Category: Rape

As society keeps changing drastically, so does the evolution of pornography and rape culture. Pornography itself has had many changes throughout time which has had lead to increase one of the most common crisis interventions that a victim can go through rape culture and psychological addiction on the pornography consumers. Pornography in many ways contributes to the rape culture and the impacts rapists as well as victims.

Porn is erotic behavior that many times are portrayed in pictures or writing purposely to cause sexual excitement”. The term ‘‘pornography’’ refers to sexually explicit materials intended to create sexual arousal in the consumer. Pornography is an oppressive system in which it manifests of workers who act according to a specific category so that the consumer can satisfy their desires as they like. Pornography varies in forms and categories; from photos, erotic literature and comics, to the more commonly viewed video format all across sites and even on social media. Pornography in terms of erotic art has been around for centuries, but the first pornographic motion picture was created in 1895 featuring a striptease that contained no actual nudity, yet it still became controversial at the time.

Pornography consist of three types of graphics such as non-violent pornography, violent pornography, and rape-oriented pornography. The non-violent pornography is an “explicit materials without any overt coercive content, but it may sometimes imply acts of submission and/or coercion by the positioning of the models, use of props or display of unequal power relationships.” Violent pornography is sexually explicit materials in which nonconsensual, coercive, and/or violent sexual relations are explicitly portrayed. Lastly, rape-oriented pornography is the depiction of sexual assault or forced sexual intercourse.

Porn was always a booming industry that supported production companies and actors equally. Yet pornography has had drastically changed, systematically as well as economically. Before people would have to buy a DVD or a magazine to a seller in the streets to be able to watch pornography at home. Now with the evolution of technology and the ongoing progress of new features on devices, it has become easier to get access to pornography for free. Due to these advances, actors are facing an economic decrease, since they do not get paid by the number of sells like they use to, because there is free porn available on supported streaming sites such as PornHub, RedTube, Youporn (etc). Instead, their sources of income rely more on the number of views that the video and categories get by making the company becoming richer rather than the actors. There are many categories in pornography; “brutal” is one of them which is now becoming increasingly popular, so does the number of views and demand. Porn is viewed roughly 64 million times a day, and with increasing interest in violence related categories of porn. These forms of pornography contribute to Rape Oriented Porn.

Rape-oriented pornography videos are shown in the perspective in which only the women are shown and the camera is positioned to show the man’s perspective in the act of sex. This category portrays male perpetrators who are largely invisible to the viewer, as the aggressor is rarely focused, noticed, or highlighted in any identifiable manner. These categories perhaps are the meant to make the consumer is essentially viewing the videos “through the eyes of a rapist”. Unfortunately, These types of videos portray the act of sexual assault due to the levels of physical and verbal aggression and the access that allows the consumer to view it by the position of the cameras and the actors. In other words, anyone viewing the material, regardless of social status, physical presence, or demeanor, could see himself or herself as the perpetrator of sexual assault.

Moreover, pornography tent to not show what happens behind the scenes to the audiences therefore not many people are aware that actresses are typically recorded giving their consent to all acts that occur, and they are given safety words/breaks when needed. However, this footage is only ever shown in original content in the films distributed directly from their production companies. In other words, any third party stream sites or people downloading the videos typically edit and remove certain content like interviews and additional dialogues re-upload the edited version back onto the sites for views to satisfy the consumer. This leads the videos, in fact, an entirely fictional yet original and edited versions, to portray the acts of violence against the actress for sexual pleasure, alluding to a violation and lack of consent. These acts of violence include slapping, hitting, spitting, beating, forced penetration and verbal insults and abuse. Being that pornography mainly objectifies women, often demonstrating men to be in control, it is interpreted as if women deserve the abuse as well as the necessity for her to be dominated. This objectification towards women is not the biggest concern the industry is causing as it only satisfies men’s fantasies and perhaps illustrates the act of masculinity in the most bias ways.

The term sexual assault refers to sexual contact or behavior that occurs without the explicit consent of the victim. For example, a sexual assault can occur in a form of sexual harassment when a person is touching another in an uncomfortable to almost an inappropriate way. Another example would be forcing a victim to perform sexual acts, such as oral sex or penetrating the perpetrator’s body. Rape culture is a concept that links sexual assaults to a culture where prevalent attitudes and practices normalize, excuse, tolerate, and even condone rape. Rape culture is perpetuated through the use of misogynistic language, the objectification of women’s bodies, and the glamorization of sexual violence, thereby creating a society that disregards women’s rights and safety.

Rape, in fact, has many myths defined as attitudes, typically used to justify an offender’s actions and male sexual aggression against women. These myths are beliefs that are meant to predict the victims’ behavior as to either blame them or to confirm that the victim experienced a sexual assault. An article named Myths and Facts by unknown authors (2016) has many examples of the common myths that people believe in. For example: “People that have been sexually assaulted will be hysterical and crying.”, is one of the people believes in to confirm that if the victim is acting this way then is true that they experienced a sexual assault? However, as the authors (2016) explained that this myth does not count that different people react differently to certain situations and that this is one of them. People also have many other beliefs although are not necessary myths, in fact, is victim blaming. Victim blaming is the devaluation of an act to hold the victim responsible for the crime(s) that have been committed against them. One of the most common victims blaming phrases that people use is, “Maybe if you would have not drunk you would have not been raped” or “Maybe you should have not been outside so late.”

These myths and victim blaming are part of gender microaggression where people reflects choices and actions (or inactions) taken in our daily lives, which promote and reinforce harm, subordination, exploitation, and disrespect of women. Microaggression many times manifests on teaching people how to behave according to their sex. For example, people teach boys to be a man to according to society is to be acquisitive, to be competitive, to be aggressive. Society makes the image of masculinity cruel, so people discipline boys to ignore the feelings of others, and to be more violent. Men who are prone to socialize as a traditional masculine are more likely to view women as subordinates on a good day, and as objects to satisfy their most violent sexual desires on a bad day. In other words, masculinity has a lot to do with sexual assault since society feeds a lot into proving that

Pornography impacts the consumer as it creates a variety of psychological fantasies that those acts are the correct way to act during intercourse. Besides pornography being a material to arouse sexual excitement, it has a lot of violent contexts that it indirectly stimulates people to believe that these things do happens in the real world. Pornography is a material that can easily make consumers addicted to it and for the worst part act accordingly. For many reasons many categories and acts of pornography consequently contributes in many ways to the rape culture. As society’s gender microaggressions contribute to victim blaming, the rape culture is far from progressing. People who watch pornography often are more likely to believe that pornography does not have negative consequences on society, therefore these people often may believe that it is an okay and normal activity. Indeed, these activities lead men to objectify women and in many cases in which a man needs to prove his masculinity, might sexually assault women for personal desires.

A student employee attending Occidental College, ‘drove an alleged rape victim who was bleeding vaginally to a hospital’s sexual assault reporting center’ (Testa). While the employee was initially commended by her peers and superiors, several days later, ‘she was told by two deans that they saw her actions ‘as an attack’ on her department…’ (Testa). This represents an aspect of rape culture. It is a societal issue in which victims are blamed for the crimes committed against them, and the lives of those who dare to defend rape victims are threatened.

American society is guilty of considering rapists’ reputations to be of higher importance than the sexual safety, and overall equality, of people of all races, ages, genders, and sexual orientations. As stated by Zerlina Maxwell, ‘Simply put, feminists want equality for everyone and that begins with physical safety’ (Maxwell, ‘Rape Culture’). The importance of consent and the faulty logic that enables rape culture should be properly taught in schools in order to inform society and protect victims of rape, prevent the destruction of victims’ lives, and improve the condition of society.

The importance of consent and the faulty logic that enables rape culture should be properly taught in schools in order to inform society and protect victims of rape, prevent the destruction of victims’ lives, and improve the condition of society. Due to religious peculiarities and the allegedly taboo nature of sexual topics, students and children do not understand the influence rape culture has on their thoughts, ideas, and lifestyles. With rape culture in effect, society instructs victims on how they could have prevented the rape, rather than properly punishing the rapist.

Teaching women how to prevent themselves from being raped creates a false sense of security and implies that rape survivors could have done more to protect themselves. Zerlina Maxwell, a political analyst, speaker, and contributing writer of many online magazines specializing in social issues, states, ‘We need anti-rape campaigns that target young men and boys.

