudes affect justice and people’s conceptions of rape incidences (Wegner et al. 2015). For example, the study conducted by Hill and Marshall (2018), which investigated differences in cultural attitudes towards women in India and Britain affirmed the same finding because the acceptance of rape myths was more prevalent in cultures that supported traditional gender roles. Relative to this assertion, Hill and Marshall (2018) contend that the Indian culture was less sympathetic to the plight of rape victims compared to the British culture because of differences in western and eastern beliefs about gender roles. In addition, they suggested that the Indian culture was more receptive to rape myths compared to Britain’s egalitarian model (Hill and Marshall 2018).

The above analysis draws attention to the role of societal factors in influencing people’s acceptance of rape and other forms of sexual assault. Again, this attribute is highlighted in the conceptual framework of this study because societal attitudes are grouped together with individual and institutional factors to understand their influences on people’s perceptions of rape. Based on the findings of Hill and Marshall (2018), gender egalitarianism is proposed as a technique to reduce the stigma associated with rape. For example, there was a suggestion to expose more women to powerful positions and highlight the same progress through the media by highlighting stories of females who have overcome odds to be successful (Hill and Marshall 2018). The goal is to undermine traditional gender roles and encourage more people to view sexual assault objectively.

Researchers, such as Kamdar et al. (2017), who argue that prejudicial views about rape and existing stereotypes influence people’s acceptance of rape myths have further investigated the influence of societal values on people’s willingness to intervene during sexual assault and support the assertion that just-world beliefs and rape myth cultures influence people’s willingness to intervene during rape cases.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Although the findings of this study are consistent with those done by previous researchers, there is a need to expose people to different cultures and lifestyles to reduce their vulnerability to myths about rape, which inhibit their willingness to intervene when sexual assault occurs. From a policy perspective, researchers, such as Taschler and West (2017), have proposed that communities should promote interactions among people from different social groups, as a technique for eliminating bias.

When people see how other communities manage rape incidences, they may question their own methods of prejudices and make appropriate changes both at societal and institutional levels (Taschler and West 2017). However, personal change needs to occur first before an institutional or societal change can be observed. This view stems from investigations, which have shown that intergroup interactions could significantly reduce people’s sexist attitudes and by extension motivate them to stop an assault when it occurs (Treat, Church, and Viken 2017).

The findings highlighted in this study also provide evidence of a just world system and its role in influencing people’s attitudes towards rape. Notably, the link between the just world system and people’s views on rape infers a relationship between the findings of this study and those which have highlighted the role of victim shaming in influencing how authorities investigate rape cases (Dworkin et al. 2017). In other words, proponents of a just world system are likely to blame the victim for the rape because of the belief that nothing occurs randomly.

The findings of this study have a significant impact on the future comprehension or rape incidences because they propagate the belief that people who view such incidences through stereotypical lenses often activate general orienting beliefs about the occurrence of rape cases. Consequently, it is essential to investigate the role of gender patriarchal norms and attitudes about sexuality on people’s attitude towards sex. The prevalence of sexist and misogynistic beliefs about male sexuality is partly to blame for the unwillingness of people to intervene when sexual assault occurs because researchers have shown that societies, which have a traditional view of gender roles tend to have fewer people, who are willing to intervene when rape occurs (Abeid et al. 2014). Comparatively, countries that have a more balanced approach of gender roles have a stronger inclination to stop an assault if it occurs. The findings of the study are products of the latter culture. Therefore, it is not surprising that most of the respondents claimed they would intervene to stop sexual assault.

Again, as highlighted in this paper, the informants are products of the British culture, which is largely nestled in western beliefs about gender roles. In such a culture, people strive to allocate the same burden on men as it does on women to stop or report sexual assault. Such cultures also tend to have heightened levels of awareness about sexual assault compared to countries or communities where traditional gender roles are strongly upheld (Taschler and West 2017; Olson 2016). These views are also consistent with research studies, which have highlighted the powerful role of environmental influences in shaping people’s views on sexuality.

In other words, people are products of their own environment and it is unlikely to have a large cross-section of people holding different beliefs from the majority. Therefore, their willingness to intervene when sexual assault occurs is a product of this environmental complex. This is why it may be important to conduct this same study in a different setting or cultural context to understand whether there would be differences in how the informants perceive sexual assault.

Stemming from the fact that the findings of this study were based in an institutional setting, future researchers could undertake the same investigation in a different context. For example, instead of investigating the research phenomenon within a student population, the focus could be directed to the larger public. In addition, researchers can expand the scope of the study to not only include an informant group that is pursuing an education in an institution of higher learning but also others that have no affiliation to the education sector.

Lastly, the findings of this study are also consistent with others, which have extensively portrayed women as victims of rape and not necessarily men (Kelly et al. 2017). Although there was no gender bias in collecting the research information, future research could be more focused on a male-dominated respondent group to understand how societal attitudes towards gender roles would influence people’s willingness to intervene during a sexual assault. This recommendation stems from the general assumption that intervention would be based on how society deems the threats posed to the victims. For example, it is unlikely that people would perceive the same level of sexual assault threat on a woman as they would do to a man. Therefore, there could be a variation in how much they would be willing to intervene when a sexual assault involves the man as the victim.