Campaigns that teach them from a young age how to respect women, and ultimately themselves, and to never be rapists’ (Maxwell, ‘Stop Telling Women’). Believing that a woman’s clothing, attitude, or drunkenness is the reason for her rape is believing that men who would consider rape are mindless, animalistic beings who are unable to control themselves in the presence of a woman.

Instructing women on how to avoid rape provides rapists with an excuse for their crime, especially if the victim did not abide by the vague guidelines imposed for avoiding rape. It is also important to consider that many women are sexually abused by their intimate partners, as is illustrated by The New York Times (Rabin). With a provided excuse, rapists have free rein to take advantage of other human beings. In a society where some women are told that being raped was just ‘bad sex,’ rape becomes a normalcy and the sexual aspect of the crime is emphasized, rather than the consequences faced by the victim due to someone else’s lack of self-control and lust for dominance.

The population focusses solely on the sexual aspect of rape, rather than evaluating the motivating elements of power and control. If society were to consider the equally astonishing number of men and children who are sexually assaulted, the motive of a rapist would become much clearer. Rapists seek to dehumanize and degrade their victims through fear and superiority. Melissa Hall and Joshua Hall include a substantial definition in their scholarly article on the counseling implications on the long-term effects of childhood sexual abuse stating, ”…sexual abuse occurs whenever one person dominates and exploits another by means of sexual activity or suggestion” (Hall). Unfortunately, the rapists’ temporary lust for exploitation and dominance often causes permanent disorders for the victim.

The consequences for rape survivors are life-long, while the consequences for rapists are limited. According to the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN), ‘Only three out of every 100 rapists will ever spend a single day in prison’ (’97 of Every 100′). By allowing rape culture to flourish in a society, rapists are allowed to continue violating the rights of other humans. When a woman is questioned about her clothing, or the amount of alcohol she consumed, or the time at which she was out, the fault is placed upon the victim. Simultaneously, the rapist rarely undergoes any form of punishment and presents a means by which other rapists can commit this crime. If one in every five women report being sexually assaulted, then a staggering number of rapists are living their lives freely with no consequences for their actions. RAINN also expresses, ‘Because rapists tend to be serial criminals, this leaves communities across the nation at risk of predators.

Often threatened to stay quiet, rape survivors do not seek appropriate treatment following their assault, and resort to internalizing their emotions. This causes many life-long issues following the traumatizing events experienced by these victims. As noted in Melissa and Joshua Hall’s scholarly article, ‘Some therapists believe that sexual abuse can cause enough trauma that the victim forgets or represses the experience… Others believe that recovered memories are false or that the client is led to create them’ (Hall). While situations have been verified where a supposed rape survivor has falsely reported an incident of sexual assault, usually under the influence of a close relative or hypnosis, this concept is often applied to completely valid childhood sexual abuse cases.

However, the physical and psychological illnesses derived from sexual abuse substantiate an incredible number of reported sexual assaults. Adults Surviving Child Abuse (ASCA) cited Professor Bessel van Der Kolk in saying that the symptoms correlated with childhood sexual abuse include, ”…the inability to regulate emotions like rage and terror, along with intense suicidal feelings, somatic disorder, negative self-perception, poor relationships, chronic feelings of isolation, despair and hopelessness; and dissociation and amnesia” (‘Child Abuse Has’). These disorders and emotions cannot be forged; they alter the minds and lifestyles of everyone who suffers from them.

Unfortunately, psychological illnesses and disorders are not the sole impacts of sexual abuse. Many men and women face higher risks of physical ailments, including some that seem completely unrelated to the incident. According to an article from The New York Times, ‘Women who had experienced such violence were also more likely to report having asthma, diabetes or irritable bowel syndrome’ (Rabin). Aside from this, rape survivors also tend to develop poor physical habits, such as smoking, eating disorders, and self-harm. It is also stated that, ‘Both men and women who had been assaulted were more likely to report frequent headaches, chronic pain, difficulty sleeping, limitations on activity, and poor physical and mental health’ (Rabin). The list of symptoms seems endless, causing the victim to feel hopeless. This is evident because, ‘Many survivors’ lives are characterized by frequent crisis e.g. job disappointment, relocations, failed relationships, financial setbacks…The reasons are complex, but for many survivors ongoing internal chaos prevents the establishment of regularity, predictability and consistency’ (‘Child Abuse Has’).

Many are surprised to find that an extreme amount of men are victims of sexual assault. In the GQ Magazine article, ‘Military Sexual Assault: Male Survivors Speak Out,’ it is stated that, ‘…thirty-eight military men are sexually assaulted every single day’ (Penn). In his article, Nathaniel Penn depicts some of the horrors that these men have faced. One of the most graphic depictions includes, ‘They beat me down onto the floor and forced my legs open. Then they took the end of a broomstick and forced it into me again and again. Each time it felt like my insides were coming out. The blood was a blessing, because it seemed to lubricate the broomstick’ (Penn). In an environment where masculinity is equivalent to worth, some men seek to prove their masculinity by degrading their comrades to a ‘feminine role.’ Victims are reduced to the lowest form they can take, a woman, because, as is believed in a patriarchal culture, only women can be raped. James Asbrand, a psychologist of the Salt Lake City VA is quoted in saying, ”In a hypermasculine culture, what’s the worst thing you can do to another man? Force him into what the culture perceives as a feminine role… Completely dominate and rape him” (Penn). If this was not implied in society, these crimes would not happen as often and people would not question what a woman is wearing or drinking because no one is responsible for another’s crime.

People must begin to face reality. It is absolutely essential that students are taught about the dangers of rape culture, as well as made aware of the importance of consent. Rape culture effects people of all races, genders, ages, and sexual orientations, therefore all people are responsible for the role that it currently plays in society. Women should be able to walk to their cars without fearing the possibility of rape. Men and women should be able to give their lives for their country without the risk of being raped. Children should never be exposed to or be a victim of any sort of abuse; it alters their physical and psychological health, damaging them for life.

Rapists must be held accountable for their choices. The court system cannot be changed so easily; however, the views of a society can easily be altered by movies, music, and other forms of entertainment. Therefore, a society can be changed if certain subjects such as sexual safety are required to be taught in schools.

References

1. RAINN; ’97 of Every 100 Rapists Receive No Punishment, RAINN Analysis Shows’ – https://rainn.org/news-room/97-of-every-100-rapists-receive-no-punishment
2. ASCA; ‘Child Abuse Has Many Potential Impacts’ – http://www.asca.org.au/About/Resources/Impact-of-child-abuse.aspx
3. The National Center for Victims of Crime; ‘Child Sexual Abuse Statistics’ – http://www.victimsofcrime.org/media/reporting-on-child-sexual-abuse/child-sexual-abuse-statistics
4. J & M Hall; ‘The Long-Term Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse: Counseling Implications’
5. Zerlina Maxwell; ‘Rape Culture Is Real’ – http://time.com/40110/rape-culture-is-real/
6. Zerlina Maxwell; ‘Stop Telling Women How to Not Get Raped’ – http://www.ebony.com/news-views/stop-telling-women-how-to-not-get-raped#axzz3UlNnDZkz
7. Nathaniel Penn; ‘Military Sexual Assault: Male Survivors Speak Out’ – http://www.gq.com/long-form/male-military-rape
8. Roni Caryn Rabin; ‘Nearly 1 in 5 Women in U.S. Survey Say They Have Been Sexually Assaulted’ – http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/15/health/nearly-1-in-5-women-in-us-survey-report-sexual-assault.html?_r=1
9. Steve Schmadeke; ‘Prosecutors: UIC Student Charged with Assault Said He Was Re-enacting ‘Fifty Shades of Grey” – http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/breaking/ct-50-shades-of-grey-uic-sex-charge-20150223-story.html
10. Jessica Testa; ‘Inside the Sexual Assault Civil War at Occidental College’ – http://www.buzzfeed.com/jtes/inside-the-sexual-assault-civil-war-at-occidental-college#.tegljk9dj

With the third wave of feminism and the inception of the #metoo movement the topic of rape, has been renewed in vigor in public conversation and discussion. Many contemporary artists have taken an active part in this renewed discussion; using their platform of artistic work to offer their own opinions on the matter, oftentimes forged of their own personal struggles with sexual assault. Yet while this movement of feminist art is a relatively recent occurrence, the long-subdued topic of rape has found itself to have a long history in the arts. There has been an abundance of art throughout the centuries and even millennia that has focused specifically on the topic of rape. These artistic portrayals of rape have generally been created by males and thus the art encapsulates the male’s perspective. For example, in Greek art portrayals of rapes and abductions typically feature young and beautiful women as a popular focal point. While viewing these artistic portrayals of rape can at times be emotional to many, it is impertinent to look back and examine the past as these artworks allow for a greater understanding of what morality, equality, and justice should look like in today’s society. Therefore, I will examine the motive behind Greek artworks and why the topic of rape was so popular during the time.

Before diving into examining pieces of Ancient Greece art, it is important to analyze the treatment of women. Throughout the city-states generally, females were held to strict standards publicly and privately. Women received less food, had little to no education aside from domestic household duties, and no freedom socially. These women were basically property that must perform household duties and produce children and that was it with a few exceptions to religious cults and jobs. Adolescent girls would be forced into arranged marriages by her father to an older man. Private spaces versus public spaces held women to standards that kept the woman segregated even within their own homes. Symposiums were parties the Greeks held inside their houses with fellow men. The only women permitted to these parties were prostitutes. The wives were not allowed to go to parties and had to stay in the corridor of the house. This distrust and objectification of women were so strong men couldn’t even do something fun like a party with their own wives. Men’s sexual desires to objectify and keep control are shown in various depictions of sex anally or even from behind. The control and fear forced onto women into submission through misogynistic language, objectification of women’s bodies, disregard for women’s rights, and total segregation.

Were there sanctions in place to protect women and men from sexual assault? Literature and inscriptions from legal hearings provide reliable information however is limited. The information presented in this essay primarily focuses on two cities Athens and Gortyn. It can be assumed that although the legal information from these cities says a certain thing does not mean other cities throughout Greece may have been more diverse with their laws. In Athens, several laws were put in place against sexual assault however, the penalties of commuting such crimes were simply a monetary fine. Invaded in which a husband or father found a man with their daughter of wife they could legally kill the man. The next law protected the accused if they wished to follow a suit for being unjustly accused and detained. If found innocent the accused could punish the lyrics in any way he saw fit as long as no knife was used. The psychological physical pain for a female victim is not listed in Attic law, any compensation would go to her guardian.

What exactly is misogyny and why is it important to understand it while analyzing the factors, justification, and motives for sexual abuse? Misogyny is the hatred of women and its roots are traced back to ancient Greece and Rome from the silencing, mistreatment, and loathing of women. To understand this deep hatred for women you have to look at the birth of Pandora. According to myth, Pandora was the first woman that Zeus gave to the mortals. She was beautiful and Zeus’s intention was to use her to punish Prometheus who stole and gifted mankind with fire. Pandora was given a box and within the box was evils such as illness and war. Her curiosity got the better of her and she opened the box releasing all of these bad things onto mankind. Pandora is the first female to ruin everything for mankind impacting the opinion of men all over Greece. A similar story to a more relevant religion nowadays would be Adam and Eve. Eve and Pandora both made mistakes that made life far more difficult for humanity according to these stories. Understanding Pandora’s story and the strength of influence mythology had as the main religion it’s understandable to why there were male chauvinism and misogyny.

Another important example of this rooted hatred can be found by looking into the words of Aristotle and many other Greek philosophers. According to Aristotle, women were inferior to men because their bodies were cold and could not produce semen, women were deformed men, and the most disgusting of his beliefs was that “ women were unable to control themselves physically and psychologically through the exercise of the reason the way men can” (Whaley, 16). Taking this sentence and applying it to the modern world in a way many criminals will use something along the lines of this sentence. It is easy for the predator to blame the victim because of the clothes they are wearing or the look they gave you inside the bar. This hateful perspective is so critical to grasp when viewing art that depicts injustices such as rape because of the time period and social environment.

Now that we have done a little bit of digging into the treatment of Greek women as well as the reasons why misogyny was rampant we can start to look into actual pieces of art for what they were in terms of narrative, visual, and social meaning behind these pieces.

The best-known stories of rape and abduction go with the King of the Greek Gods himself Zeus. Although married to Hera Zeus has a well-known history of chasing after, kidnapping, and raping many young women and even boys such as Ganymede a beautiful Trojan prince. However, for this essay, I would like to focus on the deceitful tricks Zeus used on these women and the outcomes of the rape through their stories and vases portraying the act. Alcmena was the wife of King Amphitryon. Amphitryon had left Alcmena in Thebes in order to avenge Alcmena’s dead brother in order for her to marry him. Zeus seeing an opening came to Thebes and Made himself spear to be Amphitryon and has his way with her. It is said that this was the last time Zeus slept with a mortal woman. After this Amphitryon returned the following day and made love to her and she confessed that she thought he had already returned the day before. The Seer then reported the news to Amphitryon. Later on Aclmema have birth to Hercules, furious Hera sent two snakes into Hercules’ crib however the infant was strong and fearless and defended himself. Throughout his life, Hera tormented the boy out of spite and hatred for him. The Sacrifice Of Alcmena is a paean red-figure krater vase made that dates back to circa 360 – 320 B.C. Zeus and Hera are watching from above as Amphitryon has two attendants place his wife on fire to test the veracity of her claim that Zeus has changed himself to Amphitryon and taken her virginity and got her pregnant. Zeus watching had the flames put out saving her and validating her claim. According to this vase’s story Alcmena was punished for a sexual act she hadn’t even known was with someone who wasn’t Amphitryon. Instead of believing her and comforting her the distrust seen repeated throughout Greece, he punishes her in a brutal abuse of power. Amphitryon does not believe her until a male god has to come and intervene which speaks volumes of distrust, insecurities, and trust in the gods and fellow males.

Another story involving Zeus that has inspired various artworks is the story of him Abducting Eropa. Zeus was filled with lust for this beautiful young woman and he knew he had to have her. He took it upon himself and transformed into a majestic white bull and transported himself to Tyre. There he came across Eropa and her attendants gathering flowers. Zeus knew he had to take things slow so he played a tame act of an innocent gentle bull. Eropa comfortable around the bull began to put flowers in his fur and then climbed onto his back. Zeus then proceeded to take her to the shore and then into the sea. Eropa scared to let go held onto Zeus until they arrived in Crete. Following this they had sex and after Zeus was done he left her there. She later married the king of Crete and became the first queen there. Zeus did not fully abandon her and sent her several gifts. Here Zeus once again uses a transformation to manipulate young women. He takes it a step further by kidnapping her and bringing her on a terrifying trip through the sea and isolating her from family and friends. The vases for this are generally very tame pieces. The best example of this was an Apulian Red-figure vase that dates to circa 330-320 B.C. It shows a very simple design of Zeus in bull form and shown has white and Eropa hanging off the side of him with a straight unemotional expression. They are surrounded by a circle of waves so it can be assumed they have either just reached shore or she and he are still on their way through the ocean. There are multiple depictions if this story through oil paintings which all have a very whimsical and almost romantic emotion to them. These interpretations have very unrealistic and almost dreamlike qualities to them that plays down the fear this girl must have faced

Introduction

The Nanjing Massacre is also known as “The Rape of Nanking,” happened on 7^th July 1937, in the ancient city of Nanking (Nanjing) in China (Timothy 673). The cruelty of the treatment met on men and women of Chinese origin by the invading forces can never be forgotten. Through mob defilement and torture, many of them were killed and multitudes of others cruelly wounded and shocked. The Japanese army swept into the ancient city of Nanjing and within six weeks, looted, burned the city and even murdered more than 300,000 Chinese civilians (Timothy 674). Even so, the Japanese government refutes the account of this cruelty-one of the evilest in world record. In the initial aggressive phase of the war from July 1937 through February 1939, the Japanese armies established control over all of North China and the most important, parts of East China including the City of Shanghai, along with all the major cities in the Chang (Yangtze) River Valley region and along China’s long coastline (Yang 840).