Consequently, future research should focus on men as victims. The importance of undertaking a gender-sensitive study comes from research studies, which have shown significant differences in how men and women perceive sexual assault. Notably, there is a consensus that men tend to blame victims more than women do. This trend could perhaps be associated with the observation that most victims are female, while men appear to be the biggest perpetrators of the vice. Therefore, there is a need to explore how gender roles influence people’s willingness to intervene in sexual assault cases.

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Introduction

Rape is primarily the product of social interaction, in which a person acquires an excessive assault drive. It is frequently done with the use of force and, on rare occasions, with the help of harmful tools (Wilson & Miller, 2016). Although epidemiological research indicates that both males and females are assaulted, females are at a far higher risk of assault. The paper analyses two rape cases, identifying the unique issues for each and providing treatment options for the victims.

Main Differences between the Two Rape Victims

The two victims experience different aspects after the rape cases. Considering the female victim is raped by their husband, she will get afraid about becoming pregnant due to the assault (Russell & Hand, 2017). Emergency contraception should be administered if she seeks medical attention within a few hours of the sexual assault and for up to five days afterward. On the other hand, the male victim assaulted by a stranger in the washroom will not have a fear of pregnancy, and there will be no need to take contraceptives.

Furthermore, the male who has been sexually attacked will have the same impact as other survivors of rape. He may confront additional obstacles that are unique to his scenario. He will experience shame or self-doubt because he believes he should have been tough enough to fight off the perpetrator. These physiological responses do not imply that he desired, invited, or appreciated the assault in any manner. If something terrible happens to him, he should understand that it is not his fault. Unlike the female, he will not have the feeling of fighting back because he will feel ashamed due to his ego; instead, depression will be his disadvantage.

Contrary to the man’s scenario, marital rape is common, bringing abused women health problems, agony, and grief. Children in homes where marital rape happens often suffer from the psychological impact of seeing violence, as well as the fact that it can jeopardize their mother’s capacity to care for them. She may also be afraid to speak up for fear of being humiliated, making her unable to stop the abuse or prevent the harmful consequences for herself and her children. This could be owing to a family or community’s tolerance of marital rape and other types of violence against her or because she lacks the confidence, skills, or means to support herself financially.

Unique Issues Each Client Faces in Dealing with Trauma

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can affect clients confronted with traumatic life scenarios. Different significant concerns that frequently arise were identified (Pinciotti & Orcutt, 2017). The first is distress, anxiety, and arousal issues that were not evident before the event. For example, the man who has been sexually assaulted will have problems with sexual functioning, such as low sexual desire or erectile dysfunction, which will impair his self-esteem and feeling of manhood and his intimate relationships. Additionally, the woman goes through the agony of being raped, and the aftermath can be nearly as horrific as the crime itself.

The lady may be apprehensive for months or even years after the rape and fear a relationship with the rapist. She may have unexpected flashbacks or dreams in which she is forced to relive the painful event. Even when they are capable of climaxing, victims usually experience the lower pleasure of intimacy activities after the assault. Another subsequent research of victims of rape found that one-quarter of the women did not feel they had recovered psychologically six years after the attack (Pinciotti & Orcutt, 2017). In addition, women who had PSTD were twice as likely to have a depressive condition and three times as likely to develop future liquor issues.

General Treatment Goals

Many persons in distress believe that no one understands their situation and that they are not taken seriously. It is imperative to give the man complete attention to show him how important he is. Many survivors find it difficult to report assault or abuse, especially if they are afraid of not being believed due to masculinity stereotypes. When treating the woman, the counselor should refrain from making overly optimistic statements such as “it will get better” or attempting to control her emotions. Moreover, addressing concerns should be in place; if a victim decides to disclose that information, it is important to listen in a nonjudgmental and sympathetic manner. Finally, the establishment of an adequate resources supply goal should be defined. Other characteristics of a man’s life may hinder his capacity to obtain resources and help after being sexually assaulted or abused. Trans-males, for example, may experience challenges getting medical treatment, whereas black men may be hesitant to approach law enforcement. A counselor should be aware of these concerns and recommend the best resources to help the victim.

Treatment Approaches

Firstly, there should be an implementation of an assertive approach: Anxiety is combated by therapy. The assault survivor lowers anxiety and creates more precise adapting mechanisms by practicing assertive replies. Victims of violence are so afraid of assertions that they do not communicate and instead develop emotions of hatred and absence. Assertiveness training may be beneficial for different women, assisting them in overcoming their severe perspective of vulnerability and helplessness following the assault and motivating them to continue their previous individual behavior.

The second method is systematic desensitization, which can be thought of as a counter-conditioning process or de-conditioning. This treatment is beneficial in removing rape victims’ worries or phobias. Individuals learn to contract and relax their muscles through relaxation training, which begins with the ankles and feet and progresses to expose them to the fearful event, in either their thinking or in fact. Third, the behavior of the rational emotive treatment approach should be incorporated; the therapy claims that people’s emotional disturbances are caused by what they believe about situations they confront, not the issue itself. Counseling is effective in reducing the cognitive symptoms and emotions that assault victims suffer from.