Debate

There was a debate advanced by historians who began confronting Japanese editing of school textbooks regarding the episode. This debate ignited a rise in the refutation and revisionist lobby group in Japan. The Japanese consider the “Rape of Nanking” a hoax, and a malicious lie being used in an “information war” against Japan for the world to discredit the Japanese army and its proud history, despite eyewitness testimony from journalists, and even Japanese soldiers confirming the atrocities, while China and European countries see it as barbaric murder (Iris 79).

The Rape of Nanking argument is based on three perspectives: that of the Japanese soldiers who performed it, that of the Chinese civilians who endured it and finally, a group of Europeans and Americans who refused to abandon the city and were able to create a safety zone that saved almost 300,000 Chinese (Yang 851). As a fact, the Japanese military committed atrocities after the fall of Nanking, killing a large number of Chinese during the Battle of Nanjing. Nevertheless, the exact details of the war crimes are a source of controversy among the Japanese, the Chinese, and also the American historians to this day.

Effect of the conflict on Sino-Japanese relationship

This conflict affected Sino-Japanese relations, and still remains a controversial issue in both countries, that an unbiased description has yet to be established. However, most would perhaps agree on the following: The Nanjing Incident refers to the killing and raping of large numbers of Chinese over a relatively short period of time by the Japanese military after the city of Nanjing was captured on 13 December 1937, and for Sino-Japanese relations, the Nanjing Incident is a pillar in the construction of the modern Chinese national identity (Timothy 679).

The Nanjing Incident is vital for the study of Sino-Japanese relations and forms one of the main historical issues on which Japan and China disagree and continues to poison Chinese opinion of Japan. It is also forms the basis for crucial perceptive of contemporary Japanese home politics and also a touchy topic in both home and international political scenes in the two countries. Despite all the attention in Nanjing, however, the events that unfolded in the unfortunate incident are a mystery. In conclusion, this issue still remains controversial and many argue that it could have been a catalyst for the Second World War.

Work Cited

Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II (Penguin Books, 1997). [Hege Library Course Reserve]

Timothy Brook, The Tokyo Judgment and the Rape of Nanking, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 60, No. 3 (2001), pp. 673-700.

Yang Daqing, Convergence or Divergence? Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing, American Historical Review (1999), pp. 842-863.

The paper makes a reflection on the reality of rape in society and how proper language is necessary to change societal beliefs, attitudes, and notions towards rape. Inappropriate use of language makes rape seem like a vice which cannot be stopped, and which labels every woman rapable, yet rape is not a fixed reality of women’s lives, it can be stopped, and women should not be defined by the terms of their violability. The inappropriate use of language gives power to men to rape because women are seen as the property of men, and so rape continues to take place.

The writer is thus calling for the adoption of a better language that will be successful in fighting rape. This is seen in this phrase,’ “A feminist politics which would fight rape cannot exist without developing a language about rape” (Mui & Murphy, 2002, p431). Feminists have been using improper language like “persuade” to stop men from committing rape, which is tantamount to begging them to stop the vice. This has instead made men aware of the vice and instead committed it more as seen in the phrase, “When men discovered that they could rape, they proceeded to do it,” (Mui & Murphy, 2002,p 432). Use of improper language portrays women as weak and disposable to rape and thus fighting the vice is impossible. “With masculine culture in its designation of rape as a fate words than, or tantamount to, death; the apocalyptic tone which it adopts and the metaphysical status which it assigns to rape implies that rape can only be feared or legally repaired, not fought,” (Mui & Murphy, 2002, p432).

I want to say that rape can be fought if the proper tactics are enforced and if it is portrayed well without any forms of discrimination. In fact, rape will not be fought if there is any form of discrimination of whatsoever manner. The writer agrees that such situations have been observed of rape discriminatory. She says, “When the rapist is white [they] exhibit significantly lower rates on conviction than interracial rape cases, and much higher rates of conviction when the rapist is Afro-American. Raped Afra-Americans often do not obtain convictions even in the face of overwhelming evidence of brutalization.” (Mui & Murphy, 2002, p432)

Rape cannot be used as a tool to discriminate or to punish others because of race differences. Doing this will not help fight this vice but it will become something acceptable, and for avenging. As the writer says, “we can avoid the self-defeating pitfalls by regarding rape not as a fact to be accepted or opposed, tried or avenged but as a process to be analyzed and undermined as it occurs,” (Mui & Murphy, 2002, p433). Rape should never be accepted as a fact but should be undermined in every society.

It is also ideally that misconceptions about women are reduced. For example, the misconception that women are docile and polite and so they should give whatever is demanded of them. The other is that, men hold all the power while women should be victims. These are just but a few of the misconceptions, which are reducing the efforts of fighting rape. Rape itself is another tool being used to depower women. “Rape is one of culture’s many modes of feminizing women,” (Mui & Murphy, 2002, p435). For long, rape has been fuelled by notion that a woman’s body is the property of a man, which very offensive. This is seen when the writer says, “rape cultures sees female sexuality as a property which only men can truly own, which women often hoard, which can thus justifiably be wrestled from us, and which women themselves merely hold in trust for a lawful owner.” (Mui & Murphy, 2002, p440) Ideally, rape can be fought by changing the attitudes, beliefs and notions held by our society. If this is not done, political feminists will be fighting a loosing battle.

Reference

Mui, C.L. & Murphy, J. S. (2002). Gender struggles: Practical approaches to contemporary feminism. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.

Introduction

Scientists have many theories concerning how the personality is formed, how the character and separate lines of mentality develop. There are various reasons: internal factors, such as gene predisposition and different types of nervous system; the influence of external factors of the living environment, which affects formation not only society’s culture but also a personality in this culture with all his traits and characteristics. Ecological theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner is one of such theories, which consider external factors of the person’s habitat as defining in his personality. I will consider how the theory examines the reasons for violence against women in India, namely why Indian men, living in such a traditional society, started to resort to such impartial form of behaviour. Therefore, the target population of the paper is the men who are engaged in the violence against women and the eco-factors that lead to the increased violence against women in India.

Problem Review

India often appears in criminal chronicles as the country that is unsafe for women. It is connected with rising frequency of violence cases, and often the group rapes of women. How such a traditional way of life the country excels can cause an improbable quantity of instances of abuse and why men keep committing such crimes? Statistically, rape is the 4th on prevalence in India. In 2012, 24 923 cases of rape across all India were officially recorded, but that the most terrible is that the victim was familiar with the tyrant in 98% of instances (Raju & Lahiri-Dutt, 2012). However, it is worth calling one more terrible figure. As the statistics claim, only one of 10 women in India reports to the police about an event. Possibly, women aren’t afraid to go to police only if they know the tyrant and can prove his guilt, in other cases they feel helpless and defenceless; they are afraid to draw a shame upon themselves and the family as their honour will be soiled, and the foreign criminal will be hardly caught. Often parents don’t allow girls to call the police in order to hide the incident from the public. It is much more important for them to keep the honour of a family and to marry the daughter than to take care of a psychological state of the girl.

Generally, the number of rapes continually grows in India and will hardly start being reduced in the nearest future. Officially it is considered that such situation is connected with corruption in the police and among officials, and also an undeveloped public stand of the population; as a result, the publicity and the local authorities simply shut their eyes to crimes. However, there are deeper social and psychological reasons promoting the prosperity of violence in India.

Ecological Analysis of the Problem of Women’s Rapes in India

Ecology of human expansion or the concept of ecological systems is the concept of socialization and improvement of the children that was introduced by Urie Bronfenbrenner. It has to give an explanation to the problem of the article’s interesting. According to Bronfenbrenner, the ecological environment of the child’s development consists of four systems enclosed one in another, which usually is represented in the form of concentric rings (Bronfenbrenner, 2009). There are:

• microsystems – the child’s family;
• mesosystems – a kindergarten, school, etc.;
• exosystems – the adult social organizations;
• macrosystems – cultural customs and values of the country.

The model seems simple and axiomatic; Bronfenbrenner (2005) emphasizes that both straight lines are flexible with the feedback between these four systems.

The analysis is started from the Microsystems – Indian family. In India, in comparison with the European countries, traditions and customs are still very rigid and should be observed not only by local population but foreigners as well. Furthermore, family life in India is strictly regulated by the traditions created hundreds of years ago. Due to the division of the Indian society into social castes, some of its prerequisites are still obeyed today (Kumbhare, 2009). For example, the head of the family always chooses the daughter’s fiancé. Marriages were allowed only between representatives of identical castes, and often the husband had to be above the wife according to the social status. Divorces, as well as repeated marriages, were forbidden in India. Traditionally, men bear the primary responsibility for the financial security of a family. In the cities woman always worked; however, recently women started working in villages too contributing to the income of a family. Women in India have always been bearing responsibility for maintenance of the home and care of children and aged relatives, even though they can work. Since the most ancient times up to now the woman in India has been treated as an inferior people (Mehta, 1987). Indians believe that if one were born a woman, in antecedents a person had committed many sins, so he should work for the karma in the present life.

The girl’s birth is not a joyful event for the majority of the Indian families. Having given birth to a boy, the woman finds honour and respect from relatives. After all, the boy will take care of the aged parents, and the girl will be sent to the other family. Moreover, it demands expenses that can considerably undermine the family budget. The Indian man can even beat the wife for the birth of a daughter. Women are compelled to pass under the pressure of relatives through series of abortions until they are sure that the son will be born. Due to this, the number of the female population was reduced for the last decades; so now there is a lack of brides in the country, thus forcing the fiancés to search for the wife in other regions or in neighbouring countries. Girls in India are tried to be married as soon as possible. Now the average age of the bride is 18-20 years though children’s marriages also were widespread in ancient Indian traditions when girls were married at the age of 5-6 years (Mehta, 1987). Most of the women still don’t choose husbands for themselves, and marriages appear to be an agreement between families of the fiancé and the bride. A marriage portion has great importance, which the bride’s family has to give to the fiancé’s.

Usually, it includes money, jewellery, household appliances, and cars. The more prestigious education the fiancé has, the bigger marriage portion has to be paid. As a consequence, the house endures being the most unsafe habitation for Indian women. Lots of latest rape cases recount to single women going late in the evening from their job or amusements, or adolescents who leave the household unaccompanied. This statistics results in a woman’s choice to endure her education or to get a job, more willingly than get married; it is also a choice to menace a far greater occurrence of ferocity.

A woman in India can’t achieve success in a career having no kinship, especially in the political and public sphere (United Nations, 2006). The state power in India always was in hands of men. Even the most prominent females in India, Indira Gandhi and Maneka Gandhi appear to be an endorsement of this statement. In the patriarchal community of India, Indira Gandhi would never succeed in becoming the Prime Minister of the country without her relation to the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Maneka Gandhi would fail in retrieving the post of the Minister of Ecology without her relation to Indira Gandhi. And even now, when Pratibha Patil became the first woman president of India, many considered that her power is an only formality as all state decisions were made by the government and the Prime Minister.

In India they say: all men born in India are devoted sons idolizing their mothers and misogynists at the same time. It is considered that the Husband is Woman’s terrestrial God. A woman is namely closed in the inner world around the husband, his life; other men simply cease to exist for her. The primary mission of the Indian woman is motherhood. It is considered that the woman is the centre of active forces of nature, unlike a passive machismo. She is full of creative energy, is capable of creating and destroying. In a family, the woman plays the part assigned to her by religion. Being a wife, she is obliged to follow the traditions and purity of a caste; being a mother, she finds force and influence in her sons; being a mother-in-law, she possesses the indisputable power over the daughter-in-law and can cause her any humiliations and trials until the daughter-in-law doesn’t give birth to the son. After the death of the husband, the life changes cardinally for many Indian women; in many states there are strong traditions that forbid a woman to wear colourful clothes and jewellery after the death of the husband, she has to shave the head and to limit food, eat no sweets and others.

Social learning theory implies that people obtain societal performance while witnessing others’ performance and the magnitudes of that performance, establishing concepts about what performance is suitable, trying this performance, and enduring them if the outcomes are favourable for them. This concept does not observe violence as unavoidable, but somewhat views it as a societal performance that is obtained and formed by its penalties, enduring if it is strengthened. From this viewpoint, violence against women in India undergoes in human civilizations for the reason that it is demonstrated both in separate households and in the civilization in general and has affirmative outcomes: it lets tautness out, makes the offender feel superior, frequently attains its conclusions by cutting out quarrels, and is infrequently related to the severe penalty for the offender.

According to the report of the Program for the development of the UN published in 2010, there is a lack of 43 million women in India. On the census of 2011, there are only 940 Indian women for 1000 Indian men (Raju & Lahiri-Dutt, 2012). Theoretically, it could help the women to take more advantageous place. However, the situation only activates the violence. The excess number of men can compel many of them to postpone marriage whereas the poorest probably aren’t able to marry at all. This can create conditions for the expansion of trafficking of women and violence against them. In regions where a shortage of women is felt especially sharply, men buy wives from other states. Besides, deficiency of women can result in a growing of the number of abuses. According to the Indian authorities, the number of such crimes increased in 900% for the last 40 years. Selective abortions become the reason of present shortage of women and girls that naturally affects increasing of the number of violence against women in India. On the other hand, there are strong patriarchal traditions that are the reason for the fact that the woman has no special rights and significant value in eyes of not only the men but also her parents until she doesn’t give birth to the boy. Moreover, the influential position of the man both in a family and in society makes the woman unprotected before any form of violation over her. It is hypothesized that men who have trouble with attaining spouses are more probable to remedy to sexual oppression or violence.

Discussion and Conclusions

There are assorted fields that require consideration in order to increase awareness of the occurrence of rape and approaches towards controlling them. These fields involve the comprehension of the impact of socioeconomic-demographic factors in contraction of the incidents. It appears to be that only educational rank for women and men in civic community signifies outstanding enticing impact on the number of rape incidents. This provides the researchers with the ideas for further study. The rape incidents should be approached with a different view from integrative angle besides eco factors, law and enforcement. The mixture of evidence, study, and concepts including various aspects, and a reassuring combination of appliances should administer a perceptive and flawless access to find the resolution to the existing social issue. Moreover, civil adjustment with the global wisdom thoughts of great individuals like Mahatma Gandhi and Elie Wiesel is aiming towards removing misfortunes, including rape, from the current humankind.

References

Brofenbrenner, Y. (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Bronfenbrenner, Y. (2009).The ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Kumbhare, A. R. (2009). Women of India: Their status since the Vedic times. Bloomington, Indiana: iUniverse.

Mehta, R. (1987). Socio-legal status of women in India. New Delhi, India: Mittal Publications.

Raju, S. & Lahiri-Dutt, K. (2012). Doing gender, doing geography: Emerging research in India. London, United Kingdom: Routledge.

United Nations. (2006). Ending violence against women: From words to action. Herndon, Virginia: United Nations Publications.

Lewis, K. R., Robillard, A., Billings, D., & White, K. (2019). Differential perceptions of a hypothetical sexual assault survivor based on race and ethnicity: Exploring victim responsibility, trauma, and need for social support. Journal of American College Health 67(4), 308-317.

This article highlights one of the major gaps in the complex topic of the scientific approach to helping women survivors of rape. A number of women from a college campus took part in a survey in which a few hypothetical date rape scenarios were proposed. Coded racial innuendos and varying levels of pressure within the questionnaire scripts emphasized the ambiguity of each case. This was done to uncover stereotypes about rape in normative thinking. The results of the study highlighted that most of the psychological and social practice is focused on assisting specifically to white women.

In some cases, in which African American and Latinos gender stereotypes were described, survey respondents as a result adhered to justifying the sexual experience. The study points to underestimating racial and gender stereotypes as well as distorted perceptions of women’s responsibility after a traumatic experience. A questionnaire also contained questions that were designed to statistically determine the level of guilt or shame attributed to the victim of an assault. Research has proven it essential to ensure that there is support for survivors of sexual assault, regardless of race or social status.

O’Donohue, W., Carlson, G. S., Benuto, L. T. and Bennett, N. M. (2014). Examining the Scientific Validity of Rape Trauma Syndrome. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 21(6), 858-876. Web.

This article addresses the problem of accurately defining and sealing scientific research into the traumatic syndrome experienced by women after being raped. The authors draw on research from the second half of the 20th century to sharpen the complexities of academic research on Post-Rape Syndrome. Having described the main criteria by which the phases of this state are considered, the researchers focus on inaccuracies in surveys and studies. Some terminological formulations in previous studies are used outside the general psychoanalytic context. Also, many polls do not take into account the previous life story of the respondent, possible distortion or omission in the description of experienced or experienced experiences.