The fourth option is group treatment; it is beneficial in addressing the issues of rejection, loneliness, isolation, and the power to produce effective relationships. Clients can sort out their difficulties in front of others, see how people act to their behavior, and exercise different answers in group therapy. Finally, crisis intervention is a vital part of the victims’ healing process (Meichenbaum, 2017). It entails creating a rapport with the service delivery team and short-term evaluation team and avoiding a crisis.

The Best Treatment for Each Client

Group therapy is likely to work best for the female victim. The ability to create meaningful relationships will be a result of group therapy. The couple will sort out their difficulties in front of others, observe how people react to their behavior, and exercise different answers in group therapy. For the male victim, systematic desensitization treatment should be incorporated to remove worries or phobias. Additionally, he will learn to contract and relax his muscles in any event without fear.

Conclusion

As analyzed above, the victims require rapid assistance to survive the trauma and return to everyday life. Rape is more than just unwanted sex; it is a painful event comparable to other significant traumas. Psychological illnesses that rape victims suffer from include anxiety and mood disorders. As a result, counseling psychologists must become familiar with psychological strategies that may be utilized to support rape victims mentally.

References

Meichenbaum, D. (2017). Stress inoculation training: A preventative and treatment approach. In D. Meichenbaum. The Evolution of Cognitive Behavior Therapy (pp. 101-124). Routledge.

Pinciotti, C. M., & Orcutt, H. K. (2017). Understanding gender differences in rape victim-blaming: The power of social influence and just world beliefs. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(1-2). Web.

Russell, K. J., & Hand, C. J. (2017). Rape myth acceptance, victim blame attribution and Just World Beliefs: A rapid evidence assessment. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 37, 153-160. Web.

Wilson, L. C., & Miller, K. E. (2016). Meta-analysis of the prevalence of unacknowledged rape. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(2), 149-159. Web.

The definition of rape

Rape is commonly referred to as sexual assault.

It is the act of having unwanted sexual intercourse. The Federal Bureau of Investigation has defined rape as the penetration of any object into the vagina or anus of a person forcefully (James 2008). It can happen to both men and women. Rapists have devised various methods of taking advantage of their victims. At times they use force. Others, drug their victims making them unconscious. Raping is against the law and human rights. To the victims, rape is traumatizing and frightening (Lalumiere 2005).

The dynamic of rape

Many reasons are believed to be the driving forces making people want to rape others. Research has shown that the main cause of rape is the desire to control (James 2008). This is contrary to the widely perceived reason that rape is committed due to the desire of having sexual intercourse. Rapists have this desire to control, terrorize and humiliate their victims.

Anyone can be raped. This is contrary to the myths that people of high moral character can’t get raped. Research has shown that the majority of rape perpetrators are well known by their victims. There have been reported cases of husbands raping their wives.

The most vulnerable people are children, women, and the elderly walking alone at night (Lalumiere 2005). The perpetrators are normally prepared with objects such as knives. They usually hang around at dark corners where they can monitor their victim’s movements and attack them when they are most vulnerable.

Social-cultural factors

Several cultural factors are believed to be behind this rape menace (James 2008). Gender-based attitudes are believed to be the main cause of this. Men are perceived to be superior to women. Most cultures suggest that women should be submissive to men. These beliefs have led to the rise in rape cases. However, tables have changed and both genders are considered equal.

Personal and psychological factors

These have been attributed to be the main driving force that drives rapists to commit this heinous crime.

Alcohol and drug use

Most perpetrators are believed to be under the influence of drugs. Drugs mess up their minds and make them more vulnerable to committing these crimes (Lalumiere 2005).

Sexual fantasies

Some of the rapists usually have weird fantasies that they want to satisfy. This at times may drive them to perpetuate this crime.

Hostility towards women

These people have low regard for women. This makes them be hostile towards women. They want to control and have their way with women and fellow men (James 2008).

Preventing rape

Due to the traumatizing nature of rape, people should find ways to minimize the risk of getting raped. Taking these simple steps will help reduce the possibility of being raped.

During dates

During dates, people should avoid isolated places. One should have limits and tell their partner what they expect from the date. Carry enough money and make sure drugs are not forced on you. It is important to tell someone of your whereabouts before leaving for your date.

With acquaintances

One should stay around other people. Also, make sure you monitor your drinking to minimize the risk of getting drunk. The other important thing is to make sure you open your drinks to reduce the possibility of being drugged (Lalumiere 2005).

Other forms of rape

While at home make sure that during the night all doors and windows are locked. Be sure to ask people knocking at the door to identify themselves before opening the door. If you are taking a walk at night, ensure you walk in well-lit areas. If attacked, try to create attention by screaming. This will help fend off the rapist.