These studies, as a result, do not have a sufficient database to confirm, and also do not pass Popper’s falsification criterion, and therefore are categorized as semi-academic, junk science. Thus, despite the fact that there is a certain demand for a more detailed development of Post Rape Studies, at the moment there is a certain number of gaps that hinder the functioning of this discipline.

Rickard, D. (2016). Sex offenders, stigma, and social control. Rutgers University Press.

This book addresses the problem of integrating sex offenders into American society from an academic sociological perspective. Rickard (2016) presents a portrait of such a social unit not only from the point of view of public censure, but attempts to expand this view. Using an extensive database, the researcher describes the path of such a criminal back into society and the numerous legal, psychological and social obstacles. The main format of the book is a series of interviews in which male offenders share their experiences through the sociopsychological perspective of the interviewer and analyst.

This format of interviewing reveals sex criminals from the other side, showing a portrait that goes beyond the stereotypical prejudice. Difficulties with integrating into society, the inability to get a job, the doom to be an outcast – all these topics are discussed in detail in the book from the perspective of individuals who experience it. The former sex offenders, interviews with whom form the basis of the book, are looking not only for their place in society and realization in the world, but also for their real identity in general, an adequate sense of themselves.

Rape in any form is evil and should be prosecuted. Marital rape between a husband and his wife should be prosecuted as well. Consent of the wife to have sex is essential and her will must be respected. The woman is not the property of the man. She has feelings, rights and will. The rape of a married or unmarried woman is first of all a transgression against the woman herself. Hale’s assertion on marital rape is acceptable. The man does not have the right to force the woman to have sex with a third party for his own financial gain or some favors. This means the wife would no longer have a voice in sexual intercourse in marriage since it is only the man to make decisions. Just like the man, the wife remains a key partner in sexual intercourse decisions. Any violation of the will would sum up to domestic violence and rape. Marriage should not be used to undermine the rights and will of the woman. She must be respected and treated with care and tenderness.

A man who forces his wife to have sexual intercourse against her will though has transgressed against the woman should be considered to have engaged in intolerable cruelty. The argument that rape done by husbands to their wives is cruelty that would give wives cause for divorce is misplaced and unreasonable. Though it is cruelty, one would not compare it with infidelity. The family as a unit should be preserved and divorce should not be tolerated just on mere allegations. Both parties in a marriage should come to a consensus and mutually agree on issues pertaining to their sexuality. However, should the man force the wife to have sexual intercourse with a third party, the man should be prosecuted and convicted as a stranger and divorce would be justifiable.

Sexual satisfaction is one of the reasons why a man and a woman come together in marriage. Sex thus remains a vital obligation for both parties in the marriage. The wife should satisfy her husband’s sexual desires and vice versa. The wife’s denial of sex to her husband is not justified or even excused. The sexual denial by the wife to her own husband is a grave breach of her matrimonial duty. In marriage, both the husband and the wife agree to their ongoing consent to sexual intercourse. Both parties have marital immunity and the obligation to consent to sexual intercourse. Denial of sexual intercourse by the wife would lead to frustrations on the part of the husband. Such frustrations could lead to infidelity leading to the acquisition of sexually transmitted diseases. Such frustrations are the circumstances where the husband finds himself trying to forcefully have sex with his wife against her will. Therefore, to eliminate such domestic violence and rape accusations, the women need to understand the man’s needs and be submissive. The men however need to tenderly love and care for their own wives and practice patience with them.

Mentally incapacitated women are not in a position to give valid consent to sex. The man however should be patient and self-controlled towards the wife. The man should wait or help his wife to attain consciousness and physical stability. I concur that forced sexual intercourse should be prosecuted and discouraged by all including the spouses. However, other avenues can also be explored. For example, the penalties for the offence done by the spouse should be mandated to counseling instead of jail term.

Reference

Nancy K. D. (2005). Domestic Violence Law, NY: Thomson/West.

Rape and Sexual Assault

Resistance with All Her Strength is a testimony of Joan Brown, who witnessed a number of cases of sexual assaults against unmarried women committed by Thomas Hellyer (Crawford 2000). The case took place in Lottisham, near Datchet, Somerset, at the threshold of the seventeenth century. The woman represents her story in an unusual way, by describing in detail the experiences and events she observed and experienced. Brown pressed charges and expressed her vulnerability to exploitation, rape, and harassment in the workplace. In addition, the record under analysis reproduces experiences of women in the seventeenth century, which allows contemporary women to understand how their testimonies and attitudes differ from those times. In order to understand the perceptions and attitudes of women’s experiences of sexual assault, specific attention should be paid to the debates that historians develop to investigate acts of violence.

Debates of Historians Using Criminal Justice and Inquisitional Records to Investigate Rape and Sexual Assault

Judicial procedures in the seventeenth century rarely dealt with cases of women as victims of rape and sexual assault due to many religious, social, and cultural reasons. In the later seventeenth century, courts were predominantly concerned with the cases of illicit sex and, therefore, sources revealing illicit sexual activities are much fuller in comparison with those connected to other spheres of women’s lives. In the majority of cases, courts presented and punished defendants with penance, which led to a decrease in the functioning of the courts.(Brownmiller 2008). Instead, the responsibility for considering sexual regulations was imposed on the quarter sessions, or on the church courts (Brownmiller 2008). Certainly, the courts were interested in illicit sexual assaults only and, therefore, sex in marriage was not the central issue in judicial procedures.

Historians emphasize the fact of early representations of female sexuality were shaped by medical, religious, legal, and cultural expectations. However, the seventeenth century’s views on women’s sexual behavior did not provide them with the possibility to protect their rights (Brownmiller 2008). Despite the fact that Brownmiller (2008) has sufficiently highlighted the attitude to women and rape in industrial society, her feministic approach seems to be a bit controversial. To enlarge on this issue, Porter opposed Brownmiller’s idea about considering rape as a commonplace for the seventeenth century’s preindustrial society (Tomaselli and Porter 1986). In contrast, Shorter (1977) relies on Brownmiller’s (2008) ideas to argue historically predetermined conception of rape in seventeenth-century Britain. Therefore, it is purposeful to assert that both Shorter and Brownmiller’s (2008) visions on rape narratives did not reflect the actual matters of that period.

The pre-conditions of court decisions in the seventeenth century are connected to earlier perceptions of public accusations of sexual assault and rape. Specifically, the first laws expanding protection of victims suffering from rape occurred in Medieval England, in the thirteenth century. The king was concerned with the law protecting married women who had been sexually abused. However, the evidence showed that “…wives, who were raped, were considered to technically guilty of adultery and executed with their lovers” (Pitono 1988, p. 271). However, in 1285 the adopted law postulated, “…any man raping a married woman or virgin would be considered guilty of a felony and punished by death” (Pitono 1988, p. 271). More importantly, virgin suffering from sexual assault should initiate the process that would lead the rapist to court. The introduction of these provisions was explained by the failure of the government to consider rape as a heavy crime. In contrast to Pitono (1998), Ruggiero (1975) focuses on the state of affairs in Renaissance Venice, where rape was considered in a broader sense of criminal offenses and, as a result, rape was not considered a serious crime.

The attention of historians to women’s testimonies about rape and sexual violence was not significant in early modern England. Similar to Walker (1998), Chaytor also introduces her interpretations of the rape narratives in the seventeenth century. In particular, the researchers focus on the way of exposing the information about the case of rape. Most of the confessions are made in a selective way with no reference to background information and descriptions of life. The reason for such a selective deposition is apparently connected with the related chance of women to give their private life to publicity. To explain the purpose of exposing rape narrations in such a way, Chaytor (1995) writes, “Content is not separate from form, it is carried within it, and both are the product of the emotional context in which these stories were told” (380). Emotional context, therefore, is the basic dimension by means of which women were guided while introducing their testimonies.

While analyzing testimonies, Chaytor (1995) pspecialcial attention to the way women recount their experiences, but not to what was actually delivered. This supposition is highlighted in Walker’s (1998) deliberation on rape narratives. In particular, Walker (1998) introduces a set of rape narratives revealing strong connections between language, interpretation, and event. While evaluating the records, the researcher attains much importance to metaphor as the main stylistic device used by women in their testimonies (Walker 1998). In particular, the metaphors were used to veil direct references to sexual violence and the sexual body. Aside from the importance of language in rape narratives, Walker (1998) opposes Chaytor’s claims about rape narratives as victims’ recollections of the event. Instead, Walker (1998) emphasizes, “entrenched in the practices and strategies of an individual’s everyday life and embedded in an institutional framework, there are several reasons why the personal, reflexive nature of these tales cannot be dislocated from the circumstance in which they were told” (Walker 1998, p. 3). With regard to this approach, Brownmiller’s arguments about stereotypic views on women’s sexuality, especially the ones that suppress the concept, explain women’s decision to resort to metaphors while describing their experience.

With regard to the above-presented debates on understanding the contents of rape narratives in the seventeenth century, it should be noted that most of the records were represented in a veiled language and were extracted from a wider context. Within the context of the case, it should be stressed that Walker (1998) was more closed to understanding the contextual and emotional underpinnings of representing rape narrations. In particular, the historian manages to explain the actual reasons for concealing some information.

How Are Those Debates Illustrated By Your Analysis Of The “Primary” Source Of Evidence That Is Provided For This Assignment

While considering records of women who were the victims of sexual abuse, it is possible to highlight important aspects of the social and historical environment s in the seventeenth century. To begin with, the recordings reveal a reference to the historical period of the Renaissance that shed light on the revolutionary spirit of women striving to relieve themselves from the patriarchal laws and restrictions. Specific attention should also be given to the concept of sexuality in the seventeenth century. According to Keeble (1994), rejection of sexuality in that period was explained by the existing traditions, stereotypes, and prejudices, particularly in religion. Within this discourse, women who were forbidden to reveal their sexuality were inclined to suffer from various mental disorders. In the case under analysis, Brown’s detailed account of the man’s violence against a number of women is explained by her anger and inability to protect rights, freedoms, and desires.

The limitation on her sexual life was also seen in the way she expressed the act of rape committed by Hellyer. Thus, she veils all words related to sexuality, sexual desires, and lust. In the passage under analysis, the victim describes, “the said Hellyer took forth of his breeches his privy member of the yard, and strived and struggled with her in the said entry for the space of an hour or near thereabouts, assaying by all means to have the carnal knowledge of the body” (Crawford 2000, p. 160). At the same time, she emphasizes the desires and lecherousness of the rapist to underline his guilt: “in the end seeing that his Jurate at no hand would consent to his attempted devilish purpose, he left her and went his way” (Crawford 2000, p. 160). In such a manner, the victim strived to justify her position and reject women’s involvement and consent in the act of violence: “this deponent utterly refused the same and requested him to depart and suffer her to go about master’s business” (Crawford 2000, p. 160).

Aside from hidden discontent and rebellious spirits, Joan also makes an explicit attempt to protect women’s rights and freedoms and provide evidence of the act of violence against other women in the workplace. More importantly, overt description of raping also proves woman’s extremely aggressive attitude to maltreatment of women working as servants. To explain the issue, Brownmiller (2008) argues that suppressed sexual desires of women can lead to serious deviations in behavior. With regard to the above deliberations on honor and chastity, the record under analysis also emphasizes the increased importance of these concepts for Joan Brown. In particular, she mentions chastity in reference to experiences, such words as “lustfully”, “forcibly”, and “violently” while addressing the actions committed by the rapist. Judging from these assumptions, it is possible to prove the arguments introduced by Van der Heijden (2000) who mentions the social context of seventeenth-century Europe. In particular, the researcher emphasizes the role of honor in judicial procedures and how they affected the judges’ decisions.

The socially constructed codes of honor had a major influence on women’s attitudes and perceptions of rape. It is logical, therefore, for women to conceal some details of the sexual assault because of the reluctance of women to distort their good reputation. In this respect, Welles (2000) argues that seventeenth-century rape narratives imply “rape as the literal infliction of bodily hurt and rape as the metaphorical wounding of the social body” (p. 177). In this respect, the social influences and the increased value of honor are decisive in dictating the content of rape narratives.

Cultural preconditions of rape should also be considered to define the character of the relationship between sexual violence and culture. In this respect, Renzetti and Bergen (2005) have discovered, “…in pre-industrial societies women are more likely to lack important life options and to be politically and physically oppressed where they lack economic power relative to men” (p. 16). In this respect, women in pre-modern societies could not possess similar privileges with males. Overall, the historical evidence under consideration can widen historians’ understanding of women’s perception and attitude rape, as well as define further implications for historical research.

Interpreting the Topic With Regard to Historical Evidence

With regard to the historical evidence, as well as historical analysis of rape narratives, specific emphasis should be placed on the analysis of arguments represented by Walker (1998) and Brownmiller (2008) because researchers highlight the social, historical, and moral conventions existing in the seventeenth century. They also represent pertinent information on the value of rape narratives, as well as how these texts were used in the court. Other historians are less convincing because they focus more on general information about the way people perceive sexual violence during that period.

Brownmiller (2008) has managed to succinctly and sufficiently describe and explain how women’s social position restricts their legal rights and freedoms. The history of rape, therefore, sheds light on the changing attitudes of women to sexual violence, which could be both politically and cross-culturally predetermined. Considering a particular period in history, particularly the place of women in it, it is possible to define how women can express their reactions to sexual violence. The story of Joan Brown is full of details and overt discussions of rape scenes, which signifies women’s desire to free themselves from the established conventional and stereotypical frames. Therefore, significant emphasis should be placed on the historian’s concern with the interpretation of legal laws with regard to cultural and social traditions in seventeenth-century England.

The record of rape also suggests that it was hard for women to take control over their sexual availability. The problem was that rape and sexual assault were rarely considered in court and, therefore, it was difficult for Directors of Public Prosecutions to prosecute the case. In the majority of cases, rape was associated with property crimes (Walker 1998). However, the rise of accusations in the seventeenth century has narrowed the focus of rape that was perceived as a sexual offense and was regarded as a sexual act without mutual consent. All these explanations are congruent with the testimony of Joan Brown. In fact, the victim represented herself in the court as the victim, but not a consenting partner, which was regarded as the main ground for defense. However, some women of that period were more restricted in court speech because of the cultural and moral norms.

While considering inquisitional recordings and criminal justice, historians raise important questions about attitudes and stereotypes on women’s sexuality and identity, the social-political environment, and perceptions of honor in pre-industrial society. In this respect, historical research pays much attention to the aspects of mental illnesses and forensic psychology that should have been introduced in the court in the earlier period of judicial system development. Therefore, it is impossible to rely entirely on Walker’s (1998) suggestions about interpreting rape narratives because emotional and psychological factors should be taken into the deepest consideration. Moreover, such approaches are widely used in current forensics.

References

Brownmiller, S 2008, Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. Paw Prints, US.

Chaytor, M 1995, Husband(ry): Narratives of Rape in the Seventeenth Century. Gender and History, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 378-407.

Clausen, A 2007, The Power of a Woman’s Voice in Medieval and Early Modern Literature: New Approaches to German and European Women Writers and to Violence Against Women in Premodern Times; Walter de Gruyter, US.

Crawford, P 2000, ‘Resistance with all her strength: Joan Brown c.1601’ In, P. Crawford, Women’s Worlds In Seventeenth-Century England: A Sourcebook, Routledge, New York, pp.159- 61.

Keeble, NH 1994, The Cultural Identity of Seventeenth-Century Woman: A Reader, Routledge, New York.

McLaughlin, E, Hughes, G, and Muncie, J 2003, Criminological Perspectives: Essential Readings SAGE, US.

Pitono, SP 1988, ‘Susan Brownmiller and the history of rape’. Women’s Studies, vol. 14, no. 3, 265

Renzetti, CM, and Bergen RK 2005, Violence against Women. Rowman & Littlefield, US.

Ruggiero, G 1975, Sexuality Criminality in the Early Renaissance: Venice 1338-1358, University of California, US.

Shorter, E 1977, ‘On Writing the History of Rape’. University of Chicago Press. vol. 3, no. 2, 471-482.