References

James, R. K. (2008). Crisis intervention strategies. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

Lalumiere, M. L. (2005). The causes of rape. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Abstract

Rape is one of the crimes faced by women in different sectors across the globe. In 2012, the gang rape of a student on a bus and the subsequent death resulted in national protests that called for authorities to put in place measures to protect women and children. Since then, many reported cases of rape are reported in India. It has become a major social, health, and legal concern. The increasing cases of sexual violence across India have led to widespread protests in which activists have called for authorities to act and stop the vice. The present paper is an in-depth analysis of the rape issue in India.

It covers the causes of rape, the victims, effects on the victims, and the possible solutions. A systematic search for media articles was conducted to present the overview of the rape problem in India and the probable solutions. This was then followed by another systematic collection and analysis of the expert opinion of rape. This involved use of databases such as EbscoHost and other reliable internet sources. The study established that rape is caused by different factors that are related to the environment, culture, socialization, and individual orientations. To solve the issue of rape in India, the multiplicity of approaches should be used to supplement the legal measures.

Context

Rape against women and children has become a great concern in India. It has been termed as an epidemic of sexual violence due to the increase in rape cases across the country (Rees et al., 2011). Therefore, the aim of the study was to find out the factors contributing to the increasing trends of rape in India and investigate effective solutions to the problem. In order to understand the situation of rape in India and measures that can be taken to solve the problem, a systematic review of academic and media articles was undertaken. This entailed searching for media publications about rape in India. The articles selected were descriptive, investigative, or analytic. In order to have an in-depth understanding of sexual violence, I carried a systematic search of academic articles and expert opinions on the rape. The search was carried in EbscoHost and other sites that have an expert opinion.

The study was limited to the causes of rape and the intervention measures in India. Rape in India has increasingly become a major social concern that impacts on the lives of many people in India (Lalumiere, 2005). Despite the protests that have been staged by various advocates for women’s rights in society, the vice seems to continue in many parts of India. There are many dimensions that explain why rape is widespread. The dimensions include personal, societal, and mental health. Rape in India has drawn both internal and international condemnation. Rape continues in many parts of India. As a result, the study intended to gather information on the various dimensions that contribute to rape in India. In addition, the study was aimed at providing expert opinion on the ways the problem can be overcome. Thus, the information can be used by the various bodies tasked with addressing the rape in India.

Sexual violence demeans women. It hinders the ability of women to enjoy their rights and function as full citizens (Rukmini, 2015). Bearing in mind that India is a member of the UN and has ratified the treaties on human rights, there is the need to establish why the rape has continued to be common in India. Therefore, I needed to establish whether there are underlying issues that cannot be addressed based on the current legal framework. In the endeavor to carry out the study, the constraints were the inability to gather data from the government records that relate rape. This is due to the centralization of government services and bureaucratic processes.

Literature Review

Status of Rape in India

Nilinjana (2013) acknowledges that rape is a serious problem across the globe, and it is not restricted to India, it affects the international community. However, sexual violence seems to be worse in India because rape cases are reported. Nilinjana (2013) argued that the conviction rate of cases is high in India compared to other developed countries. For instance, Nilinjana (2013) points out that in Britain, only 7% of rape cases resulted in convictions while India had a conviction rate of 24.2%. Thus, it points out that rape is a global issue, and there is a need for concerted efforts when addressing sexual violence. In analyzing the issue in developed countries, Nilinjana (2013) gave an example of a teen rape by high school football players in Steubenville in which many people sympathized with rapists rather than the victim.

Victims of Rape

In India, victims of rape are mainly young girls and women. According to Withnnall (2015), adolescent girls are extremely vulnerable due to the risky environment and social system. Smith (2008) added that marginalization increases the chances of the poor being raped. According to Nagindrappa and Radhika (2013), India lacks a support system for the victims of rape. The sexual offenders are by known persons and relatives. In relation to the justice system, Harachadan (2013) noted that many accused people are acquitted and that there are few cases of convictions.

Causes of Rape

“The rape culture of India is a direct proof of complete disregard for women’s & girls’ rights and bodily integrity.” (Harachadan, 2013) This statement relates to debates that surround rape in India. For instance, there are arguments that India lacks strict laws to deal with people who commit sexual crimes. This has resulted in a carefree attitude where perpetrators know that there are weak systems in society (Arakali, 2015). On the other hand, there are arguments that the problem of rape is engrained in the individual’s differences, social orientations, and cultural backgrounds. For instance, George (2012) noted that there are a series of rapes in India. Thomas, Sharma, and Sharma (2014) recounted that the rape cases in many parts of India take place unabated. As a result, there is a need for rape to be made a capital crime. George (2012) noted that the main reason for sexual violence is the failure by the authority to protect women.