Tomaselli, S and Porter, R 1986, Rape, Blackwell, Oxford, UK.

Vigarello, G 2001, A History of Rape: Sexual Violence in France from the 16^th to the 20^th Century, Wiley, US.

Walker, G 1998, ‘Rereading Rape and Sexual Violence in Early Modern England’, Gender & History, vol. 10, no. 1, 1-25.

Welles, M 2000, Persephone’s Girdle: Narratives of Rape in Seventeenth-Century Spanish Literature, Vangerbit University Press, US.

Abstract

Rape is estimated to be one of the most severe traumatic stresses. The extreme degree of helplessness, the brutal encroachment of physical and personal boundaries, and the threat to life – all of the above make rape one of the most traumatic stresses. Violence has a severe impact on the physical, mental and sexual health of women and girls. It affects women throughout their lives and is a significant cause of injury, disability, and death. A psychosocial recovery system for victims is essential to prevent and respond to violence. The problem of psychological recovery after rape, under-researched and extremely serious, can be addressed at the level of social support through the Canadian government, non-profit organizations, and crisis centers.

Introduction

Sexual and gender-based violence is a horrible human rights violation. This type of violence perpetuates a stereotype of gender roles that denies the individual’s human dignity and brings human development to a standstill. In Canada, it is against the law to physically assault, threaten, or harass another person. Strong prevention and response measures are needed to reduce violence against women in Canada and provide the necessary rehabilitation to those who have already been abused. The most effective way to ensure the successful reintegration of rape victims in Canada is to equip the social support system with psychotherapy clinics, education, and outreach programs, as these will help accelerate their rehabilitation.

The Psychological Effects of Rape on the Victims

The problem of rape cannot be thought of in terms of physical harm alone. The trauma of rape goes much deeper than just physical harm and causes enormous psychological damage. The victim suffers significant psychological damage, which can take months or even years to recover from. Victims experience frustration, psychological distress, and trauma-phobic nightmares in which they fear reliving the experience (O’Donohue et al., 2014). Physical and sexual abuse is a particular type of trauma because the psychological fear of death and destruction is linked to physical actions and sensations. It has been argued that post-rape trauma is divided into two main phases – initial shock and an excruciatingly long recovery process (O’Donohue et al., 2014). This leads to difficulties in forming close relationships or may make them impossible due to avoidance.

Trauma results from a disruption of natural psychobiological processes, not a mental pathology, and can be healed. It results from the body’s incomplete instinctive response to the traumatic event. Traumatic symptoms, such as helplessness, anxiety, depression, and others, arise from the accumulation of residual energy that has been mobilized by the encounter with the traumatic event. A weakened psychological state results in severe damage inflicted on the physicist due to excessive stress and exhaustion (O’Donohue et al., 2014). To free themselves from the captivity of trauma, most women turn to conventional psychotherapy, consisting of different strands of psychotherapy, such as psychodynamic approaches or supportive therapy. Although effective, many of these methods take months or years to recover and heal psychiatrically, and many women do not achieve full recovery due to high drop-out rates and high medical or psychotherapeutic costs.

Prejudice Against Victims of Rape

Public perceptions of sexual crimes and their victims need to be corrected because of too many myths and prejudices. Stereotypes distort perceptions, leading to decisions based on preconceived beliefs and myths rather than on relevant facts. The situation in which rape occurs cannot be unambiguously characterized as they are divided into different types according to the principle of the victim’s behavior (Lewis et al., 2019). Judges often impose strict requirements on what they believe to be the appropriate norm of a woman and punish those who do not conform to these stereotypes. Stereotypes also harm the credibility of women’s statements, arguments, and testimony as parties and witnesses in court. Sociologists and psychologists note that the boundaries of the definition of the psychological state of Post-Rape Syndrome are difficult to clarify (O’Donohue et al., 2014).

Racial and ethnic stereotypes about sexual violence are linked to one another, and they subsequently build up into complex routines. For example, studies and polls show that the public perceives non-Caucasian women as more prone to spontaneous intercourse (Lewis et al., 2019). Research on the condition after rape is filled with information gaps and a lack of specific conclusions from the findings. This is due to the bias of some studies and many prejudices ingrained in society. Thus, the study of this syndrome and the necessary psychological support for victims needs to be adjusted, taking into account not only gender but also race and age.

Raising Awareness of the Depth of the Rape Issue

Awareness-raising is needed to remove the moral stigma from rape victims and facilitate the provision of assistance. The recent growing media attention on the tragedy of violence has focused the world’s attention on this issue. However, besides the positive results as publicity, there have also been negative ones, such as a lack of understanding of the problem and, in some cases, even condemnation of the victims by the public. Depending on the hypothetical scenario of rape, the respondents can justify the victim or, on the contrary, make her responsible (Lewis et al., 2019). However, it is not only victims of rape who are morally oppressed, but also former sex offenders who cannot integrate back into society (Lewis et al., 2019). This is because society is widely aware of the facts of rape itself. However, awareness of the psychological and physical consequences is still deficient.

Apart from the trauma of rape itself, victims also suffer from mistrust in society. There is no direct evidence base to determine that all rape claims are true (O’Donohue et al., 2014). The image of the rapist may disappear from the victim’s memory due to post-traumatic stress disorder, and it will then be much more difficult to prove the truthfulness of what they say. People are more insensitive to this painful topic because they view it as an immoral event they would not want to be associated with. Knowledge of the complexity of this topic needs to be spread because the acceptance of traumatized people by society is just as important as the inner frustrations of the victim.

Working with Victims of Rape

Work with victims should be as humane and tolerant as possible. Methodical and comprehensive physical and psychological assistance with long-term support is necessary. Psychological counseling for victims of violence is a complex task because people who have been or are being abused are in a problematic psychoemotional state. They experience shame and guilt, often denying the abuse and keeping it a secret, especially in a family situation. They may be characterized by experiences of terror, hypervigilance, physiological and mental tension, suicidal thoughts. The psychological diagnosis of the post-traumatic syndrome is complicated by the coincidence of symptoms with other psychoemotional disorders (O’Donohue et al., 2014). Urgent psychological support for victims should stabilize their current mental state and restore their safety in life. Urgent care does not involve in-depth psychological research and experimentation. Most post-rape studies do not address the victim’s past background to suggest possible future patterns of behavior (Rickard, 2016). Such studies are precisely in urgent psychological care, which does not consider past and future scenarios.

However, there are many methods of helping victims of violence at the moment that involve in-depth and long-term work. The state should ensure that each victim of sexual violence receives such assistance and minimize the stigmatization of such people in the population. Various social movements are a good method for this. For instance, discussion around sexual assault situations took on a much more open discussion format with the emergence of the #MeToo movement (Lewis et al., 2019). In addition, the person experiencing the trauma of violence should not receive general but individualized support, which will consider their psychological portrait. Support is needed that is measured and long-term to monitor the victim’s condition and behavior over time. The integration of a victim experiencing post-violence syndrome into society should gradually occur, and the reaction of those around the victim and their support, rather than condemnation, is crucial in therapy.

Conclusion

Despite the prejudices regarding rape, women who have survived this traumatic experience should receive all necessary social and psychological support. In modern society, the very topic of rape has until recently been virtually taboo. Post-rape research is an area of great controversy, ambiguity, and lack of clarity. Surveys show a tendency in society to place part of the blame for what happened to the victim, which is unacceptable. At the same time, such social insensitivity is one of the reasons why it is challenging for victims to integrate back into society. Victims need as much tolerance from society as possible to avoid victim-blaming complexes. Every victim must be treated in the same way. At the same time, an individual approach that takes into account the victim’s background is fundamental. It is necessary to rid society of these prejudices and provide the victim of sexual violence with the necessary psychological and social assistance over a long period.

References

Lewis, K. R., Robillard, A., Billings, D., & White, K. (2019). Differential perceptions of a hypothetical sexual assault survivor based on race and ethnicity: Exploring victim responsibility, trauma, and need for social support. Journal of American College Health 67(4), 308-317.

O’Donohue, W., Carlson, G. S., Benuto, L. T. and Bennett, N. M. (2014). Examining the scientific validity of rape trauma syndrome. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 21(6), 858-876.

Rickard, D. (2016). Sex offenders, stigma, and social control. Rutgers University Press.