The patterns of sexual behaviors differ depending on the culture; in cultures where women make high contributions to societal activities, rape is absent or low (Lalumieri, 2005). Lalumieri (2005) pointed out that there are different developmental pathways to coercive sexual behavior and antisocial conduct. Each pathway is influenced by different factors. However, culture has a great tendency to cause sexual violence. Similarly, Giridharadas (2013) analyzed the opinions of the men in New Delhi and their take on the rape cases. Giridharadas (2013) noted that the perspective of rape is based on the need to discover chasm that exists between medieval ideas of womankind and the modern world. Due to the perception, men attribute the increase in rape cases to contemporary social change. Thus, they attribute rape to a fault of time and distance it from men’s fault. Men in India hold a common perception that ladies should dress in a certain way in order to avoid temptations. Thus, there is a culture of demeaning ladies. For example, men argue that thus as long the ladies put on the cute skirts, men will remain to rapists. This notion is captured by the utterances that “where there are a candle and a fire together, the candle will melt” (Giridharadas, 2013).

Interventions

In India, violence against women has been on the increase. Suri (2013) attributed the increase to the lack of clear legislation. Suri (2013) called on government lawmakers to enact legislation for dealing with the offenders. However, Suri (2013) pointed out that legislation cannot solely address rape in India. Suri (2013) stated that dealing with cases of rape is complex compared to dealing with other types of crimes. For instance, in India, rape cases have been on the increase. This is despite the constitution and policies that uphold the dignity of women. Gender equality is enshrined in the laws of India. In addition, in contemporary times, women occupy good positions in all sectors of the economy. In relation to the causes and solutions to rape, there are cultural, psychological, and sociological causes (Pew Research Centre, 2014). The multidimensional nature of the causes of rape implies that there should be a multidisciplinary perspective in addressing rape in India.

In India, rape takes place in a multidimensional and dynamic manner; understanding of rape can be radical or liberal (Society for Development Studies, 2009). La-Fond (2005) argues that the prevention of sexual violence should be based on long term goals of ensuring that offenders do not repeat the violence after the jail term. La-Fond (2005) critiques the current interventions that do not address the social and psychological issues. La-Fond (2005) proposed the adoption of programs that apply risk management. In the programs, offenders are supposed to receive punishments that are closely monitored and measures taking to address behavior that may lead to reoffending. This will ensure that the interventions provide clear and realistic solutions for preventing sexual violence and coping with sex offenders.

Jewkes (2012) pointed out that the main causes of rape relate to the environment. According to Jewkes (2012), the factors related to acquired gender attitudes and the experiences of violence during the developmental years. Therefore, the interventions of rape cases should be based on the understanding of the causal factors for rape. This implies that there is a need for complex interventions that take into account personal differences, gender attitudes, and environmental factors. Arun (2013) proposed sex education in schools and colleges as one of the solutions to the rape problem. Arun (2013) argued that that sexuality is not talked openly in India; hence, young people do not learn to practice sexuality in a healthy environment.

The cases of rape in India have been an increase over the past years. The rising issues of sexual violence have challenged the social system and contemporary thinking. In an attempt to explore the dynamics of rape in India, Madan and Sinha (2013) noted that rape is a multi-dimensional problem. Similar perceptions were raised by Joost (2005) who noted that the issues of rape vary depending on the individuals and cultures. The aspects are based on sociological, psychological, religious, and cultural dimensions.

Based on the analysis of academic and media perspective, it is evident that the rape in India is a complex situation that requires complex solutions. The key to causes includes the cultural and socialization of men in India. For example, men believe that there is a certain way in which women should dress. For instance, dressing in short skirts can be used to justify rape. The other cause of rape relates to individual factor such as the psychological status of the culprit. However, Madan and Sinha (2013) added that this is also dictated by the environment and may relate to culture.

Therefore, the studies have provided many dimensions that explain the causes of rape in India.

This presents a platform for action. It is worth noting there have been very few interventions that have been designed to reduce the incidences of rape. For example, the activists have been calling for stiffer legal penalties for sexual offenders. This has not led to substantial gains bearing in mind victims are sometimes coerced to withdraw court suits. Therefore, there is a need to include preventive interventions in order to deal with rape. This should be based on cultural, social, and psychological dimensions. For example, there should be a culture of openness in families. This will allow young people to be taught about sexuality and hence provide an integrated approach to addressing rape in India.

Statement of Position

Rape against women and children has become a great concern in India. The increasing cases of sexual violence across India have led to widespread protests in which activists have called for authorities to act and stop the vice. Rape in India has increasingly become a major social concern that negatively affects the lives of many women. The main means of dealing with sexual violence have been the legal processes that in many cases have not led to long-term solutions. La-Find (2005) challenged the notion of the legal system and pointed to there is the need for a robust system that puts into consideration the welfare of the offenders. La-Find (2005) emphasized that prevention of sexual violence should be based on long term goals of ensuring that offenders do not repeat the violence after the jail term.

This shows that India lacks an organized system for dealing with sexual violence. The overreliance on court cases does not solve the root cause. In addition, very few cases result in convictions. This implies that culprits remain in society and continue to threaten the lives of young girls and women. As a result, there is a need for a shift in the way rape issues are addressed in India. The authorities involved in the policymaking should enact new policies that will allow multidisciplinary approaches to addressing sexual violence in India. This should include strategies and campaigns to challenge the cultures and social organizations that perpetuate rape in India.

References

Arakali, H. (2015). Rape in India: ‘Epidemic’ of sexual violence against women and children, rape laws aren’t enough. International Business Times, p. 2.

Arun, I. (2013). Sexual violence in India. Delhi: Department of Global Political Studies.

George, N. (2012). Indians protest across the country after gang- rape on bus, while new rapes of girls reported. Global News, p. 4.

Giridharadas (2013). India’s rape problem and how men see it. The New York Times, p. 7.

Harachadan, A. (2013). Delhi gang-rape victim as guilty as her rapists, Asaram Bapu says. The Times of India, p. 11.

Jewkes, R. (2012). Rape perpetration: A review. pretoria, sexual violence research initiative. Pretoria: QD Publishers.

Joost, A. M. (2005). The rape of the mind: The psychology of thought control, menticide, and brainwashing. New York, NY: The World Publishing Company.

La-Fond, J. (2005). Preventing sexual violence: How society should cope with sex offenders. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Lalumiere, M. (2005). The causes of rape: Understanding individual differences in male propensity for sexual aggression. Washington, DC. American Psychological Association.

Madan, V., & Sinha, R. (2013). Dynamics of rape in modern Indian society. The International Journal of Science, 1(1), 1-14.

Nagindrappa, M., & Radhika, M. (2013). Women Exploitation in Indian modern society. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 3(2), 1-12.

Nilinjana, B. (2013). Why rape seems Worse in India than everywhere else: but actually isn’t. The Times, p. 7.

Pew Research Center. (2014). Indians see rape as a major national problem. Web.

Rees, S., Silove, D., Chey, T., Ivancic, L., Steel, Z., Creamer, M., & Forbes, D. (2011). Lifetime prevalence of gender-based violence in women and the relationship with mental disorders and psychosocial function. Journal of the American Medical Association, 306(5), 513-521.

Rukmini, S. (2015). The many shades of rape cases in Delhi. The Hindu, p. 2.

Smith, M. J. (2008). Child sexual abuse: Issues and challenges. New Delhi: Nova Publishers.

Society for Development Studies. (2009). Women safety in Delhi –Report to Ministry of Women and Child Development. New Delhi: Nova Publishers.

Suri, S. (2013). An Analytical Study of rape in Delhi. International Journal of Education and Psychological Research, 3(2), 60-68.

Thomas, B., Sharma, S., & Sharma, V. (2014). Perception of adult men and women regarding rape in Delhi, India. Delhi: Kalasalingam University.

Withnnall, A. (2015). Gang rape of toddler in India just one incident of many in the past week alone, activists say. The Independent, p.11.

Medieval Europe is known for having severe punishments for some crimes. Laws of that time allowed a sentence of felons to various procedures including torture and death. England was one of the countries, which had these practices. Although according to documents and literature, rape has been widespread, various cases of trials show that death penalties were rare, and it was hard for victims to prove the act had taken place. Despite the seriousness of the crime, “convictions were rare, and lawmakers did not consider the raped woman to be the only victim of the crime” (Dunn, p. 52). It must be said, that men were not the only ones who could be convicted of abduction. Women were just as responsible. British literature has evidence of women often trying to seduce men, which has been a common logic of that time.

One of the stories, where a woman is depicted as the one responsible for seduction, is told in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. The lord’s wife tries to start a relationship with Sir Gawain while her husband is away. She threatens Gawain to keep him by force, saying “Ȝe schal not rise of your bedde, I rych yow better” (Tolkien, p. 34). Since Gawain is a knight, he does not agree and stays faithful to his vows. This situation shares a traditional belief of that time, which states that women are untrue to their husbands. The case with wives committing adultery has been serious in people’s minds for it has been destroying the model of the patriarchal society. It has mainly been reasoned by chances of men raising another’s children. Even when a court was hearing a case of a female rape victim, the male jury often took into consideration the possible acts a woman had done to seduce a rapist. This way, victim-blaming has been a common practice.

The evidence of the death penalty for rapists can be found in Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Wife of Bath’s Tale. The plot builds around a knight who was accused of rape. The case was clear and “This knight was all but numbered with the dead / By course of law, and should have lost his head” (Chaucer, p. 126). However, the Queen decided to spare his life if the knight would succeed in solving her question. This poem shows that there existed various ways of sentencing rapists. In this case, the decision was made based on the judge’s preferences. The poem also argues the female role in relationships. Thus, the answer to the question of what all women with the most are female sovereignty over their partners. The prologue to the poem has a description of the Wife’s five husbands, which presents interest by proving that women were not as obedient as men wanted them to be.

The British Medieval literature gives just a small insight into the case. More information can be found in the law documents of the time, even though the number of sexual violence cases made “less than one percent of all indictments” (Pallotti, p. 211). The penalty for rape and abduction depended highly on the accordance raised by the felon and the victim. Sometimes the court’s verdict made a rapist pay a fine to a victim’s side. The important issue is the fact that a fine was to be paid to the victim’s husband or father as he was in charge of a household. The reason for it is that in Medieval England rape was considered traumatic only to a woman’s body, and the crime itself was characterized as “the theft of the woman as property either of her husband or her father” (Menuge, p. 106). The other possible way of resolving the issue was marriage. Sometimes abduction accusation was used by couples wishing to be married against their parents’ will. Despite the law, which proclaimed that a couple’s free will was the only requirement for marriage, in reality, families had the final vote.

The research of Medieval British literature, in general, gives an insight into the moral standards, which could be a base for the rape culture. A brave knight saving a fair lady from trouble is a traditional storyline. The general idea lays in female characters portrayed as passive and waiting for a man to decide on their destiny. The stories hardly ever raise the question of female consent, thus showing a knight as a conqueror. Moreover, in the end, a knight usually acquires a lady’s property in the form of lands and other valued items. The subject of goods was also discussed during real court hearings, for a victim could ask for compensation in the form of property ownership. Rape, among other relationship-based crimes, had “significant bearings upon property interests, household structure, and notions about morality” (Brundage, p. 1). The literature hardly ever focuses on this part, paying more attention to the moral side.

After researching the issue of rape in Medieval England, the conclusion can be drawn that this issue is complex and there existed various ways for criminals to escape the death penalty, which is proved by-laws and literature of the time. While men made a larger part of felons, women usually shared the guilt by being accused of seduction and having an unfaithful nature in general.

Works Cited

1. Brundage, James A. Law, Sex and Christian Society in Medieval Europe. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987. Print.
2. Chaucer, Geoffrey. Selected Canterbury Tales. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1994. Print.
3. Dunn, Caroline. Stolen Women in Medieval England: Rape, Abduction, and Adultery, 1100-1500. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Print.
4. Menuge, Noel James. Medieval Women and the Law. Woodbridge, UK: The Boydell Press, 2000. Print.
5. Pallotti, Donatella. “Maps of Woe Narratives of Rape in Early Modern England.” Journal of Early Modern Studies. 2 (2013): 211-239. ProQuest.
6. Tolkien, J. R. R. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967. Print.

Date rape is a threat and continuing problem on college campuses throughout the nation and must be dealt with by the federal government by financing prevention programs and promoting safer campus living.

America is considered a developed and civilized nation which is often quoted to set examples for other nations. The country has seen bursts of economic boom and development as well as the luxury of an educated and literate population. However, when it comes to sex crimes, the country has been depicting increasing rates of incidents all over the nation. The incidents related to sex crimes specially targeted towards college students have been increasing more in proportion than others.

Normally people think of rapists to me masked strangers; however, research has shown that most of the rapes that are committed by some the victim personally or professional knows. This makes the issue much more complex as the victim usually tends to trust the abuser. Date rape is a sex crime that comes under this category and is usually committed while on a formal social outing. The abusers of this crime can be friends of the victim or even their acquaintances and partners.

“Rapes by strangers represent fewer than 25% of all rapes; the remaining 75% occur between acquaintances. Contrary to the rape myth, most rapes occur inside and do not involve the use of weapons.”(Varelas and Foley, 1998)However, due to the complexity of the crime, it is often difficult and confusing to classify the act as date rape. However, if there was no formal consent, then it is considered a felony.

The main reason for the increase in the rates of sex crimes has been due to the increasingly independent and volatile generation that is being raised. Previously as well the new generation was provided with luxuries as well as independence; however sex crime rates were not as staggering as this. The decorum of the society was usually controlled by a federal body of the state, and the laws used to be abided by by all the people residing in the society. However, now it has been seen that rule-breaking and breaking the law has become a method of self-expression. People tend to point fingers at the different races of people in the society; however, the fingers should be really pointed towards the government, which is supposed to reevaluate its security procedures and rules, which allow the multiple sex crime abusers to disregard the law.

Other factors that have been attributed as the cause of the increase in sex crimes against college students pertain to the increasing levels of unemployment, the decreasing rate of education and literacy in the new generation, especially pertaining to college studies. Aside from this, the increasing usage of drugs and the expanding industry of drug smuggling as well as underage drinking have also largely contributed to the increase of such crimes. “The crime of rape can have a devastating effect upon its victims, both physically and psychologically. Social judgments regarding the victims’ level of responsibility for the event can further complicate their emotional recovery. Societal stereotypes have created a double standard, where traditionally, the victim has been blamed for the event. This issue is particularly salient for college-aged men and women. Date rape occurs with startling frequency on college campuses and seems to be perpetuated by rape-tolerant attitudes held by college males. At least 85% of the attempted and successful rapes of college women were committed by non-strangers with only a small minority of 5% of the victims reporting the crime to the police”(Castello et al., 2006)

The victims of sex crimes are often reluctant to go to the police and file a complaint against the perpetrator. The reason for this is mostly the fact that they are confused about their own level of consent. As mentioned earlier that sex crimes of this nature are usually conducted under the influence of drug toxins. In such a state, the victim is almost never sure of his/ her responses, making it a complex issue of whose responsibility it was. Aside from that, the victims are usually embarrassed by the acts as well and unusually try to cover up the issue before it reaches any external parties. In the case of college students, the victims usually hush up the matter due to peer pressure or the social pressures that they are facing.

Most of the victims of date rape are usually college females; however, in recent years, the number of male victims has also been increasing. “Although 14% to 25% of U.S. women are raped at some point in their lives, they report only one-tenth to one-half of those rapes to authorities. The reluctance of victims to report rapes can be attributed to many variables, including the prevalence of rape myths in U.S. society” (Varelas and Foley, 1998).

Usually, after a date rape, the victim also is unable to recognize that he/she has been raped. As a result, it takes the victim some time to confront the matter. This period of time until the victim actually acknowledges their rape is considered the date rape time lag. “In most cases, the emotional tipping point comes about three months after the incident. The layers of denial fall away, and she finally faces the fact that she was raped. She realizes that her rapist has, in fact, destroyed their friendship. She knows there is nothing her former friend can do to make up for the assault.” (‘Date rape Time Lag,’ 2003) this has a major effect on the case against the perpetrator, who can usually find good solid evidence against the victim in this period of time.

Aside from this, the victims, especially if they are female, avoid reporting their case as they6 are frightened of the police themselves and believe that the authorities will not take them in a credible state. As a result, the victims are usually exploited by the system of law and protection itself.

Moreover, the rape myths also have a way of affecting the jurors. In most cases, the jury also believed that the rape crime is actually a matter of sex and not power. “The personal and societal views often include the misconception that rape is a crime of sex rather than one of power. Because of that belief, jurors tend to think that the female victim must have done something to arouse the perpetrator; otherwise, no assault would have occurred.” (Varelas and Foley, 1998) As a result, it is increasingly difficult to prosecute whether the rape actually took place, especially in the case of date rape.

Consequently speaking, it has now become a responsibility of the state and the government to take this issue into their hands. They should be putting stricter and harsher punishments against the perpetrators of the crime. Aside from this, they will also have to change the way rape and sex crime-based cases are handled and prosecuted. The victim also has to be provided more state and legal security. However, in order for all this to work, the state will first have to change people’s opinions about sex crimes. They need to be properly educated, and a long-term program has to be started in which people’s opinion of rape and consent has to be made clear.

Aside from this, the state will also have to finance safer living conditions for the students. The reason for this is that date rape crimes usually take place in social situations, making them highly doubtful and complex. For this, the government will have to give the victim the first right to testimony. Secured and guarded living facilities for the women and patrol guards in remote areas of the campus can be deployed. On the other hand, the governments will also have to take strict measures against the illegal transport and the trafficking of date rape drugs. A drug patrol squad can be deployed, which would be on the lookout for such drugs on campus. The trade of these drugs will have to be closely monitored.

The government will also have to lookout for the usage of drugs and foul play at popular college student handouts and clubs. This will be for the security of the students. Collaboration can be made with the college authorities for official routine searches. A government-funded society can be formed at all the national and state schools and colleges that would support the students in situations concerning sex crimes and date rape issues. The students can also be educated about taking necessary precautions against sex crime offenders. Aside from this, the programs can also be used to inform the students that in case of the occurrence of a sex crime, it is essential to get a rape kit conducted by the hospital. In such a manner, the evidence of the rape can be restored and is will also be available after the expiry of the date-time lag period. The trust of the student can be gained by keeping the matter of date rape confidential, and no date rape evidence should be exposed without the consent of the victim or the survivor.

Moreover, official self-defense training can also be provided as a compulsory basic college course to all students to provide them with some training to combat the perpetrators of sex crimes when need be.

In 2006 a bizarre law was passed in favor of the sex crime victims. This law allowed the females to take their drinks into the restrooms and the washrooms while in a club or a pub. This was a highly unusual step from the government. This was taken in order to decrease the rate of sex crimes and the chances of an offender slipping a date drug into a glass of drink. While this was a highly innovative law, it was kind of impractical as to how many people can take their drinks to the restroom.

The conclusion that can be derived from this discussion is that in order to stop sec crimes like date rapes, the government has to take the matter into their hands and enforce state-funded programs as well as revision of sex crime laws in order to actually convict and prosecute the perpetrator instead of making the issue much worse and complex.

References

(2003), The Date Rape Time Lag. About.com: Abuse/ incest report.

Castello, J., Coomer, C., Stillwell, J., Cate, K., (2006), The Attribution of Responsibility in Acquaintance Rape Involving Ecstasy, North American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 8 Issue 3, pp. 411-419.

McKinnell, J., (2006), In Loo of Coasters, Maclean’s, Vol. 119 Issue 45, p. 20.

Smith, P., White, Jacquelyn W., Holland, L., (2003), A Longitudinal Perspective on Dating Violence Among Adolescent and College-Age Women, American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 93 Issue 7, pp. 1104-1109.

Varelas, N., Foley, L., (1998), Blacks’ and Whites’ Perceptions of Interracial and Intraracial Date Rape, Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 138 Issue 3, pp. 392-400.

Witmer, D., (2007), Dating Violence, About.com: Parenting of Adolescents. Web.